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The 


Encyclopedia  of  Practical 
Horticulture 


U    vERSITY  OF' 

M  ■  ACHUSETIS 

AMr.tRST,  MASS. 


PRESS   OF 
LOWMAN    &   HaNFORD   Co. 

SEATTLE 


Delicious 

(See  p.  209) 


The 

Encyclopedia  of  Practical 
Horticulture 

A  Reference  System  of  Commercial 
Horticulture 

Covering  the  Practical  and  Scientific 
Phases  of  Horticulture  with  Special 
Reference  to   Fruits  and  Vegetables 


Editor-in-Chief 
GRANVILLE   LOWTHER 

Associate  Editor 
WILLIAM  WORTHINGTON 

Assisted  by  the  best  known  scientific  and  practical  horticulturists 
throughout  the  country,  and  particularly  in  the  Northwest   .    .    . 


Illuslraied 


Volume  I 


PUBLISHED  BY 

THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  HORTICULTURE  CORPORATION 

W.  M.  FLEMING.  President 

NORTH  YAKIMA,  WASHINGTON,  U.  S.  A 


UNiVERS'TY  OF 

MASSAC     ■^TTS 

AMHERSI,  iVsASS. 


Copyright  1914  by 

Enctclopedu  of  Horticulture 

Corporation 


PREFACE 


In  launching  the  ExcYCLorEoiA  of  Practical  HoRxicuLTrRE,  we  offer, 
as  justification  for  our  course,  the  following  reasons: 

First — We  are  living  in  the  midst  of  one  of  the  best  fruit  districts  of 
the  world  and  have  learned  from  practical  experience  what  the  fruit  grower 
needs.  We  have  worked  in  the  orchards  and  studied  the  varied  conditions 
from  the  viewpoint  of  the  practical  fruit  grower. 

Second — Our  fruits,  especially  our  apples,  command  the  highest  prices 
in  the  markets  of  the  world.  This  fact  is  not  dependent  alone  upon  the 
physical  conditions  under  which  our  fruits  are  produced,  but  also  upon 
the  methods  applied  in  growing  them  and  preparing  them  for  the  market. 

Third — We  have  visited  all  the  principal  fruit  growing  sections  of  the 
United  States  and  parts  of  Canada  with  a  view  to  studying  the  best  con- 
ditions and  the  best  methods  for  the  production  of  the  various  kinds  of 
fruits. 

Fourth — We  have  consulted  with  many  of  the  most  prominent  horticul- 
turists, both  in  the  schools  and  in  the  fields  of  practical  work,  and  have 
obtained  what  information  we  could  from  all  available  sources. 

Fifth — We  have  consulted  the  literature  that  .seems  to  us  best  adapted 
to  our  needs,  and  have  quoted  from  the  ablest  writers  on  the  various  sub- 
jects, giving  to  each  and  every  one  due  credit. 

Sixth — We  have  embodied  in  this  work  articles  from  the  ablest  con- 
tributors and  specialists  on  the  particular  subjects  treated.  We  have  en- 
deavored to  bring  everything  up  to  date  and  to  condense  into  three  volumes 
that  which  we  believe  would  be  of  the  most  practical  benefit  to  the  fruit 
grower. 

We  have  tried  not  to  be  technical.  At  the  same  time  we  believe  we 
have  been  scientific,  in  that  we  have  aimed  to  make  all  of  our  teachings 
conform  to  the  facts  as  scientists  have  discovered  them.  Where  it  was  pos- 
sible to  do  so,  we  have  expressed  these  facts  in  plain  and  untechnical 
language.  Believing  that  thousands  of  fruit  growers  in  this  country,  who 
are  too  busy  to  gather  all  this  information  for  themselves,  will  be  interested 
and  profited  by  such  a  work,  and  believing  that  thousands  who  live  in 
other  parts  of  the  United  States  will  be  interested  in  knowing  the  methods 
we  employ  for  the  production  of  fruits,  proven  by  the  prices  they  command 
to  be  among  the  best,  we  submit  this  work  to  the  world. 

Granville  Lowther 


INTRODUCTION 


THE  NEED  FOR  AN  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL 
HORTICULTURE 

Fruit  growers  throughout  tlie  country  and  the  Northwest  in  particular 
have  been  aware  of  the  fact  that  there  has  come  into  existence  during  the 
past  twenty-five  years  a  vast  quantity  of  information  on  the  subject  which 
most  vitally  interests  them,  knowledge  which  in  some  sections  was  trans- 
forming the  whole  industry.  These  same  men  were  also  aware  that  this  in- 
formation was  in  a  form  which  was  wholly  inaccessible  to  the  busy  man. 

In  addition  there  was  a  gi-owing  demand  for  a  reference  work  suitable 
for  the  use  of  the  public  schools  in  connection  with  agricultural  courses. 

It  was  these  facts  which  made  the  necessity  for  a  compilation  of  the 
best  in  practical  horticulture  apparent  and  some  attempt  to  meet  the  need 
inevitable.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  idea  of  the  ENcvcLorEDiA  of  Prac- 
tical Horticulture. 

THE  UNDERTAKING 

It  took  more  than  three  years  of  hard  work  on  the  jtart  of  the  editors 
and  management  to  organize  the  forces  and  marshal  the  facts  which  have 
made  this  pioneer  work  the  best  and  only  thing  in  its  field.  There  have 
been  gathered  into  handy  form  facts  which  it  would  take  a  lifetime  of  the 
busy  fruit  grower  to  collect  and  arrange  for  himself.  The  saving  to  the 
man  who  wants  the  information  has  been  immense. 

The  undertaking  has  been  financed  by  the  fruit  growers  of  the  North- 
west who  have  seen  the  necessity  for  such  a  compilation  and  the  value  of 
having  the  work  done  in  llie  Northwest.  The  labor  of  securing  this  co- 
operation has  rested  almost  wholly  upon  the  shoulders  of  Mr.  W.  M. 
Fleming. 

SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION 

In  general  there  are  two  sources  of  informal  ion  available  for  a  work 
of  this  kind.     They  are: 

1.  Materials  already  published. 

2.  Knowledge  stored  in  the  minds  of  ]iraotical  and  scientific  men, 
but  not  yet  reduced  to  writing. 

The  main  sources  for  the  first  are  the  publications  of  I  he  I^.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agricultuie  in  its  many  bureaus,  the  various  State  Experiment 
Stations  and  i)rivate  publications  devoted   lo  particular  interests. 

The  Government  and  ExperimeiH  Slalion  reports  aic  largely  technical, 
often  voluminous,  detached,  and  to  the  average  man,  inaccessible  as  though 
buried  under  the  pyramids.  This  vast  storehouse  of  information  has  been 
opened,  the  unadaptable  material  llirown  out  and  that  wliicli  is  of  ])erma- 
iient  value  retained. 


INTRODUCTION  xi 

As  for  the  second  source  of  iiiforiniition,  every  fruit  district  in  the 
Northwest  has  been  visited  and  the  co-operation  of  leading  horticulturists 
secured.  Thousands  of  letters  have  been  written  to  all  parts  of  the  counti-y 
to  secure  first  hand  knowledge  from  those  known  to  possess  valued  ex- 
perience. The  principal  fruit  districts  of  the  United  States  have  been 
revisited  by  the  Editor  in  Chief. 

THE  PLAN 

The  plan  is  to  set  forth  in  their  natural  order  all  the  steps  and  processes 
necessary  for  the  propagation,  maturing  in  their  highest  perfection,  har- 
vesting and  marketing  of  all  the  commercial  fruits  and  vegetables,  with 
all  the  information  necessary  for  the  selection  of  proper  seeds  or  stocks, 
site,  soil  and  climate,  the  kind  of  preparation  to  make  and  care  to  give, 
the  sort  of  cultivation,  fertilization  and  pest  prevention  to  provide  for 
and  costs  of  production.  All  processes  are  fully  illustrated  with  seven 
hundred  and  fifty  drawings  and  photos. 

In  addition  there  is  provided  such  information  on  the  history  and  the 
oi'igin  of  the  various  fruits  and  plants,  their  i)hysiology  and  hereditary 
tendencies  and  environmental  requirements,  as  shall  enable  the  reader  to 
understand  any  special  problems  which  may  arise. 

Descriptions  of  the  various  fruit  districts  of  the  United  States  and 
their  peenliar  adaptations  are  given,  together  with  the  latest  statistics  of 
the  industry  for  each  district  and  for  the  whole  country.  Soil  and  climatic 
conditions  are  amply  treated  as  well  as  frost  data,  with  approximate 
dates  to  provide  for  and  means  and  cost  of  prevention. 

aiETHOD  OF  TREAT3IE>T 

All  fruits  and  vegetables,  as  well  as  other  main  subjects,  have  been 
treated  in  regular  alphabetical  order.  Main  articles  are  headed  in  large 
black  face  type;  subheads  under  main  subject  in  capitals;  paragraph  head- 
ings in  small  black  face  type:  cross  references  are  in  small  capitals; 
further  subdivisions  and  scientific  names  are  in  italics. 

Main  subjects  are  treated  in  their  logical  order  and  any  one  wishing  to 
find  a  topic  which,  for  example,  would  naturally  fall  under  apple,  need 
only  follow  the  natural  order  of  the  development  of  the  fruit  from  seed  to 
market,  in  order  to  find  what  he  wishes  to  know. 

INDEX  AND  CROSS  REFERENCE 

For  the  further  guidance  of  the  reader,  an  index  has  been  prepared 
covering  over  4,500  subjects.  These  will  be  found  in  their  regular  ali)ha 
betical  order  in  the  index  at  the  end  of  the  third  volume,  and  in  a  great 
many  cases  also  under  the  particular  main  or  subhead  which  includes  it. 
For  example,  alfalfa  is  found  in  the  index  under  Al  and  also  under  Ap])le 
Orchard  as  a  part  of  the  subtopic  Intercropping. 

Cross  references  in  regular  alphabetical  order  in  the  main  body  of  the 
work  are  also  used  in  cases  of  this  kind. 


INTRODUCTION 


DISEASES  AND  PESTS 

These  are  treated  usually  under  the  most  important  host  plant,  at  the 
end  of  the  article  on  that  plant.  To  illustrate:  San  Jose  Scale  is  treated 
under  Apple  Pests  at  the  end  of  the  article  on  Apple.  Or,  the  exact  page 
upon  which  the  article  on  San  Jose  Scale  begins  may  be  found  by  looking 
under  Apple  Pests  in  the  index  or  alphabetically  under  its  own  head,  San 
Jose  Scale.  Where  long  lists  of  diseases,  pests,  etc.,  have  occurred,  the 
scientific  names  have  not  been  used,  but  where  each  separate  disease  or 
pest  has  been  listed  in  its  own  alphabetical  order  the  scientific  name  has 
been  added. 

CONTRIBUTORS 

The  contributors  have  been  chosen  with  a  special  view  not  only  to 
technical  knowledge  of  their  various  specialties  but  also  from  the  fact  of 
practical  experience  with  the  actual  conditions  to  be  met  by  the  average 
grower. 


The  editors  wish  to  acknowledge  espe- 
cial indebtedness  to  Mr.  P.  J.  0'G.\ra. 
Pathologist  and  Chief  in  Charge  ot 
Agricultural  Investigations,  American 
Smelting  and  Refining  Co.,  Salt  Lake 
City;  formerly  Pathologist  and  Ento- 
mologist for  the  Rogue  River  valley, 
who  has  maintained  a  helpful  interest 
in  the  project  from  the  beginning,  has 
lent  his  aid  in  the  form  of  numerous 
contributions,  and  especially  through  an 
exhaustive  article  on  the  nature  and 
control  of  Blight  of  Apples  and  Pears, 
and  through  valuable  advice. 

To  Mr.  Fr.\nk  Kinsey  for  unstinted 
labor  in  the  collection  and  preparation 
of  the  article  on  Apple  Packing  and 
Warehouse  Management,  and  for  num- 
erous helpful  suggestions  along  the  line 
of  allied  subjects. 

To  Professor  P.  F.  WrLLi.\Jts.  of  the  Miss- 
issippi Experiment  Station,  for  valuable 
original  contributions  on  the  subject  ot 
Fruit  and  Vegetable  Growing  in  the 
Gulf  States. 

To  Professors  C.  I.  Lewis,  H.  F.  Wilson. 
H.  S.  Jackson,  H.  P.  Bar.ss,  A.  L.  Lov- 
ETT,  F.  C.  Reijier  and  F.  D.  Bailey  of 
the  Oregon  Experiment  Station,  and  to 
the  Station  itself  for  the  use  of  matter 
which  has  appeared  from  time  to  time 
in  the  publications  of  the  Station  and 
which  has  been  revised  and  brought 
down  to  date  at  no  little  labor  for  our 


special  use;  for  the  loan  of  many  valu- 
able photographs  and  drawings,  and  of 
colored   plates. 

Also  to  Mr.  E.  O.  Essie,  of  the  California 
Horticultural  Commission,  for  similar 
services;  and  for  the  loan  of  a  large 
number  of  photographs,  and  to  other 
members  of  the  Commission  for  simi- 
lar kindness  in  permitting  the  use  of 
practical  suggestions  as  to  the  control  of 
insect  pests.  Our  work  would  be  much 
poorer  but  for  the  generosity  and  help- 
fulness of  these  men. 

We  wish  to  acknowledge  the  kindly  offices 
of  the  Directors  of  most  of  the  Experi- 
ment Stations,  heads  of  Bureaus  in  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  Teachers 
of  Horticulture  in  the  State  Institu- 
tions, notably  Profes.sor.s  O.  M.  Morris 
of  the  Washington  Station.  W.  H. 
Wicks  of  Idaho,  R.  A.  Cooley  of  Mon- 
tana, J.  H.  Stahl  of  the  Western 
Washington  Station,  W.  T.  Macoun  of 
Ottawa,  Canada;  D.  B.  Swingle  of  Mon- 
tana, H.  A.  GossARn  of  Ohio,  H.  Gar- 
man  of  Kentucky,  as  well  as  a  long  list 
of  others,  and  to  Mr.  C.  C.  Georgeson 
of  the  Alaska  Station. 

To  a  large  number  of  persons  in  every 
state  who  through  correspondence  or 
personal  suggestion  and  advice  have 
lent  their  aid  to  make  this  compilation 
possible.  The  names  of  more  than  200 
persons  appear  in  this  work  as  the 
authors  of  material  worthy  of  note. 


INTRODUCTION 


We  wish  to  acknowledge  the  assistance  of  the  following  persons,  asso- 
ciations and  pei-iodicals  for  contributions  and  matei-ials  along  the  lines  of 
their  respective  specialties: 


A.  C.  Allen,  Orchardist,  Medford,  Oregon 

DwiGHT  S.  Anderson,  Spokane  Bar 

H.  C.  Atwell,  Ex-President  Oregon  Hor- 
ticultural Association 

Floyd  Douglass  Bailey,  A.  B.,  Assistant 
Crop  Pest  Investigations,  Oregon  Exper- 
iment Station 

Clyde  Barnum,  Deputy  Inspector  Rogue 
River  Valley 

C.  N.  Bennett,  Engineer  Clatsop  Cran- 
berry Bogs 

Mr.  N.  S.  Bennett.  Medford,  Ore. 

Better  Fruit. 

Philo  K.  Blinn,  Special  Investigator  Col- 
orado Experiment  Station,  Superintend- 
ent The  Rocky  Ford  Cantaloup  Seed 
Breeders  Association 

Luther  Buebank,  Santa  Rosa,  Calif. 

Mr.  F.  H.  Burglehaus,  Sumner,  Wash. 

A.  B.  Capps,  Nurseryman,  Prosser, 
Wash. 

E.  K.  Carnes,  Superintendent  State  In- 
sectary,  Sacramento,  California;  Hor- 
ticulturist Natomas  Consolidated.  Sac- 
ramento, California 

Country  Genti.e.man. 

A.  G.  Craig,  Horticulturist  Washington 
State  College;  Superintendent  Arcadia 
Orchards  Company 

James  Daily,  Superintendent  Hillcrest 
Orchards,  Medford,  Oregon 

P.  S.  Darlington,  Horticulturist,  We- 
natchee.  Wash. 

W.  M.  Davidson,  U.  S.  Department  Agri- 
culture. Bureau  of  Entomology 

G.  B.  Dean,  Orchardist,  Medford,  Oregon 

J.  W.  Duncan.  Superintendent  of  Parks, 
Spokane,  Washington 

Orange  Judd  Farjier. 

R.  W.  Fisher,  Horticulturist  Montana  Ex- 
periment Station;  Superintendent  Thou- 
sand Acre  Ranch.  Bitter  Root  Valley, 
Montana 

S.  W.  Foster,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. Bureau  of  Entomolo.gy 

H.  M.  Gilbert,  President  and  General  Man- 
ager Richey  &  Gilbert  Company,  Fruit 
Grower,  Toppenish,  Wash..  Large  Pro- 
ducer of  Apples 


Professor  W.  H.  Goodwin.  Ohio  Experi- 
ment Station. 

Green's  Fruit  Grower. 

W.  F.  GwiN,  General  Manager  Northwest- 
ern Fruit  Exchange,  Portland,  Oregon 

C.  L.  Hamilton.  Inspector  Yakima  Valley 
Fruit  Growers'  Association 

Geo.  H.  Himes,  Assistant  Secretary  Oregon 
Historical  Society 

W.  L.  Howard,  Phd.,  Horticulturist,  Mis- 
souri Experiment  Station 

V.  H.  Howie,  Expert  Accountant,  North 
Yakima,  Wash. 

Herbert  Spencer  Jackson,  A.  B.,  Botanist 
and  Plant  Pathologist,  Oregon  Experi- 
ment Station 

P.  B.  Kennedy,  Reno,  Nev. 

Edward  Jacob  Kraus,  B.  S.,  Research  As- 
sistant in  Horticulture,  Oregon  Experi- 
ment Station 

Mr.  W.  B.  Lanham,  Bitter  Root  Valley, 
Mont. 

W.  H.  Lawrence,  Superintendent  and 
Plant  Pathologist  Western  Washington 
Experiment  Station;  Plant  Pathologist 
and  Horticulturist  Hood  River  Apple 
Growers'  Union 

J.  U.  McPherson,  State  Horticulturist, 
Boise,  Idaho 

M.  S.  MiDDLETOx,  Horticulturist,  Nelson, 
B.  C. 

H.  B.  Miller,  American  Consul,  Belfast, 
Ireland 

RoBT.  Morgan,  Head  Inspector.  North  Pa- 
cific Fruit  Distributors 

Oscar  Matison  Morris,  B.  S.  (Oklahoma 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College), 
Professor  of  Horticulture.  Washington 
Experiment  Station 

Mr.  Elias  NEL.S0N,  Quincy,  Wash. 

Northwest    Horticulturist. 

Mr.  F.  a.  Norton.  Grandview.  Wash. 

G.  Harold  Powell,  Horticulturist,  Dela- 
ware Experiment  Station;  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment Agriculture,  Pomologist  and  As- 
sistant Chief,  Bureau  Plant  Industry; 
General  Manager  California  Fruit  Grow- 
ers' Exchange 


INTRODUCTION 


Mb.  a.  a.  Quarxbebg,  Nut  Specialist, 
Vancouver,  Wash. 

T.  R.  Reid,  Special  U.  S.  Frost  Forecaster 

H.  S.  Rhodes,  M.  D.,  Tacoma,  Washington 

Rogue  Ri\ek  Valley  Fruit  Growehs 
Union. 

H.  C.  Sampso.n'.  Secretary-Treasurer  North 
Pacific  Fruit  Distributors,  Spokane, 
Wash. 

Hon.  W.  E.  Scott,  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture, Victoria,  B.  C. 

Augustine  D.  Selby,  Chief,  Department 
Botany,  Ohio  Experiment  Station 

J.  R.  Shinx,  Horticulturist,  University  of 
Idaho 

F.  E.  Sickles,  Secretary  and  Acting  Man- 
ager Yakima  Valley  Fruit  Growers'  As- 
sociation ;   Orchardist 

Clayton  O.  Smith,  California  Experiment 
Station,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist 

R.  E.  Smith,  B.  S.,  Plant  Pathologist  and 
Superintendent  of  Southern  California 
Pathological  Laboratory  and  Experi- 
ment Station. 

Roscoe  Wilfoud  Thatcher,  M.A.  (Univer- 
sity of  Nebraska),  Professor  of  Agricul- 
tural Chemistry,  Head  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  Director  and 
Chemist  of  the  Washington  Agricultural 


Experiment  Station:  Department  Agri- 
cultural Chemistry  University  of  Min- 
nesota 

The   Farmer   and    Fruit   Grower. 

Walter  Strickland  Thornrer,  M.  S. 
(South  Dakota  Agricultural  College; 
Cornell  University),  Professor  of  Horti- 
culture and  Head  of  the  Department  of 
Horticulture  and  Forestry.  Washington 
Experiment  Station:  Superintendent 
Lewiston-Clarkston  Development  Com- 
pany: Director  Lewiston-Clarkston 
School  of  Horticulture. 

R.  E.  Trujible,  Consulting  Horticulturist 

Clarence  Cornelius  Vincent.  M.S.  A., 
B.S.A.,  Oregon  Agricultural  College, 
1907:  M.S.,  1909:  M.S.A..  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, 1910;  Assistant  in  Horticulture, 
Oregon  Agricultural  College,  1907-09; 
Graduate  Student  in  Horticulture,  Cor- 
nell University,  1909-10:  Assistant  Hor- 
ticulturist, University  of  Idaho.   1910 

W.  W.  Weir.  Drainage  Engineer,  U.  S. 
Reclamation  Service 

Geo.  P.  Weldon.  Entomologist,  Colorado 
Experiment  Station 

Wen.atchee  Fruit  Growers  Associatkin. 

J.  Howard  Wright.  Manager  Wright 
Fruit  Company.  North  Yakima.  Wash- 
ington, Orchardist. 


SUBJECTS  TREATED 

The  nunibei-  of  subjects  enumerated  is  over  four  thousund  five  huiidrrd. 
A  large  number  of  these  have  been  jjiven  special  treatment;  as,  for  example, 
the  most  important  plant  diseases,  including  Blight  of  Pear  and  Apple, 
Apple  Water  Core,  Apple  Tree  Anthracnose  or  Black  Spot  Canker,  Walnut 
Blight,  Apple  and  Pear  Scab,  Apple  Ro.sette,  Plant  Lice,  Irrigation,  Low- 
Heading,  Apple  Packing,  Fruit  Marketing,  Orchard  Co.sts,  Varieties  to 
Plant,  "Pedigree,"  Overprodnction,  Horticultural  Laws,  Canning,  Preserv- 
ing, Duty  of  Water,  Drainage,  Grafting  Waxes,  Preparation  of  Fruits  and 
Vegetables  for  the  Table,  Road  Building,  Gardener's  Planting  Table,  Pea- 
nut Culture,  Pecan  Culture,  Bibliographies  on  All  Phases  of  Horticulture, 
Statistical  Maps,  Fruit  Statistics  of  All  the  States,  Rainfall.  Frost  Tables, 
Onion  Culture,  History  of  Orcharding  in  the  Northwest,  Intercropping, 
Windbreaks,  Xut  Culture,  Bee  Culture,  Vegetable  Garden,  Orchard  Tools, 
^^'aI•('ll(luse  iMjuiimient,  Spraying  Accessories,  Soil  Water,  By-])roducts, 
Cold,  Cool  and  Common  Storage,  Pre-cooling,  Disease  Susceptibility,  De- 
scriptions of  ^'arieties  of  Apples,  Fertilizers.  Score  Card  for  Exhil)ition 
Pack,  Mushroom  Culture,  ^'ariely  Adaptations,  Industrial  Alcohol,  Trans 


INTRODUCTION  xv 

poi-fation  Costs.  Hybridization,  Equipment  of  Farm  Home,  Evaporation  of 
Fruits,  Fruit  Juices,  Cost  Tal)les,  Care  of  Nursery  Stoclv,  Cranberry  Culture 
in  the  Northwest,  Forcing  Orchards  into  Bearing,  Cooperation,  Strawberry 
Culture,  Cantaloup  Culture,  Floriculture,  Fruit  Growing  in  the  Bitter  Root 
Valley,  Vinegar  ilaUing  on  the  Farm,  rollination  Question,  Complete  List 
of  Important  Economic  Pests  and  Plant  Diseases,  Pruning,  Orchard  Man- 
agement. Marketing,  Liquid  Fertilizer,  ^NLnking  an  Orchard  Pay  Before 
Coming  Into  Bearing,  Value  of  Different  Varieties  of  Apples,  Cultivation, 
Propagation  of  Plants,  Plant  Physiology,  in  fact  the  whole  range  of  subjects 
related  to  practical  fruit  and  vegetable  growing. 

COOKING  AND  PRESERVING  RECIPES 

A  very  complete  department  of  recipes  for  cooking,  jireserving  and 
serving  the  various  fruits  and  vegetables  is  given.  The  materials  of  this 
department  were  arranged  by  iliss  Alice  M.  Hodge.  Stout  Institute,  Me- 
nomonie.  Wis. :  Supervisor  Domestic  Science.  Danville,  111. ;  Supervisor  Do- 
mestic Science.  Stevens  Point.  Wis. ;  five  years  Supervisor  Domestic  Science, 
North  Yakima,  Wash. 

SPRAY  FORMULAE 

All  the  known  spray  mixtures  are  given  under  the  head  of  Spraying 
and  Spray  Materials.  These  are  in  many  cases  repeated  in  connection  with 
the  particular  pest  or  disease  treated. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

In  all  there  are  about  seven  hundred  and  fifty  illustrations,  of  which  one 
hundred  and  twenty-four  are  line  etchings,  six  hundred  and  twenty  are  half 
tones  from  copper  plates  and  six  are  three-  and  four-color  process  plates. 

Sixty-six  are  full  page  plates,  one  hundred  and  ten  are  half  page,  others 
number  five  hundred  and  seventy-four.  Altogether  the  illustrations  cover  two 
hundred  and  sixty  pages. 

CHARTS  AND  TABLES 

Scattered  throughout  the  woi-k.  there  are  numerous  charts  and  tables 
covering  altogether  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  pages.  These  charts  and 
tables  deal  with  the  statistics  and  costs  of  production  of  the  various  crops 
treated,  the  numlier  of  plants  jier  acre  on  the  various  plans  of  setting  out, 
quality  of  fertilizer  to  be  applied  and  nuinnrial  value  of  cover  crops,  amount 
of  fertility  removed  by  various  crops,  food  values  and  chemical  constituents 
of  fruits  and  vegetables,  frost  and  precipitation  in  the  various  states,  etc. 

North  Yakima,  Washington,  Wm.  Wohthixcton, 

August  24,  1914.  Associate  Editor. 


Encyclopedia  of  Practical 
Horticulture 


Adaptatioxs  of  Plants.  See  Plant 
Physiology. 

Age  of  Apple  Trees.  See  Oldest  Orch- 
ard in  the  Yakima  Valley. 

Age  of  Trees.  How  Determined.  See 
Nursery  under  Apple. 

Agriculture 

Ageiculture  is  the  cultivation  of  the 
soil  for  food  products,  or  for  any  other 
useful  or  valuable  growths  of  the  field  or 
garden;  tillage;  husbandry;  also  by  ex- 
tending the  meaning  it  has  come  to  in- 
clude any  industry  practiced  by  the  cul- 
tivator of  the  soil  in  connection  with 
such  cultivation,  as  forestry,  fruit-rais- 
ing, breeding  and  rearing  stock,  dairying, 
market  gardening,  etc. 

Farming  refers  to  the  cultivation  of  con- 
siderable portions  of  land,  and  the  raising 
of  the  coarser  crops.  Gardening  is  the 
close  cultivation  of  a  small  area  of  small 
fruits,  flowers,  vegetables,  etc.,  for  the 
household,  or  market.  Floriculture,  the 
culture  of  flowers;  Hoeticl-lture,  the  cul- 
tivation of  fruits,  flowers  or  vegetables. 

Husbandry  is  a  general  word  for  any 
form  of  practical  agriculture,  but  is  now 
chiefly  poetical. 

Tillage  refers  to  the  work  practically 
applied  on  the  land,  such  as  plowing,  har- 
rowing, manuring,  etc. 

Cui.TUEE  is  now  applied  to  the  careful 
development  of  any  product  to  a  state  of 
perfection,  especially  by  care  through  suc- 
cessive generations;  the  choice  varieties 
of  strawberry,  for  instance,  have  been 
produced  by  wise  and  patient  culture. 
— Standabd  Dictionary 

AiB  Drainage.  See  Apple  Orchard.  .S't'- 
lecting  a  Site  For. 

Alabama 

Alabama  has  an  area  of  52,250  square 
miles,  and  is  bounded  on  the  south  by 
Florida   and   the    Gulf   of   Mexico,   which 


latter  fact  tempers  its  heat  in  summer. 
The  Tennessee  river,  and  its  tributaries,  is 
a  drainage  system  for  the  northern  part 
of  the  state,  and  the  Valley  of  the  Ten- 
nessee is  one  of  the  most  famous  agricul- 
tural sections  of  the  lower  Appalachian 
system.  It  is  a  delightful  country,  gently 
rolling,  varying  in  elevation  from  500  to 
800  feet. 

The  Mobile  river  system,  which  empties 
into  the  Mobile  bay,  drains  the  principal 
part  of  the  state.  Its  largest  tributaries 
are  the  Tombigbee  and  the  Alabama  riv- 
ers. The  so-called  mountain  system  of 
Alabama  hardly  rises  to  the  dignity  of 
mountains,  for  the  highest  points  are  only 
about  1,800  feet  above  the  sea.  The  sur- 
face in  the  north  and  northeast,  embrac- 
ing about  two-fifths  of  the  state,  is  diver- 
sified and  picturesque.  The  remaining 
portion  is  occupied  by  a  slightly  undulat- 
ing plain,  having  its  incline  towards 
Mississippi  and  the  Gulf.  Extending  en- 
tirely across  the  state  for  about  20  miles 
south  from  its  northern  boundarj%  and 
in  the  middle  stretching  about  60  miles 
farther  south,  is  the  Cumberland  Plateau, 
or  Tennessee  valley  region,  broken  into 
broad  table  lands  and  dissecting  rivers. 
In  the  northern  part  of  this  plateau,  west 
of  Jackson  county,  there  are  about  1,000 
square  miles  of  level  land  from  700  to  SOO 
feet  above  the  sea. 

The  climate  for  the  most  part  of  the 
state  is  semi-tropical  and  temperate.  In 
the  hill  regions,  the  air  is  pure  and  the 
climate  salubrious.  The  sea  breezes  tem- 
per the  heat  along  the  Gulf,  and  the 
ranges  of  hills  break  the  winds  in  the 
northern  part. 

At  Mobile  the  annual  mean  tempera- 
ture is  67  degrees.  The  annual  mean  tem- 
perature for  summer  is  81  degrees  and  in 
winter  it  is  52  degrees.  At  Valley  Head. 
DeKalb  county,  the  annual  mean  temper- 
ature is  59  degrees,  in  summer  75  and  in 
winter  41  degrees. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTORE 


The  soil  of  the  southern  part  is  formed 
from  drift  over  cretaceous  and  sedimen- 
tary roclts  which  are,  in  some  parts,  rich 
In  fossils.  In  the  central  portion  the 
formation  is  metamorphic  and  calcareous, 
with  silurean  sediments  and  coal  meas- 
ures. 

The  Valley  of  the  Tennessee  is  generally 
a  deep  red  calcareous  soil,  which,  in  the 
metamorphic  region  is  a  red  or  clay 
loam  with  a  sand  or  clay  subsoil. 

In  the  north  the  soil  is  very  generally 
sandy,  with  a  sand  or  clay  subsoil. 

The  native  trees  are  mainly  the  differ- 
ent varieties  of  oak,  pine  cedar,  chestnut, 
butternut,  black  walnut,  hickory,  poplar, 
linden,  magnolia  and  red  plum. 

The  soil,  climate  and  the  facilities  for 
transportation  justify  a  larger  production 
of  fruit  for  commercial  purposes  than  has, 
up  to  this  time,  been  developed.  As  we 
traveled  through  the  northern  part  of  the 
state,  and  examined  the  soil  and  native 
trees,  together  with  the  topography  of 
the  state,  we  could  see  no  reason  why 
commercial  horticulture  could  not  be 
brought  to  a  much  higher  standard  than 
at  present.  In  all  parts  of  the  state  cer- 
tain kinds  of  fruits  are  grown  for  com- 
mercial purposes;  but  not  generally  in 
large  quantities.  In  the  southern  part 
truck  farming  and  gardening  are  exten- 
sively carried  on,  with  Mobile  as  the  prin- 
cipal shipping  point,  while  in  the  northern 
part  apples,  peaches,  and  pears  are  grown 
in  considerable  quantities.  Probably 
there  is  no  Southern  state  where  soil, 
climate  and  natural  conditions  are  better 
adapted  to  the  growing  of  peaches,  pears, 
plums,  prunes,  cherries,  small  fruits  and 
apples  than  the  mountain  and  hill  regions 
of  Alabama.  Here  too  are  some  of  the 
largest  nurseries  in  the  United  States. 
The  fact  that  those  growing  nursery  stock 
for  wholesale  purposes  find  conditions  so 
favorable  to  their  business  is  evidence 
that  trees  will  make  a  vigorous  and  heal- 
thy growth  in  this  section:  for  among 
the  large  nurseries  in  Alabama  compara- 
tively a  small  per  cent  of  the  stock  is 
planted  in  that  state,  but  is  shipped  large- 
ly to  all  fruit  growing  sections  of  the 
United  States. 

Granville  Lowtuer 


Sonthern  Alabama 

This  is  one  of  the  oldest  truck  grow- 
ing sections,  as  the  early  French  settlers 
met  success  with  their  early  gardens 
here.  The  vegetables  shipped  out  of 
Mobile  from  this  area  aggregate  a  mil- 
lion dollars  in  value  every  year.  Sat- 
suma  oranges  and  pecans  are  being 
heavily  planted  in  this  section,  and  the 
country  is  being  rapidly  filled  up  with 
northern  farmers. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  at  com- 
mercial peach  orcharding  in  different 
sections  of  the  state.  Where  failure  was 
made  it  was  due  mostly  to  the  lack  of 
proper  organization  in  shipping;  and  per- 
haps as  much  was  due  to  the  ravages  of 
iroivn  rot  and  late  frosts  in  the  spring. 
In  Baldwin  and  Mobile  counties  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  state,  this  is  par- 
ticularly true.  In  the  nineties  several 
carloads  of  Elberta,  Greensboro  and  Car- 
man peaches  were  shipped  out  from  these 
counties.  These  orchards  were  located  at 
Semmes,  Bay  Minette,  Orchard  and  other 
small  towns  in  that  locality. 

A  large  fruit  growers'  organization 
planted  at  least  3,000  acres  of  grapes  in 
the  vicinity  of  Fruithurst  in  Cleburne 
county  during  1894-95-96,  but  owing  to 
the  ravages  of  black  rot  and  poor  man- 
agement, together  with  overdoing  the 
planting,  the  venture  was  not  altogether 
successful.  However,  grapes  are  being 
very  successfully  grown  in  all  sections 
of  the  state,  particularly  such  varieties 
as  Scuppernong,  several  varieties  of  the  • 
Muscadine  as  James,  Flowers  and 
Thomas,  and  also  bunch  grapes  such  as 
Concord,  Delaware,  Niagara  and  Ives. 

The  nursery  business  in  the  Hunts- 
ville  district  in  Madison  county  has  stead- 
ily grown  and  prospered.  About  2,000 
acres  are  now  devoted  to  this  industry, 
and  Alabama  grown  nursery  stock  is 
known  for  its  vigor  and  cleanliness  in 
every   fruit  section   of  the   country. 

A  rather  novel  horticultural  industry 
is  one  which  has  been  established  about 
Evergreen  in  Conecuh  county  and  at  Eu- 
faula  and  Louisville  in  Barbour  county. 
Southern  smilax,  or  "bamboo  vine,"  as 
the  boys  call  it,  is  gathered  by  whites 
or     blacks     In     one-mule     wagons     and 


ALABAMA 


brought  into  the  warehouse  and  sold  to 
shippers  as  they  would  sell  cotton.  The 
smilax  is  packed  carefully  in  light 
wooden  boxes  and  it  is  then  shipped  by 
express  to  the  northern  cities.  The  height 
of  the  season  comes  just  before  Christ- 
mas, and  the  smilax  together  with  holly 
brings  a  considerable  income  to  the  peo- 
ple  in   these   counties. 

There  are  few  places  in  Alabama  where 
some  kind  of  fruit  cannot  be  grown  with 
good   profit. 

The  Apple 

The  northern  half  of  the  state  produces 
apples  abundantly,  and  they  bring  a 
fancy  price  when  care  is  given  to  their 
culture.  A  number  of  orchards  that  have 
been  well  cared  for  produced  this  past 
season,  at  the  age  of  eight  years,  eight 
to  ten  boxes  of  fruit  per  tree  that 
sold  for  $1.50  per  box.  By  inter- 
cropping, the  cost  of  the  orchard  will 
scarcely  be  worth  mentioning  until  it 
comes  into  bearing,  outside  of  the  land, 
trees  and  planting.  The  average  orchard 
contains  about  48  trees  to  the  acre,  30x30 
feet,  and  with  standard  varieties  from 
the  eighth  year  will  produce  from  $S  to 
$12  per  tree  per  annum,  which  makes  a 
net- profit  of  from  $200  to  $300  per  acre. 
Several  growers  in  1912  obtained  re- 
sults equal  to  the  above,  and  one  much 
better.  A  grower  in  Cullman  county 
made   $600   per  acre  on   eight-year   trees. 

Pears 

Pears  grow  well  in  all  parts  of  the 
state,  wherever  they  are  provided  with 
well  drained  soil.  From  60  to  100  trees 
may  be  grown  on  an  acre,  and  on  healthy, 
well-manured  trees  from  1.5  to  25  bushels 
may  be  expected.  Several  growers  re- 
ported an  average  of  20  bushels  per  tree. 
With  60  bearing  trees  an  acre  will  pro- 
duce from  400  to  SOO  bushels.  Pears 
readily  sell  for  $1  per  bushel,  and  often 
bring  more.  One  grower  reported  his 
pear  orchard  netted  $800  per  acre,  while 
several  others  made  a  net  profit  of  $600 
per  acre. 

Excellent  crops  of  the  Sand  Pear  and 
Keiffer  were  produced  as  far  south  as 
Mobile. 


Peaches  and  Plnms 

Peaches  and  plums  are  two  fruits  that 
may  be  considered  the  most  important 
commercial  crops  grown  in  the  South. 
Little  has  been  done  toward  proving  the 
success  of  the  plum  in  this  state.  Those 
who  have  grown  plums  have  succeeded 
very  well.  About  134  trees  can  be  grown 
on  an  acre  18x18  feet  each  way,  and  at 
a  bearing  age  will  produce  from  one  to 
three  crates  per  tree,  which  gives  an 
annual  yield  of  from  134  to  200  crates 
per  acre.  Plums  find  a  ready  market, 
and  sell  for  a  fancy  price.  With  good 
care  from  $200  to  $300  per  acre  can  be 
realized. 

The  peach  can  be  grown  in  all  pai'ts 
of  the  state  if  it  is  provided  with  good 
soil.  The  conditions  for  growing  peaches 
in  this  state  are  as  good  as  in  Georgia. 
About  134  trees  can  be  grown  on  an 
acre,  planting  18x18  feet,  and  from  four 
to  six  years  will  produce  from  one  to  four 
crates  per  tree  of  marketable  fruit,  which 
nets  about  $1.50  per  crate,  making  from 
$200  to  $300  per  acre  net  profit.  With 
proper  spraying,  pruning,  fertilizing  and 
cultivating  one  can  easily  realize  a  net 
profit  of  $200  per  acre  per  annum.  The 
1912  season  peaches  were  shipped  in  car 
lots  from  several  points  in  the  state.  At- 
more  and  Camp  Hill,  several  carloads; 
Gadsden,  30  cars;  Union  Springs,  100 
cars. 

Grape 

The  grape  is  a  fruit  that  usually  re- 
ceives very  little  attention.  Often  it  Is 
not  provided  with  a  good  trellis  and  sel- 
dom gets  pruned.  If  it  is  half  cared  for 
it  will  produce  good  fruit,  and  if  well 
cared  for  will  produce  a  profitable  crop. 
A  few  growers  have  found  the  grape  to 
succeed  well.  One  man  who  is  growing 
grapes  for  the  market  realized  in  1912 
a  profit  of  $600  per  acre  off  a  four-year 
vineyard.  Grapes  sell  readily  and  come 
at  a  season  when  other  fruits  are  scarce. 
An  acre  will  produce  from  three  to  four 
tons  of  fruit  and  the  choice  fruit  will 
bring  25  cents  per  basket  or  10  cents 
per  pound.  Concords  from  New  York 
sold  for  14  cents  per  pound,  1912  season. 
The    farmers    of    Alabama    could    supply 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the  demand  as  well  as  allow  other  states 
to  do  it. 

Strawberries 

Strawberries  are  unlimited  as  to  ter- 
ritory and  variety  of  soil.  If  the  soil  is 
well  drained  and  contains  some  humus 
strawberries  grow  well  and  are  very 
profitable,  and  come  at  a  season  when  a 
farmer  has  no  other  crop  to  put  on  the 
market.  They  will  produce  about  100 
crates  per  acre,  and  net  $1.95  per  crate, 
which  makes  a  net  profit  of  $195  per 
acre.  Twenty  to  thirty  cents  per  quart 
can  be  realized  for  the  first  berries,  if 
first-class.  A  large  number  of  farmers 
have  already  engaged  in  growing  straw- 
berries and  find  it  very  profitable.  The 
crop  comes  in  several  weeks  earlier  in 
this  state  than  it  does  in  the  northern 
states;  consequently  there  is  less  com- 
petition. In  1908  and  1909  over  5,000 
crates  were  shipped  out  of  Cullman;  1910, 
100  carloads. 

Oranges 

The  Satsuma  orange  does  well  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  state.  Considerable 
territory  is  well  adapted  to  orange  cul- 
ture in  Mobile  and  Baldwin  counties. 
About  134  trees  can  be  grown  per  acre, 
18x18  feet.  In  Mobile  county  two-year 
trees  produced  from  100  to  200  fruits  and 
four-year  trees  produced  from  400  to 
500  fruits.  A  grower  in  Baldwin  county 
in  1909  gathered  90  dozen  fruits  from 
one  tree.  The  same  grower  sold  $1,400 
worth  of  fruit  from  two  and  one-half 
acres.  His  fruit  averaged  $18  per  bar- 
rel. The  trees  are  hardy  in  the  above 
section  and  have  withstood  cold  as  low 
as  18  degrees  above  zero.  There  is  such 
a  demand  for  Satsuma  oranges  that  very 
few  of  them  are  shipped  any  distance, 
being  consumed  near  the  place  where 
grown.  A  grower  in  Mobile  county  net- 
ted $700  per  acre  the  1912  season. 

recalls 

The  pecan  is  another  fruit  that  is  un- 
limited in  this  state  as  far  as  climate 
is  concerned,  and  bears  a  fair  crop,  while 
in  the  southern  half  of  the  state  it  is 
very  profitable  as  a  commercial  crop. 
If  furnished  with  a  good  soil  and  proper 
culture  the  pecan  will  do  the  rest.  Some 


growers  near  Selma  state  that  their  pecan 
grove  yielded  the  first  commercial  crop 
at  the  age  of  10  years,  and  they  har- 
vested one  bushel  of  nuts  per  tree.  A 
bushel  of  pecans  weighs  40  pounds,  and 
as  low  as  25  cents  per  pound  would  bring 
$10  per  bushel  or  tree.  This  is  a  very 
low  price  for  pecans,  as  grafted  and 
budded  nuts  never  sell  for  less  than  50 
cents  per  pound  and  as  high  as  $1.25 
per  pound.  The  choice  nuts  are  con- 
sumed locally,  leaving  none  for  export. 
The  yield  will  increase  as  the  trees 
grow  older,  and  the  grove  will  prove  a 
big  money-making  crop  for  a  number  of 
years  to  come.  Trees  in  full  bearing 
yield  from  100  to  200  pounds  of  nuts. 
Selling  at  50  cents  per  pound  would  be 
from  $50  to  $100  per  tree,  and  at  $1  per 
pound  would  be  from  $100  to  $200  per 
tree.  A  large  number  of  people  have  en- 
gaged in  the  industry.  One  company  has 
2,400  acres  in  pecans. 

Persimiiions 

Japanese  persimmons  can  be  grown  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  state.  About  150 
trees  can  be  grown  on  an  acre,  and  the 
trees  will  produce  from  200  to  500  fruits 
per  tree.  The  fruits  sell  for  2  cents 
a  piece,  and  find  ready  sale  on  the  local 
markets,  as  the  production  is  not  suf- 
ficient to  require  shipment  except  at  a 
few  points.  The  trees  are  hardy  and  re- 
quire but  little  care.  An  acre  will  net 
from  $200  to  $500. 

Ponieerranates 

Pomegranates  grow  well  in  all  parts 
of  the  state  and  require  but  little  atten- 
tion. The  trees  bear  heavily,  and  the 
fruits  sell  for  $2  per  100,  finding  a  grow- 
ing demand  on  the  market. 

Figs 

The  figs  thrive  on  a  great  variety  of 
soils,  and  can  be  grown  in  the  greater 
part  of  Alabama.  The  trees  are  quite 
hardy  in  the  southern  half  of  the  state 
and  very  productive.  A  tree  in  full  bear- 
ing will  produce  from  two  to  six  bushels 
of  fruit.  The  fruit  sells  readily,  bring- 
ing from  SO  cents  to  $1  per  bushel.  The 
trees  will  stand  more  ueglect  than  any 
other  class  of  fruit  and  will  respond  to 
good  culture  just  as  quickly.     From  150 


ALABAMA— ALASKA 


to  300  trees  may  be  grown  on  an  acre, 
and  the  average  tree  will  produce  one 
bushel  of  fruit,  which  will  make  from 
150  to  300  bushels,  netting  $100  to  $200 
per  acre.    This  is  a  low  estimate  for  the 


fig.  This  fruit  demands  the  highest  price 
when  canned,  and  finds  ready  sale  on 
the  market,  bringing  35  cents  per  can. 
The  fig  is  an  easy  fruit  to  can. 

W.  P.  Williams 


Station 


Florence 

Decatur 

Valley  Head. 

Oneonto 

Birmingham. 
AnnistowTi. . . 
Tuscolusa.  .  . 
Good  Water. 
Greensboro .  . 
Pushmataha. . 
Montgomerj' . 

Opilika 

Eufaula 

Evergreen .  . . 
Alomible  -  .  . . 


FROST 


/^x 

Precipitation, 

Average  Date  of 

Date  of 

Annual 

First 

Earliest 

Killing 
in  Autumn 

in  Spring 

Killing 
in  Autumn 

in  Spring 

Inches 

Oct.      31 

Api-U      1 

Oct.     25 

April     9 

50.3 

Oct.      13 

.\pril      5 

Oct.       2 

April    15 

49.5 

Oct.     20 

.■Vpril      5 

Oct.        6 

April   30 

54.4 

Oct.      15 

,\pril    10 

Sept.      4 

May      2 

53.7 

Nov.      5 

Mar.     19 

Oct.     22 

April    10 

56.8 

Oct.     20 

April      2 

Oct.        6 

April    20 

49.1 

Nov.      6 

Mar.    23 

Oct.      21 

April      9 

49.5 

Nov.      9 

Mar.    20 

Oct.      18 

April      S 

48.9 

Nov.      8 

Mar.    20 

Oct.      24 

April      5 

48.5 

Nov.    12 

.Mar.    21 

Oct.     25 

April      5 

52.8 

Nov.      8 

Mar.    11 

Oct.     21 

April      5 

50.8 

Nov.      9' 

Mar.    17 

Oct.      25 

April      1 

49.1 

Nov.      9 

Mar.     14 

Oct.      25 

April       1 

51.1 

Nov.    12 

Mar.    13 

Oct.      24 

April      5 

51.0 

Nov.    30 

Feb.     21 

Oct.     31 

Mar.    28 

62.1 

l''or  bloom  periods  of  apples  In  Soutbern  Alabama,  see  Louisiana,  where  conditions  are  similar. 


Alaska 

Alaska  is  the  northwestern  extreme  of 
the  Cordilleran  system  of  mountain 
ranges  that  extends  through  North 
America  from  north  to  south  along  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  through  the  central  part 
of  the  United  States,  and  include  that 
great  central  range  called  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  also  the  Cascades,  the  Sierra 
Nevada  in  California,  Sierra  Madre  in 
Mexico  and  Central  America,  and  the 
Andes  in  South  America.  Panama  is  a 
mountain  pass,  dividing  this  range  of 
mountains  which  is  the  same  range  no 
matter  by  what  names  its  parts  are  called 
in  the  different  countries;  it  is  the  same 
formation  caused  by  the  same  action  of 
the  shrinking  of  the  earth  and  the  con- 
sequent uplift  of  parts  of  its  surface, 
and  the  destruction  of  other  parts.  The 
highest  peak  in  the  range  is  Mt.  Mc- 
Kinley,  over  20,000  feet  high;  rugged, 
cold,  defiant,  it  stands  like  a  lone  sen- 
tinel  in   the   far   north. 

The  country  was  purchased  by  the 
United  States  for  $7,200,000,  or  about  two 
cents  per  acre.  Considering  the  distance 
north,  the  climate  along  the  coast  is  mild, 
for  it  is  washed  by  the  Japan  Current 
which  warms  its  temperature.  However, 
the  coast  line  is  rugged,  the  valleys  small. 


and  the  heavj'  rainfall  is  unfavorable  for 
the  growth  of  many  kinds  of  agricultural 
products.  The  interior  is  drained  by  the 
Yukon  river.  This  interior  is  a  great 
basin  which  is  similar  in  some  respects  to 
the  other  interior  basins  near  the  Pacific 
Coast  where  the  difference  in  climate 
as  compared  to  the  coast  region  is  very 
great.  The  basin  east  of  the  mountain 
range  is  warm  in  summer  and  exceed- 
ingly cold  in  winter.  The  rainfall  is 
slight  and  the  growing  period  in  the 
Yukon  Valley  is  only  about  four  months. 
Judging  from  the  abundance  of  native 
fruits,  especially  of  berries,  it  is  believed 
that  varieties  from  the  states  can  be- 
come acclimated  and  grown  with  some 
degree  of  success. 

In  his  1912  report  C.  C.  Georgeson,  who 
has  charge  of  the  Alaska  Experiment 
Stations,  and  who  is  doing  much  to  in- 
troduce hardy  fruits  into  that  country 
and  to  develop  hardy  varieties  adapted  to 
the   conditions,   says: 

Potato  Crop 

"Potatoes  were  grown  on  a  commer- 
cial scale  at  Fairbanks,  and  for  profit. 
The  object  is  to  demonstrate  that  farm- 
ing can  be  made  to  pay  in  Alaska.  The 
station  is  somewhat  handicapped  in 
carrying  out  this  plan  because  it  does 
not    want    to    go    into    competition    with 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the  market  gardeners  of  the  vicinity. 
If  it  were  not  for  this,  the  financial  side 
would  show  up  better  than  it  does. 
Nearly  everyone  grows  potatoes,  and  the 
number  of  tons  which  are  imported  from 
the  Puget  Sound  country  has  been  ma- 
terially reduced  by  the  growing  of  the 
native  product;  yet  it  is  estimated  that 
not  less  than  500  tons  were  imported  for 
use  at  Fairbanks  and  the  camps  on  the 
various  creeks  in  that  region  during  the 
past  season.  This  being  the  case,  it  is 
not  considered  that  the  station  entered 
into  competition  with  potato  growers. 
Last  year  some  30  tons  of  potatoes  were 
raised  on  nearly  seven  acres  of  land. 
This  year  more  than  a  thousand  bushels 
were  grown  on  five  acres,  which  shows 
an  average  yield  of  200  bushels  per  acre. 
Aside  from  growing  a  crop  for  market- 
ing, many  different  varieties  were 
planted  in  order  to  determine  which  of 
them  are  the  best  suited  for  that  region. 

"The  crop  has  not  been  sold  at  this 
writing,  and  the  price  will  be  low  com- 
pared with  the  price  of  former  years,  but 
the  crop  from  these  five  acres  may  sell 
for  at  least  $2,000,  or  at  a  rate  of  $400 
per  acre,  which  will  afford  a  good  profit. 
It  is  a  question  whether  the  potato  mar- 
ket will  continue  to  be  profitable,  how- 
ever. The  population  gradually  dimin- 
ishes as  the  placer  ground  is  worked 
out,  and  the  homesteaders  are  gradu- 
ally extending  the  area  in  potatoes.  The 
time  will  come  when  the  price  of  the 
native-grown  potato  will  be  so  low  that 
there  will  be  no  profit  in  it. 

"In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  call 
attention  to  the  fact  that  potatoes  grown 
on  lowlands,  as  a  consequence  suffer 
from  early  frosts  and  seldom  mature 
normally.  They  are  therefore  soft  and 
watery  when  cooked,  and  when  placed  on 
the  market  they  ruin  the  reputation  of 
the  Alaska-grown  potato.  Ranchers 
should  transfer  their  potato  growing  to 
southern  slopes  of  the  low  hills.  There 
they  will  grow  a  potato  of  better  qual- 
ity which  will  not  be  discredited  in  the 
market. 

"Attention  is  again  called  to  the  fact 
that  there  is  a  great  difference  between 
varieties  of  potatoes.    The  early  maturing 


sorts  are  better  suited  to  this  country 
than  the  late  potatoes.  Only  early  vari- 
eties should  be  grown,  and  of  the  early 
varieties  the  best  cookers  should  be  se- 
lected for  culture.  If  these  points  were 
heeded,  the  consumer  would  not  discrimi- 
nate against  the  native  potato  in  favor 
of  the  outside  product  as  is  now  the 
case. 

"It  is  desired  to  emphasize  once  more 
that  the  results  of  sprouting  the  seed 
before  planting,  which  have  been  .attained 
at  both  the  Rampart  and  Sitka  stations, 
are  greatly  in  favor  of  this  practice.  It 
is  not  practicable  to  sprout  the  seed  when 
several  acres  are  to  be  planted — not  un- 
less special  provisions  are  made  for  so 
doing. 

Cabbage 

"Next  to  potatoes  cabbage  is  the  most 
important  garden  vegetable.  Nearly  every 
settler  aims  to  raise  a  few  heads,  and 
in  the  towns  cabbage  is  an  important 
market  vegetable.  It  is  always  a  lead- 
ing crop  with  professional  market  gar- 
deners. However,  since  land  is  abundant 
and  town  dwellers  quite  generally  cul- 
tivate part  of  their  lots,  householders 
who  have  the  time  and  inclination  very 
generally  raise  at  least  a  portion  of  the 
cabbage  as  well  as  other  vegetables  which 
they  consume.  Seed  was  sown  March  27 
of  all  the  varieties  mentioned  below  and 
the  plants  transferred  to  cold  frames 
April  IS.  On  May  27.  50  plants  of  each 
variety  were  set  in  the  field.  The  per- 
centage of  marketable  heads  of  each  vari- 
ety was  as  follows: 

Percentage  of  marketalile  heads  of  cab- 
hage  -produced  in  1912.  Percent 

Copenhagen  Market 92 

Danish   Ball   Head 56 

Dark  Red  Stonehead 90 

Early  Baseball 86 

Eaily   .Jersey  Wakefield 94 

Early  Winningstadt 82 

Holstein 82 

Large  Late  Drumhead 80 

Large  Late  Flat  Dutch 88 

Market  Gardener  Flat  Dutch 88 

Savoy 50 

"The  Early  Wakefield  has,  all  things 
considered,  been  the  most  satisfactory 
variety  so  far  tried.  It  stands  the  test 
year  after  year.     It  is  a  sure  header,  and 


ALASKA 


while  the  heads  are  not  large  they  are 
of  good  quality.  Other  varieties  approach 
it  closely,  but  none  excel  it.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  it  is  not  always  the  earliest 
variety.  Others,  even  those  so-called  late, 
are  sometimes  earlier.  Its  value  rests 
chiefly  in  the  fact  that  it  can  be  depended 
upon  to  head  under  nearly  all  circum- 
stances. Other  varieties  are  less  depend- 
able. 

Cauliflower 
"The  cauliflower  is  at  home  in  Alaska. 
It  has  larger,  more  crisp  heads,  and  is 
better  flavored  here  than  it  is  when 
grown  under  a  hot  sun.  It  follows  cab- 
bage in  point  of  importance.  It  has  one 
drawback,  however,  and  that  is  that  it  is 
only  a  summer  vegetable,  whereas  cab- 
bage can  be  kept  all  through  the  winter. 
It  is  grown  exactly  as  we  grow  cabbage 
— raise  the  plants  in  boxes  or  in  cold 
frames,  transplant  the  seedlings  into  other 
boxes  or  cold  frames  four  inches  apart 
to  give  them  room  to  develop  well  and 
to  acquire  a  good  root  system.  Trans- 
plant in  the  open  ground  two  feet  apart 
in  the  row,  and  the  rows  three  feet  apart. 
The  transplanting  is  done  as  in  the  case 
of  cabbages  with  a  ball  of  earth  so  that 
the  roots  are  disturbed  as  little  as  pos- 
sible; and  they  should  not  be  set  in  the 
open  until  the  latter  part  of  May.  Thus 
treated,  and  given  a  good  garden  soil, 
the  cauliflower  is  one  of  the  most  sat- 
isfactory vegetables  that  can  be  grown. 
It  is  ready  for  the  table  earlier  than 
cabbage.  Market  gardeners  in  the  coast 
towns  of  Alaska  have  them  sometimes 
for  sale  as  early  as  .luly  4.  Of  course 
the  earliness,  as  in  all  vegetables,  de- 
pends very  largely  upon  the  nature  of 
the  season.  When  the  spring  is  early  and 
the  summer  warm  they  grow  rapidly, 
and  mature  early;  when  the  spring  is 
late  and  the  summer  cloud.v  and  rainy, 
as  is  often  the  case,  they  mature  late. 
Only  a  few  varieties  are  grown  here,  as 
listed  below.  The  seed  was  sown  March 
27  and  the  plants  transferred  to  cold 
frames  April  18.  On  May  27,  50  plants 
of  each  variety  were  set  in  the  field.  The 
date  of  maturity  and  the  percentage  of 
marketable  heads  of  each  variety  are 
shown   in  the  following  table: 


Variety  tests  of  cauliflower,  1912 


Variety 

Small 

heads 

matured 

Market- 
able 
heads 

Denmark 

Extra  Early  Dwarf  Erfurt. .  . 

July  26 
July  18 
July  28 
July  20 
July  22 

Per  cent 
90 
92 

88 

Extra  Early  Snowball 

Gilt  Edge 

90 
90 

Broccoli 

"Broccoli  is  similar  to  cauliflower. 
This  vegetable  has  practically  the  same 
quality,  matures  later,  and  is  not  quite 
as  sure  to  head.  It  should  be  treated 
in  all  respects  like  cauliflower.  Some 
varieties  are  white,  in  which  case  they 
closely  resemble  the  cauliflower.  Other 
varieties  have  purple  heads.  Three  vari- 
eties were  grown  in  the  past  season — 
Early  White,  Early  Purple  Cap,  and  Mam- 
moth White.  The  seed  was  sown  March 
27,  the  plants  transplanted  to  cold  frames 
April  18,  and  to  the  field  May  27.  Early 
White  matured  heads  on  August  1,  78 
per  cent  of  which  were  marketable,  and 
Mammoth  White  on  August  20,  of  which 
76  per  cent  were  marketable.  Early  Pur- 
ple Cap  did  not  mature  any  heads. 

Kale 

"Kale  is  a  valuable  vegetable,  but  un- 
fortunately not  appreciated.  It  is  par- 
ticularly well  adapted  to  a  cool,  moist  cli- 
mate like  that  of  Alaska,  and  on  the 
other  hand  kale  grows  but  poorly  under 
a  hot  sun  or  in  dry  weather.  Now.  since 
the  majority  of  settlers  in  Alaska  have 
come  from  the  regions  south  of  latitude 
49°,  kale  is  but  little  grown.  This  may 
be  the  reason  why  it  is  not  appreciated; 
and  because  it  has  been  so  little  used 
in  the  states  many  housewives  do  not 
know  how  to  prepare  it  for  the  table. 
The  writer  has  received  letters  from  peo- 
ple who  have  grown  it  and  reported  splen- 
did success  in  growing  large  vigorous 
plants,  but  they  called  it  poor  provender; 
they  had  tried  to  eat  it  raw  as  a  salad. 
Kale  must  be  boiled  thoroughly  and 
should  be  cooked  preferably  with  salt 
pork  or  corn  beef;  when  so  prepared  it 
will  be  found  a  very  appetizing  dish. 

"One    of   the    chief   merits    of    kale    is 
that  it  is  a  winter  vegetable.    It  can  stand 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


a  moderate  degree  of  frost,  and  Indeed 
its  quality  is  improved  by  freezing 
slightly.  In  the  coast  regions  it  can, 
therefore,  be  left  outdoors  the  entire  win- 
ter and  cut  as  needed.  In  very  cold 
weather,  a  foot  or  more  of  snow  is  a  pro- 
tecting blanket  to  the  plants. 

"Treat  kale  exactly  like  cauliflower. 
The  dwarf  curled  varieties  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred. The  tall  coarser  varieties  can  be 
grown  for  cattle  feed,  the  only  objec- 
tion to  this  being  that  they  will  flavor 
the  milk  as  do  turnips,  cabbage,  and  all 
other  Cruciferse. 

"Dwarf  Scotch,  Green  Curled  and  Sibe- 
rian kale  were  sown  in  the  open  field 
May  27  and  were  ready  for  use  September 
15  and  20,  respectively,  96  and  94  per 
cent  of  the  plants  being  marketable. 
Brussels  sprouts  sown  March  27,  trans- 
planted to  cold  frames  April  18  and  to 
the  open  field  May  27,  was  mature  Octo- 
ber 27,  90  per  cent  of  the  plants  form- 
ing marketable  heads. 

Brussels  Spronts 

"This  is  a  vegetable  that  deserves  to 
be  more  generally  cultivated  than  is  the 
case.  It  is  really  a  variety  of  kale  and 
is  cultivated  in  exactly  the  same  manner 
as  kale  and  cauliflower,  but  the  stalks 
grow  taller  than  kale,  and  in  the  axil 
of  each  leaf  is  formed  a  small  head, 
which  is  the  portion  used.  These  little 
heads  properly  cooked  are  most  delicious. 
They  are  better  flavored  than  either  cab- 
bage or  kale.  In  the  coast  region  the 
plants  can  be  left  outdoors  until  mod- 
erately cold  weather  sets  in.  They  are 
not  quite  as  hardy  as  kale.  But  one 
variety  was  grown  here  the  past  season. 
It  is  listed  above  with  the  kale. 

Turnips 

"Eight  varieties  of  turnips  were  grown 
here,  each  in  a  50-foot  row,  with  yields 
as  follows:  Petrowski.  150  pounds; 
White  Milan,  140  pounds:  No.  33682,  133 
pounds:  No.  33684,  127  pounds:  No. 
336S3,  97  pounds;  No.  33687,  46  pounds; 
No.  33685,  31  pounds;  No.  33686,  18 
pounds. 

"The  seed  of  those  sorts  designated  by 
numbers  were  obtained  from  the  Seed  Di- 


vision of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 
None  of  them  appear  to  have  any  great 
merit. 

"The  Petrowski  is  undoubtedly  the  best 
variety  so  far  found  for  Alaska.  It  has 
not  as  yet  been  offered  by  seedsmen  in 
this  country.  The  seed  which  has  been 
grown  at  the  experiment  stations  and 
which  has  been  distributed  to  all  the  cor- 
respondents of  this  office  has  been  im- 
ported from  Finland.  It  is  a  yellow, 
smooth,  uniformly  shaped  turnip  of  de- 
licious quality.  It  grows  well  everywhere 
and  as  noted  below  it  is  not  greatly  sub- 
ject to  the  attacks  of  root  maggots.  About 
2,000  packages  of  this  seed  have  been  dis- 
tributed to  settlers  in  Alaska,  and  all  who 
have  reported,  speak  in  the  highest  terms 
of  this  variety.  It  is  earnestly  urged  that 
all  who  have  grown  good  turnips  should 
save  the  best,  wintering  them  free  from 
frost  with  a  view  to  planting  them  out 
for  seed  the  following  spring.  Plant 
them  early  in  rows  three  feet  apart  and 
two  or  three  feet  apart  in  the  row.  When 
the  stems  grow  up  they  should  each  be 
tied  to  a  stake.  Gather  the  seed  as  soon 
as  it  matures.  This  variety  is  worthy 
of  perpetuation. 

Root  maggots. — These  pests  are  quite 
prevalent  in  Alaska,  and  complaints  of 
their  ravages  come  to  this  ofiBce  from 
all  parts  of  the  territory. 

They  attack  turnips,  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower, kale,  and  in  fact  all  members  of 
the  Cruciferse  and   other  plants. 

The  maggots  are  the  larvfe  of  small 
flies  somewhat  resembling  the  house  fl.v, 
which  lay  their  eggs  on  the  leaves  near 
the  base  of  the  plant.  When  the  eggs 
hatch,  the  maggots  wriggle  into  the 
ground  and  begin  to  feed  on  the  roots 
near  the  surface.  They  grow  rapidly  and 
when  numerous  they  soon  suck  the  juice 
from  the  plant,  causing  decay  to  set  in 
and  the  plant  dies.  Some  varieties  of 
plant  are  more  susceptible  to  the  ravages 
of  this  pest  than  others.  The  Petrowski 
turnip,  for  instance,  is  almost  exempt, 
while  other  varieties  of  turnips  grown 
alongside  suffer  badly.  The  reason  for 
this  fact  is  not  fully  known,  and  may 
be  due  to  the  habit  of  the  plant,  which 


ALASKA 


I  . 


spreads  its  leaves  flat  on  the  ground.  The 
leaf  stems  are  not  upright  as  in  many 
varieties,  and  the  maggots,  therefore,  do 
not  follow  the  stems  to  the  ground  at 
the  base  of  the  plant;  they  are  already 
on  the  ground.  If  this  is  not  the  correct 
explanation,  it  is  at  least  plausible.  The 
root  maggots  are  not  troublesome  at 
Sitka,  and  therefore  there  has  been  no 
opportunity  to  experiment  with  remedies. 

Carrots 

"On  May  15  a  row  ir>0  feet  long  was 
sowed  to  each  of  the  following  varieties 
of  carrots.  They  were  all  ready  for  mar- 
ket on  October  1,  although  they  were  not 
dug  until  some  time  later.  In  point  of 
yield  they  rank  in  the  order  mentioned: 
Stump  Rooted,  181  pounds;  Yellow  Dan- 
vers,  138  pounds:  Chantenay,  117  pounds: 
French  Forcing,  113  pounds:  and  Early 
Scarlet,    110   pounds. 

"Carrots  are  also  a  neglected  vegetable. 
They  can  be  grown  successfully  almost 
anywhere  in  Alaska,  but  they  require  a 
well  drained  soil,  and  the  richer  the 
ground  the  better  the  crop. 

Beets 

"But  one  variety  of  beet  was  grown 
last  season,  namely.  Extra  Early  Egyp- 
tian. The  seed  was  sown  on  May  15  and 
produced  medium  sized  roots  of  good  qual- 
ity by  September  15. 

Swiss  Chard 

"Swiss  chard  is  a  kind  of  beet  grown 
for  its  leaves.  The  stems  are  crisp  and 
palatable  and  used  as  a  salad.  It  does 
well  in  Alaska.  The  seed  was  sown  on 
May  15.  September  15  it  was  ready  for 
use;  was  18  inches  high  and  of  good  qual- 
ity. 

Celerj 

"Three  varieties  of  celery  were  grown 
on  a  very  small  scale  here.  They  were 
Giant  Golden  Heart.  Golden  Self-blanch- 
ing, and  Rose  Ribbed.  They  rank  in  the 
order  given. 

"Celery  can  be  grown  with  great  suc- 
cess in  Alaska,  provided  conditions  are 
right.  In  a  poor  soil  poorly  drained,  it 
amounts  to  nothing.  The  seeds  should 
be  sown  in  flats  or  boxes  in  the  house, 
greenhouse,   or  cold   frame   in   the  latter 


part  of  March.  When  the  plants  are  an 
inch  high  or  less,  they  should  be  trans- 
planted in  rich  soil  under  glass  about  four 
inches  apart,  and  about  the  beginning  of 
June  they  can  be  set  in  the  open  ground. 
"Celery  is  always  planted  close  to- 
gether because  it  facilitates  the  blanching 
of  the  stems  and  a  large  number  of  plants 
can  be  grown  on  a  very  small  area.  A  bed 
may  thus  be  prepared  of  light,  that  is  to 
say,  more  or  less  sandy  soil  in  which 
five  or  six  inches  of  decomposed  manure 
has  been  dug  in  and  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  soil.  Set  the  plants  in  this  bed 
six  inches  apart  each  way  for  the  smaller 
varieties  and  seven  or  eight  inches  apart 
for  the  larger  varieties.  Inclose  the  bed 
with  boards  which  are  kept  as  high  as 
the  top  growth.  The  so-called  self-blanch- 
ing varieties  will  blanch  in  the  partial 
darkness  caused  by  the  dense  growth  of 
leaves.  Other  varieties  can  be  blanched 
by  filling  in  soil  between  the  plants,  and 
they  will  be  ready  for  market  as  soon  as 
they  are  large  enough  to  use,  which  may 
be  the  latter  part  of  July  if  the  plants 
are  started  early. 

"Celery  grows  better  in  the  interior 
than  in  the  coast  regions,  because  the 
summers  are  warmer,  and  all  vegetation 
grows  rapidly.  The  writer  has  never 
seen  or  tasted  better  celery  than  that 
grown  by  market  gardeners  at  Fairbanks. 

Celeriac 

"Celeriac  is  a  variety  of  celery.  It  de- 
velops a  large  root  like  a  turnip  or  ruta- 
baga, and  it  is  grown  for  the  root.  It  is 
rarely  cultivated  in  America  except  in 
German  settlements,  but  it  is  a  most  de- 
licious vegetable  which  can  be  used 
either  raw  as  a  salad  or  better  still  sliced 
and  boiled  in  soups  and  other  dishes. 
The  plants  are  raised  like  celery  plants 
and  planted  out  15  to  IS  inches  apart  in 
the  row  in  rich  soil. 

"Both  celery  and  celeriac  require  a 
moderately  dry  soil.  They  are  failures 
wherever  their  roots  are  continually  wet 

Salsify 

"Commonly  known  as  oyster  plant  from 
the  fancy  that  its  root  resembles  the  oys- 
ter in  flavor.     Salsify  has  not  succeeded 


10 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


well  at  the  Sitka  Station.  The  soil  is 
too  wet.  It  requires  a  light,  loamy,  well- 
drained  land  for  its  best  growth,  but  it 
can  be  grown  in  Alaska  and  will  add  a 
variety  to  the  available  vegetable  dishes. 

"One  sort,  known  as  the  Thick  Rooted, 
was  grown  the  past  season.  The  seed 
was  sown  in  the  open  on  May  16  and 
produced  medium  sized  roots  by  Octo- 
ber 1. 

Lettuce 

"Nine  varieties  were  grown  on  a  very 
small  scale  the  past  season.  The  seed 
was  sown  in  the  open  May  15,  and  when 
the  plants  were  up  they  were  thinned 
to  a  stand  of  six  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
The  varieties  grown  were  valued  for  ear- 
liness,  quality,  size,  and  solidity  of  head 
in  the  following  order:  Tennis  Ball 
(black  seeded).  Giant  Crystal  Head.  Cali- 
fornia Cream  Butter,  Rheingold,  Butter- 
cup, Iceberg,  Beacon,  Maximum,  and 
American  Gathering. 

"Lettuce  is  easily  grown  everywhere  in 
Alaska,  and  it  is  a  favorite  salad  with 
everyone.  In  passing  through  the  coun- 
try one  sees  at  the  isolated  prospector's 
cabin,  as  well  as  at  the  moi-e  comfortable 
homes  in  town,  a  little  patch  of  each  of 
three  vegetables.  They  are  turnips,  let- 
tuce, and  radishes,  the  two  latter  always 
grown  on  a  very  small  scale,  perhaps  con- 
fined to  a  single  square  yard.  The  aver- 
age cultivator  takes  no  pains  with  his 
garden.  He  sows  the  seed  thickly  and 
cuts  the  plants  when  they  are  largei 
enough  to  use.  This  is  one  way  of  doing 
it.  but  a  poor  way.  Lettuce  can  be  had 
throughout  the  summer  by  making  sev- 
eral seedings,  say  once  in  four  weeks. 
from  April  to  July.  Then  the  best  re- 
sults are  obtained  by  sowing  the  seed  in 
shallow  boxes,  and  when  the  plants  are 
two  inches  high  set  them  in  rows  some 
six  inches  apart  on  rich  soil.  Those  vari- 
eties which  produce  a  solid  head  are  to 
be  preferred,  but  they  are  not  as  early 
as  those  which  have  a  loose  head.  Solid 
headed  lettuce  sown  in  June  or  the  begin- 
ning of  July  will  be  ready  for  use  in  Sep- 
tember, and  the  heads  can  be  kept  until 
quite  late  in  the  winter  in  a  dry,  frost- 
proof cellar. 


Parsley 

"Parsley  is  one  of  the  few  greens  which 
is  grown  for  the  flavor  it  imparts  to 
dishes,  and  also  for  decorating  dishes. 
There  should  be  at  least  a  short  row  of 
parsley  in  every  garden.  It  is  sown  in 
the  open  in  early  spring.  The  plants 
should  be  thinned  if  they  are  too  thick. 
The  seed  takes  a  long  time  to  germinate, 
and  it  loses  its  vitality  very  soon,  hence 
old  seed  should  never  be  used.  There 
are  but  few  varieties;  Extra  Curled  is 
the  one  most  commonly  grown.  There 
is  also  a  root  parsley  with  plain  leaves, 
the  roots  of  which  are  used  in  soups,  and 
with  other  vegetables,  like  celeriac. 

Spinach 

"Round  Viroflay  and  Long  Season  were 
successfully  grown  at  the  Sitka  Station 
the  last  season.  Spinach  does  not  succeed 
everywhere.  It  is  a  little  particular  about 
the  soil.  The  soil  should  be  well  drained. 
In  a  wet  soil  it  runs  to  seed  almost  at 
once  without  producing  leaves.  Sow  it 
the  middle  of  May. 

Radishes 

"A  50-foot  row  was  seeded  of  each  of 
the  three  following  varieties.  They  all 
did  well,  and  they  are  valued  in  the  order 
named:  Early  Scarlet  Turnip,  French 
Breakfast,  Deep  Scarlet  Olive-Shaped. 
It  is  superfluous  to  say  anything  here 
about  the  culture  and  use  of  radishes. 
Everyone  knows  and  appreciates  them." 

FRUIT  TREES 

Apples 

The  following  varieties  of  apples  are 
grown  in  the  small  test  orchard  at  the 
Sitka  Experiment  Station.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  most  of  them  are  crabs  or 
crab  hybrids.  These  trees  were  planted 
in  1903,  except  those  which  have  been 
planted  to  replace  others  that  have  died. 
The}'  were,  therefore,  nine  years  old  the 
past  season  and  old  enough  to  bear  fruit. 
In  1911  the  following  varieties  fruited: 
Raspberry  (crab).  Yellow  Transparent 
(crab),  Hyslop  (crab),  Whitney  (crab), 
and  Sylvan  Sweet  (crab). 

The  past  year  the  only  varieties  which 
set  fruit  were  Whitney,  Tetofsky,  Hyslop, 


ALASKA 


H 


Raspberry,  Patten  Greening,  Duchess, 
Pi/nis  baccata,  and,  of  course,  the  native 
crab.  Those  which  matured  were  the 
Whitney.  Hyslop.  Piinis  bacvata,  and  the 
native  crab.  The  fruits  on  the  others 
blew  off  before  they  matured.  None  of 
the  trees  is  doing  as  well  as  one  could 
wish.  Both  climate  and  soil  are  unpro- 
pitious.  Trees  which  have  been  sent 
from  this  station  to  settlers  at  Haines, 
Alaska,  are  doing  better  than  they  are 
doing  here.  The  soil  is  better  and  the 
rainfall  is  less.  Nevertheless  the  fact 
that  apples  have  matured  here  argues 
that  it  can  be  done  again.  The  summer 
of  1911  was  long  and  favorable,  above 
the  average.  The  summer  of  1912  was 
rather  cool  and  the  trees  consequently 
did  not  do  well.  It  is  evident  that  none 
out  hardy  and  early  maturing  varieties — 
that  is  to  say,  varieties  which  would  be 
early  summer  apples  in  the  states — can 
be  grown  here  with  any  expectation  of 
success.  It  is  hoped  that  new  varieties 
may  be  developed  suitable  to  this  coun- 
try, but  as  yet  the  experiments  have 
been  without  success.  A  small  nursery 
is  maintained  chiefly  with  a  view  to 
propagating  trees  to  be  tested  elsewhere. 
As  a  whole  it  may  be  stated  that  the 
outlook  for  apple  growing  in  Alaska  is 
not  bright. 

Cherries 

There  are  at  the  station  a  few  types 
of  each  of  the  four  varieties  of  the  sour 
cherries — English  Morello,  Ostheim,  Early 
Richmond,  and  Dyehouse.  The  Early 
Richmond  is  the  best  of  the  four  vari- 
eties. They  have  been  in  the  orchard 
nine  years  and  began  to  bear  fruit  five 
years  ago.  They  are  holding  their  own, 
making  a  moderate  growth  each  year, 
and  bear  a  little  fruit,  but  are  not  at 
home  here.  They  are  not  doing  as  well 
as  they  would  south  of  latitude  49°.  The 
fruit  on  all  varieties  was  ripe  the  past 
season  about  August  20. 

The  sweet  cherry,  a  few  kinds  of 
which  are  also  grown  at  Sitka,  has  proved 
a  failure. 

Plums 

A  number  of  young  plum  trees  are  un- 
der   test,    mostly    hybrids    produced    by 


Prof.  Hansen,  of  South  Dakota,  but  none 
of  them  is  doing  well.  The  coast  cli- 
mate is  apparently  too  wet,  and  none  of 
them  ever  showed  fruit.  The  wood  does 
not  mature  well.  The  rainfall  stimulates 
growth  until  frosts,  and  then  the  tender 
shoots  die  back  from  two  to  twelve  inches. 
They  succeed  better  in  a  drier  climate, 
even  though  the  winters  are  much  colder 
than  they  are  here.  So  far  not  a  variety 
of  plum  gives  promise  of  being  a  success 
here. 

FBUIT  BUSHES 
Small    fruits   and    berries    succeed    well 
in  Alaska.     The  fruit  crop   of  the  terri- 
tory will  be  confined  chiefly  to  these. 

Ciirraiifs 

The  currant  leads  the  list.  It  is  in- 
digenous to  the  mountains  of  Alaska, 
and  may  often  be  found  as  far  north  as 
Rampart,  where  the  writer  has  repeatedly 
gathered  ripe  wild  currants.  The  currant 
is  not  only  suited  to  the  climate,  but  it 
has  the  advantage  of  being  easily  propa- 
gated. It  grows  from  cuttings  without 
trouble,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  every 
garden  in  the  territory  up  to  and  even 
beyond  the  Arctic  Circle  should  not  have 
currant  bushes  enough  to  supply  the 
needs  of  any  family.  The  same  varieties 
that  have  been  reported  on  in  former 
years  are  growing  at  the  station — Red 
Cross,  Ruby  Castle.  Victoria,  Fay  Pro- 
lific, Wilder,  also  the  so-called  common 
Red  Dutch  and  White  Dutch.  Ruby  Castle 
is  perhaps,  all  things  considered,  the 
best  variety  so  far  tried.  It  has  a  large 
berry,  is  moderately  prolific,  and  ma- 
tures usually  a  little  earlier  than  the 
others   named. 

The  native  wild  red  currant  is  also 
grown,  but  it  is  not  yielding  fruit  as  well 
as  the  cultivated  sorts,  although  the  fruit 
matures   earlier   than   the   former. 

Black  Currants 

These  also  do  well  here,  but  they  are 
somewhat  more  tender  than  the  red  cur- 
rant. Two  species  of  the  black  currant 
are  indigenous  to  the  coast,  but  they  do 
not  range  as  far  north  as  the  red  currant. 
Like  the  latter  it  is  easily  propagated 
from  cuttings  and  can  be  grown  any- 
where in  the  coast  region. 


12 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Gooseberries 

The  gooseberry  is  not  as  hardy  as  the 
currant,  but  it  is  essentially  adapted  to 
a  moist  climate,  and  therefore  it  does 
■well  in  the  coast  region.  In  the  interior 
It  will  require  some  winter  protection. 
It  is  not  so  popular  as  the  currant,  prob- 
ably because  the  latter  is  so  extensively 
used  for  jellies,  whereas  gooseberries  are 
usually  eaten  ripe  or  canned  green.  An- 
other trouble  is  that  the  gooseberry  is 
difficult  to  propagate.  It  does  not  grow 
readily  from  cuttings.  The  best  method 
is  to  layer  the  branches,  and  when  they 
have  taken  root,  cut  them  loose  from  the 
parent  plant  and  set  them  out  in  nursery 
rows.  They  can  be  propagated  from  soft- 
wood cuttings  under  glass,  but  the  aver- 
age pioneer  is  not  prepared  to  do  this. 
Because  of  the  difficulty  of  propagating 
the  gooseberry  plants  are  priced  high  in 
nurserymen's  catalogues,  which  in  a 
measure  deters  people  from  planting 
them.  Nevertheless,  gooseberries  can  be 
successfully  grown  in  the  coast  regions 
of  Alaska,  as  has  been  demonstrated  for 
some  years  at  the  Sitka  Station.  The 
varieties  grown  are  as  follows:  Cham- 
pion, Columbus,  Industry,  Red  Jacket, 
Smith  Improved.  Triumph  and  White- 
smith. The  Whitesmith  has  a  large 
green  berry  when  ripe,  very  juicy,  and  on 
account  of  the  size  of  the  fruit  may  be 
considered  the  best  of  those  named.  Mil- 
dew or  other  diseases  common  to  the 
gooseberry  in  the  states  have  given  little 
trouble.  The  date  on  which  the  berries 
ripen  varies  considerably  with  the  sea- 
son. The  spring  of  1912  was  very  early, 
and  therefore  the  berries  ripened  early 
— that  is,  by  the  middle  of  August.  In 
1911  they  did  not  ripen  until  fully  three 
weeks  later. 

Raspberries 
All  varieties  of  the  raspberry  started 
growth  early  and  by  May  1  the  leaves 
were  well  developed,  The  crop  of  fruit 
was  not  as  heavy  as  last  year,  however, 
nor  did  it  show  as  large  nor  as  uniform 
berries.  The  volcanic  ash  which  fell 
June  7  to  11  affected  the  foliage  unfa- 
vorably, which  doubtless  had  much  to  do 
with    the    fruiting.      The    berries    of    all 


sorts  began  to  ripen  August  8,  and  they 
continued  to  fruit  approximately  for  four 
weeks.  The  Cuthbert,  all  things  consid- 
ered, is  the  best  variety  tried.  Other 
varieties  are:  Miller,  Turner,  Fuller, 
Champion,  Orange,  Louden,  and  Super- 
lative. 

Hybrid  Raspberry-Salmonbeiries 
Several  of  these  hybrids  which  have 
been  mentioned  in  former  reports  fruited 
last  year,  but  the  berries  are  unfortu- 
nately no  improvement  on  those  produced 
by  either  parent.  There  is  a  very  great 
variation  in  the  plants.  They  vary  in 
vigor  and  in  foliage  all  the  way  from 
the  pure  raspberry  to  the  pure  salmon- 
berry.  The  Cuthbert  raspberry  was  the 
mother  plant.  Those  which  resemble  the 
salmonberry  more  closely  are  the  more 
vigorous,  while  those  that  resemble  the 
raspberry  are  small,  spindling,  and  appar- 
ently of  no  value.  None  of  the  plants  are 
prolific  bearers.  A  number  of  younger 
seedlings  are  coming  on,  and  their  be- 
havior is  awaited  with  interest. 

Geanvule  Lowther 

Albemarle  Pippin.     See  Yelloio  Neiotown. 
Under  varieties  of  apples  to  plant. 

Alcohol 

Industrial  Alcohol — Sources  and 
Mannfactnre 

The  term  alcohol,  as  used  herein,  sig- 
nifies that  particular  product  which  is 
obtained  by  fermentation  and  distilla- 
tion of  solutions  of  sugar,  and  which  is 
known  to  chemists  as  "ethyl  alcohol."  It 
is  a  colorless  and  mobile  liquid  which 
has  a  peculiar  "spirituous"  odor  and  a 
sharp  and  burning  taste.  When  it  is  left 
in  a  crude  condition,  both  its  odor  and 
its  flavor  are  rendered  somewhat  dis- 
agreeable by  impurities  which  originate 
in  the  earlier  stages  of  manufacture;  but 
when  it  has  been  purified  thoroughly— 
in  which  state  it  is  commonly  known 
as  "neutral"  or  "cologne"  spirit— it  ac- 
quires a  distinctly  agreeable  smell.  It 
mixes  freely  with  water,  in  all  propor- 
tions; and,  as  is  well  known,  it  is  the 
essential    intoxicating    ingredient    of    all 


ALCOHOL 


13 


the  fermented  and  distilled  liquors.  When 
"strong."  or  nearly  free  of  water,  it  dis- 
solves gums  and  resins  very  readily,  and 
burns  with  an  intensely  hot,  pale-blue 
flame.  Because  of  these  characteristics 
it  is  used  in  large  amounts  in  the  prep- 
aration of  certain  varnishes,  and  as  a 
fuel  in  cases  where  its  cleanliness,  in- 
tense heat,  and  freedom  from  danger  of 
explosion  offset  its  expensiveness.  Alco- 
hol boils  at  a  much  lower  temperature 
than  water,  and  it  is  this  fact  that  makes 
it  possible  to  separate  it,  by  distillation, 
from  the  aqueous  solutions  in  which  it 
originally  is  formed.  Bulk  for  bulk  it 
is  considerably  lighter  than  water,  and 
mixtures  of  alcohol  and  water  show  fairly 
regular  increases  in  weight,  per  unit  of 
volume,  in  proportion  to  the  percentages 
of  water  which  they  contain.  Because  of 
this  relation  the  alcoholic  strength  of 
any  such  mixture  can  be  determined  by 
means  of  an  appropriately  graduated  al- 
coholmeter.  The  strength  of  alcohol  so- 
lutions may  be  stated  in  percentages  by 
volume  or  by  weight,  or  in  United  States 
proof  degree,  one  such  degree  correspond- 
ing to  one-half  of  1  per  cent  of  alcohol 
in  volume. 

Chemists  employ  the  formula  C^HjOH 
to  denote  the  composition  of  alcohol.  This 
signifies  that  one  molecule,  or  unit,  of 
the  compound  substance  alcohol  is  made 
up  of  two  atoms,  or  units,  of  the  ele- 
ment carbon  (written  C),  six  atoms  of 
the  element  hydrogen  (written  H),  and 
one  atom  of  the  element  oxygen  (written 
O).  The  percentage  composition  of  alco- 
hol is — carbon  (C)  52.12  .per  cent,  hydro- 
gen (H)  13.13  per  cent,  and  oxygen  (O) 
34.75   per  cent. 

Denatured   Alcohol 

On  account  of  the  intoxicating  powers 
of  alcohol,  its  manufacture  is  prohibited 
in  many  communities,  and  throughout 
nearly  all  of  the  civilized  world  its  pro- 
duction is  hedged  about  with  restrictions 
in  the  form  of  excise  laws,  which,  in  addi- 
tion to  producing  revenue,  raise  its  price 
to  the  consumer  and  tend  to  diminish  its 
consumption  in  the  form  of  beverages. 
However,  this  increase  in  cost,  due  to  tax 
imposition,   interferes  seriously  with  the 


use  of  alcohol  for  fuel  and  for  many 
other  legitimate  industrial  purposes;  and 
therefore  many  governments  have  enacted 
laws  which  authorize  its  manufacture, 
sale,  and  use  for  industrial  ends,  tax 
free,  upon  the  condition  that  it  shall 
first  be  made  unfit  for  beverage  use 
by  the  addition  of  materials  which 
will  give  it  a  thoroughly  foreign  and  nau- 
seating odor  and  taste  without  making  it 
dangerously  poisonous  or  interfering  with 
the  particular  industrial  purpose  for 
which  it  is  intended.  Alcohol  which  thus 
has  been  made  unfit  for  drinking,  is 
called  "denatured  alcohol."  The  mate- 
rials which  are  used  to  make  it  unpo- 
table,  whatever  their  particular  nature, 
are  called  "denaturants,"  and  the  process 
by  which  they  are  dissolved  in  or  min- 
gled with  the  original  potable  alcohol  is 
called  "denaturing."  Some  of  these  ma- 
terials and  the  methods  of  their  employ- 
ment are  discussed  on  page  15. 

The  Denatured  Alcohol  Law 

On  June  7,  1906,  an  act  of  Congress  was 
approved  which  provided  for  the  with- 
drawal from  bond,  tax  free,  of  domestic 
alcohol  when  rendered  unfit  for  use  as  a 
beverage  or  as  an  ingredient  of  medi- 
cines by  mixture  with  suitable  denatur- 
ing materials.  The  act  reads  in  part  as 
follows: 

Be  it  enacted  iy  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled.  That  from 
and  after  January  first,  nineteen  hundred 
and  seven,  domestic  alcohol  of  such  de- 
gree of  proof  as  may  be  prescribed  by 
the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue, 
and  approved  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  may  be  withdrawn  from  bond 
without  the  payment  of  internal-revenue 
tax,  for  use  in  the  arts  and  industries, 
and  for  fuel,  light,  and  power,  provided 
said  alcohol  shall  have  been  mixed  in  the 
presence  and  under  the  direction  of  an 
authorized  Government  officer,  after  with- 
drawal from  the  distillery  warehouse, 
with  methyl  alcohol  or  other  denaturing 
material  or  materials,  or  admixture  of 
the  same,  suitable  to  the  use  for  which 
the  alcohol  is  withdrawn  but  which  de- 
stroys its  character  as  a  beverage  and 
renders  it  unfit  for  liquid  medicinal  pur- 
poses; such  denaturing  to  be  done  upon 
the  application  of  any  registered  distill- 
ery   in     denaturing     bonded   warehouses 


14 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


specially  designated  or  set  apart  for  de- 
naturing purposes  only,  and  under  con- 
ditions prescribed  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Internal  Revenue  with  the  approval  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

The  character  and  quantity  of  the  said 
denaturing  material  and  the  conditions 
upon  which  said  alcohol  may  be  with- 
drawn free  of  tax  shall  be  prescribed  by 
the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue, 
who  shall,  with  the  approval  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury,  make  all  neces- 
sary regulations  for  carrying  into  effect 
the  provisions  of  this  act. 

Distillers,  manufacturers,  dealers,  and 
all  other  persons  furnishing,  handling,  or 
using  alcohol  withdrawn  from  bond  under 
the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  keep  such 
books  and  records,  execute  such  bonds 
and  render  such  returns  as  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Internal  Revenue,  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
may  by  regulation  require. 

Such  books  and  records  shall  be  open 
at  all  times  to  the  Inspection  of  any  in- 
ternal revenue  officer  or  agent. 

Sec.  2.  That  any  person  who  with- 
draws alcohol  free  of  tax  under  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act  and  regulations  made 
in  pursuance  thereof,  and  who  removes 
or  conceals  same,  or  is  concerned  in  re- 
moving, depositing,  or  concealing  same 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  same 
from  being  denatured  under  governmental 
supervision,  and  any  person  who  uses 
alcohol  withdrawn  from  bond  under  the 
provisions  of  section  one  of  this  act  for 
manufacturing  any  beverage  or  liquid 
medicinal  preparation,  or  knowingly  sells 
any  beverage  or  liquid  medicinal  prepara- 
tion made  in  whole  or  in  part  from  such 
alcohol,  or  knowingly  violates  any  of  the 
provisions  of  this  act,  or  who  shall  re- 
cover or  attempt  to  recover  by  redistilla- 
tion or  by  any  other  process  or  means, 
any  alcohol  rendered  unfit  for  beverage 
or  liquid  medicinal  purposes  under  the 
provisions  of  this  act,  or  who  knowingly 
uses,  sells,  conceals,  or  otherwise  disposes 
of  alcohol  so  recovered  or  redistilled, 
shall  on  conviction  of  each  offense  be 
fined  not  more  than  five  thousand  dollars, 
or  be  imprisoned  not  more  than  five 
years,  or  both,  and  shall,  in  addition, 
forfeit  to  the  United  States  all  personal 
propert.v  used  in  connection  with  his  busi- 
ness, together  with  the  buildings  and  lots 
or  parcels  of  ground  constituting  the 
premises  on  which  said  unlawful  acts  are 
performed  or  permitted  to  be  performed: 
Provided.  That  manufacturers  employing 
processes  in  which  alcohol,  used  free  of 
tax  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  is 
expressed  or  evaporated  from  the  articles 
manufactured,   shall    be    permitted    to   re- 


cover such  alcohol  and  to  have  such  al- 
cohol restored  to  a  condition  suitable 
solely  for  reuse  in  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses under  such  regulations  as  the 
Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  with 
the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  shall  prescribe.     *     *     * 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  law  provided 
only  for  denaturing  such  alcohol  as  had 
been  made  in  distilleries  subject  to  the 
full  regulations  of  the  Bureau  of  Inter- 
nal Revenue  (1)  and  deposited  in  the 
warehouses  of  such  distilleries.  Contrary 
to  general  expectation,  it  did  nothing  to- 
ward facilitating  manufacture  on  a  small 
scale  in  such  agricultural  distilleries  as 
are  operated  very  generally  in  Europe. 
However,  in  the  following  year  an  amend- 
atory act  was  passed  (approved  March  2, 
1907)  which  was  intended  in  part  to  rem- 
edy this  defect  in  the  original  law.  The 
text   of   this    amendment   is   as   follows: 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America  in  Congress  assembled.  That 
notwithstanding  anything  contained  in 
the  act  entitled  "An  act  for  the  with- 
drawal from  bond  tax  free  of  domestic 
alcohol  when  rendered  unfit  for  beverage 
or  liquid  medicinal  uses  by  mixture  with 
suitable  denaturing  materials,"  approved 
June  seventh,  nineteen  hundred  and  six. 
domestic  alcohol  when  suitably  denatured 
may  be  withdrawn  from  bond  without 
the  payment  of  internal  revenue  tax  and 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  ether  and 
chloroform  and  other  definite  chemical 
substances  where  said  alcohol  is  changed 
into  some  other  chemical  substance  and 
does  not  appear  in  the  finished  product  as 
alcohol:  Provided,  That  rum  of  not  less 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty  degrees  proof 
may  be  withdrawn,  for  denaturation  only, 
in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  said 
act  of  June  seventh,  nineteen  hundred 
and  six,  and  in  accordance  with  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act. 

Sec.  2.  That  the  Commissioner  of  In- 
ternal Revenue,  with  the  approval  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  may  authorize 
the  establishment  of  central  denaturing 
bonded  warehouses,  other  than  those  at 
distilleries,  to  which  alcohol  of  the  re- 
quired proof  may  be  transferred  from  dis- 
tilleries or  distillery  bonded  warehouses 
without  the  payment  of  internal  revenue 
tax.  and  in  which  such  alcohol  may  be 
stored  and  denatured.  The  establishment, 
operation,  and  custody  of  such  warehouses 


(1)  Regulations  and  instructions  concerning 
the  tax  on  distilled  spirits.  United  States  In- 
ternal Revenue.  Ko.  7.  revised. 


ALCOHOL 


15 


shall  be  under  such  regulations  and  upon 
the  execution  of  such  bonds  as  the  Com- 
missioner of  International  Revenue,  with 
the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  may  prescribe. 

Sec.  3.  That  alcohol  of  the  required 
proof  may  be  drawn  off,  for  denaturation 
only,  from  receiving  cisterns  in  the  cis- 
tern room  of  any  distillery  for  transfer 
by  pipes  direct  to  any  denaturing  bonded 
warehouse  on  the  distillery  premises  or  to 
closed  metal  storage  tanks  situated  in  the 
distillery  bonded  warehouse,  or  from  such 
storage  tanks  to  any  denaturing  bonded 
warehouse  on  the  distillery  premises,  and 
denatured  alcohol  may  also  be  transported 
from  the  denaturing  bonded  warehouse, 
in  such  manner  and  by  means  of  such 
packages,  tanks  or  tank  cars,  and  on  the 
execution  of  such  bonds,  and  under  such 
regulations  as  the  Commissioner  of  In- 
ternal Revenue,  with  the  approval  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  may  prescribe. 
And  further,  alcohol  to  be  denatured  may 
be  withdrawn  without  the  payment  of  in- 
ternal revenue  tax  from  the  distillery 
bonded  warehouse  for  shipment  to  cen- 
tral denaturing  plants  in  such  packages, 
tanks  and  tank  cars,  under  such  regula- 
tions, and  on  the  execution  of  such  bonds 
as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Internal  Revenue,  with  the  approval  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

Sec.  4.  That  at  distilleries  producing 
alcohol  from  any  substance  whatever,  for 
denaturation  only,  and  having  a  •  daily 
spirit-producing  capacity  of  not  exceed- 
ing one  hundred  proof  gallons,  the  use  of 
cisterns  or  tanks  of  such  size  and  con- 
struction as  may  be  deemed  expedient 
may  be  permitted  in  lieu  of  distillery 
bonded  warehouses,  and  the  production, 
storage,  the  manner  and  process  of  de- 
naturing on  the  distillery  premises  the 
alcohol  produced,  and  transportation  of 
such  alcohol,  and  the  operation  of  such 
distilleries  shall  be  upon  the  execution  of 
such  bonds  and  under  such  regulations 
as  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue, 
with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  may  prescribe,  and  such  dis- 
tilleries may  by  such  regulations  be  ex- 
empted from  such  provisions  of  the  exist- 
ing laws  relating  to  distilleries  as  may  be 
deemed  expedient  by  said  officials. 

The  amendment  in  effect  created  a  class 
of  distilleries  in  which  alcohol  may  be 
made  for  denaturation  only,  in  quantities 
not  exceeding  100  proof  gallons  daily. 
In  accordance  with  its  provisions,  revised 
regulations  were  issued  by  the  Bureau  of 
Internal  Revenue  on  July  7,  1907  (1) 
which  interpret  the  law  very  liberally,  re- 
lieving  such    small    distilleries    of   many 


restrictions  placed  upon  the  operation  of 
larger  establishments,  and  making  it  pos- 
sible to  produce  denatured  alcohol  on  a 
small  scale,  provided  that  the  economic 
conditions  prevailing  in  any  given  locality 
are  such  as  to  make  this  production  profit- 
able. Further  reference  to  the  substance 
of  these  regulations  is  made  on  page  28. 
(Government  control  of  small  denatured 
alcohol  distillery.) 

Denatnrants  and  Denaturing' 

In  order  to  insure  the  use  of  suitable 
materials  for  denaturing,  the  law  author- 
izes the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Reve- 
nue to  prescribe  the  character  of  the  de- 
naturing materials  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  shall  be  employed;  and  in 
accordance  with  this  provision  a  list  of 
denaturants  for  both  general  and  special 
purposes  has  been  issued,  giving  direc- 
tions for  their  use  and  tests  for  deter- 
mining their  quality  or  fitness  for  such 
use.  Among  the  substances  mentioned 
therein  are  the  following:  Wood  alco- 
hol, benzin,  pyridin  bases,  camphor,  cas- 
tor oil,  caustic  soda,  nicotine,  ether,  and 
acetone.  Indiscriminate  use  of  these  ma- 
terials is  not  allowed.  Most  of  them  are 
to  be  used  only  in  the  manufacture  of 
"specially  denatured  alcohol,"  the  sale  and 
use  of  v7hich  are  permitted  only  under 
special  restrictions.  In  making  "com- 
pletely denatured  alcohol,"  the  variety 
which  may  be  bought  freely  by  the  public 
at  druggists'  and  paint  shops,  only  wood 
alcohol,  benzin  and  pyridin  may  be  used. 
On  account  of  the  relatively  high  price 
of  the  pyridin  bases,  and  of  the  fact  that 
the  specifications  for  "approved  benzin" 
admit  the  use  of  an  Inexpensive  petro- 
leum distillate,  the  following  formula  is 
altogether  employed  at  present  in  making 
completely  denatui-ed  alcohol  in  the 
United   States: 

To  every  100  parts  by  volume  of  ethyl 
alcohol  of  the  desired  proof  (not  less  than 
180°)  there  shall  be  added  10  parts  by 
volume  of  approved  methyl  alcohol  and 
^2  of  1  part  of  approved  benzin. 

It  is  prescribed  in  the  internal  reve- 
nue regulations  that  every  industrial  dis- 
tillery of  the  class  herein  considered 
must  have  a  special  alcohol  room  with 
cisterns   for   storing   the   product   of   the 


16 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


distillery.  In  case  the  distiller  intends 
to  denature  this  product  on  the  distillery 
premises,  he  is  obliged  also  to  furnish 
this  room  with  the  following  apparatus: 
A  weighing  tank,  which  is  to  be  used 
for  gauging  alcohol  and  for  no  other  pur- 
pose; tanks  for  the  storage  of  approved 
denaturants;  sealed  measures,  for  use 
with  the  denaturants:  a  mixing  tank,  and, 
if  desired,  tanks  for  the  storage  of  de- 
natured alcohol.  The  labor  required  in 
denaturing  is  furnished  by  the  distiller 
and  his  employees,  but  is  carried  on  un- 
der the  supervision  of  a  United  States 
ganger  assigned  for  this  purpose  and  in 
his  presence. 

Materials  Which  May  Serve  As  Sources 

of  Alcohol 

General  Considerations 

The  first  essential  in  the  character  of 
a  material  which  is  to  serve  as  a  source 
of  alcohol  is  that  it  shall  contain  either 
fermentable  sugar  or  some  component 
which  can  be  transformed  readily  into  a 
fermentable  sugar.  This  is  absolutely 
necessary,  as  without  sugar  no  alcohol 
can  be  produced.  A  second  essential  is 
that  the  proportion  of  sugar,  or  its  equiv- 
alent, in  the  proposed  raw  material,  shall 
be  sufficient  to  pay  for  handling  the  latter. 
This  is  very  important,  for  there  are 
many  saccharine  materials,  such  as  to- 
matoes and  unripe  watermelons,  the  juices 
of  which  contain  so  small  a  percentage 
of  sugar  that  all  the  alcohol  obtained 
would  be  insufficient  to  pay  for  the  mere 
cost  of  handling.  A  third  requisite  is 
that  there  shall  be  an  abundant,  concen- 
trated, and  stable  supply  of  the  mate- 
rial. Abundance  is  an  essential,  because 
even  a  small  distillery  will  use  a  large 
amount  of  material  daily.  Thus,  a  plant 
having  an  approximate  daily  capacity  of 
100  gallons,  or  two  barrels  of  denatured 
alcohol,  will  consume  the  following 
amounts  of  raw  material:  Two  hundred 
gallons  of  rich  molasses;  or  one  ton  of 
shelled  corn;  or  four  tons  of  potatoes, 
containing  about  15  per  cent  of  starch: 
or  seven  to  eight  tons  of  sweet  apples, 
containing  about  12  per  cent  of  sugar. 
A  concentrated  supply  of  material  is  nec- 
essary for  if  it  be  scattered  over  a  wide 
area  and  must  be  gathered  by  hand,  the 


cost  for  labor  becomes  prohibitive.  The 
supply  must  be  constant,  for  it  does  not 
pay  to  build  a  factory  that  can  be  run 
only  at  intervals.  For  example,  ripe 
peaches  would  undoubtedly  be  worth  dis- 
tilling in  localities  where  they  are  grown 
abundantl.v  and  where  there  are  surplus 
crop's,  if  it  were  not  for  the  fact  that 
there  may  not  be  a  surplus  more  than 
two  years  out  of  five,  and  that  the  crop 
would  have  to  be  worked  up  within  the 
short  space  of  two  or  three  weeks  to  keep 
it  from  spoiling.  No  distillery  could  earn 
the  interest  on  its  investment  running 
two    months    out   of   five   years. 

In  addition  to  the  points  enumerated, 
other  considerations  present  themselves: 
Whether  the  material  in  question  will 
stand  transportation  and  storage;  whether 
it  can  be  worked  with  appliances  which 
are  to  be  obtained  readily  in  this  coun- 
try; whether  it  can  be  handled  by  the 
machinery  which  is  adapted  to  the  bulk 
of  the  available  material  in  any  given  re- 
gion, or  must  have  special  machinery  in- 
stalled to  fit  it  for  fermentation, 
whether  it  possibly  may  yield  a  greater 
profit  if  used  for  some  other  purpose  than 
distilling,   and   so  on. 

Chemical   Composition   of  Fermentable 
Materials 

Knowledge  of  the  chemical  composition 
of  a  proposed  raw  material  is  always  es- 
sential in  determining  its  availability 
as  a  source  of  alcohol.  The  proportion  of 
sugar  or  other  fermentable  substance 
which  may  be  present  has  been  men- 
tioned already  as  being  of  prime  impor- 
tance. In  addition  thereto  the  percen- 
tages of  water,  ash,  crude  fiber,  and  ni- 
trogenous compounds  or  proteids  will  al- 
ways be  of  interest  since  the  proportions 
of  these  components  will  determine  the 
manner  in  which  a  material  must  be 
worked.  The  fat  percentage  has  little  in- 
terest for  a  distiller,  save  perhaps  as  it 
may  affect  the  feeding  value  of  the  dis- 
tillery refuse;  but  it  will  be  stated  when- 
ever possible,  for  the  sake  of  complete- 
ness, in  such  analyses  as  are  given.  It 
may  be  said  in  this  connection  that  the 
five  components  just  mentioned — water, 
ash,  fiber,  proteids,  and  fat — are  always 
determined  and  reported  as  such,  but.  un- 


ALCOHOL 


17 


fortunately,  the  fermentable  substances 
— sugar,  starch,  etc.^ — are  often  not  deter- 
mined individually,  but  are  combined 
and  reported  as  "nitrogen-free  extract,"  the 
percentage  of  which  is  obtained  by  sub- 
tracting the  sum  of  the  other  components 
from  100.  The  value  thus  obtained  for 
"extract"  will  of  course  include  not  only 
the  sugar  and  starch,  but  also  the  un- 
fermentable  pentosans  and  the  sum  of 
the  errors  made  in  determining  the  per- 
centages of  the  first  five  components.  For 
these  reasons  the  fermentable  material 
actually  present  may  be  lower  than  the 
figures  for  nitrogen-free  extract  or  car- 
bohydrates would  indicate,  as  from  5  to 
10  per  cent  of  this  extract  may  be  un- 
fermentable.  Whenever  possible,  repre- 
sentative analyses  have  been  used  show- 
ing the  amount  of  starch,  sugar,  and  un- 
fermentable  pentosans  as  individually  de- 
termined and  not  as  found  by  subtrac- 
tion. 

Saccharine  Materials 

Agave — Different  species  of  this  plant 
are  used  in  the  Southwest  in  the  prep- 
aration of  several  varieties  of  distilled 
alcoholic  liquors,  and  at  least  one  dis- 
tillery has  been  erected  in  the  hope  of 
utilizing  them  as  a  source  of  industrial 
alcohol.  It  is  known  that  the  juice  of 
these  plants  contains  large  amounts  of 
sugar  at  times,  and  there  is  every  rea- 
son to  believe  that,  with  proper  technical 
direction,  they  can  be  used  profitabl.v  for 
indu-strial  purposes.* 

Fruits — The   average   amount   of   sugar 

contained   in  some  of  the  common  fruits 

is   shown   in   the   following  tabulation: 

Average  por- 

centaee  of 

total  sugars. 

oalcnlatpd  as 

dextrose. 

Apple  12.2 

Banana   13.8 

Grape    15.0 

Orange    5.4 

Peach     7.6 

Pear  10.0 

Pineapple   11.7 

Prickly  pear  4.2 

Tomato    2.0 

Watermelon   2.5 

•  A  sample  of  one  of  these  plants,  sotol 
iDasj/Urion  tcxaiium  t .  was  analyzed  in  the  Bu- 
reau of  Chemistry  and  found  to  yield  16  per 
cent  of  levulose. 


It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that 
it  is  practicable  to  obtain  all  of  the  su- 
gar in  these  fruits  in  a  form  suitable  for 
fermentation.  It  would  be  necessary,  in 
preparing  any  of  them  for  distillation  in 
a  column  still,  to  express  the  juice  from 
the  marc,  since  the  latter,  if  allowed  to 
enter  the  still  would  impede  its  working, 
and  obviously  a  certain  proportion  of 
the  juice  and  of  the  sugar  will  remain  in 
the   marc. 

Thus  it  is  estimated  that  it  would  be 
impossible,  in  working  with  apples,  to  ob- 
tain more  than  75  per  cent  of  the  total 
fermentable  material,  or  about  9  per  cent 
of  the  the  weight  of  apples  delivered.  On 
this  basis,  a  ton  of  average  apples  should 
yield  about  14  gallons  of  alcohol.  Esti- 
mating the  cost  of  gathering  culls  and 
windfalls,  and  of  delivering  them  at  the 
mill,  to  be  $4  per  ton,  a  figure  based  on 
actual  experience,  the  raw-material  ex- 
pense for  a  gallon  of  alcohol  will  be  at 
least  28  cents. 

In  the  case  of  grapes,  assuming  that 
approximately  80  pounds  of  juice  may  be 
expressed  from  100  pounds  of  Concords, 
and  that  this  juice  contains  18  per  cent 
of  total  sugars,  a  ton  of  fruit  should  yield 
between  21  and  22  gallons  of  alcohol.  If 
the  expense  of  picking  and  hauling  grapes 
to  the  distillery  is  placed  at  $6  or  $7  a 
ton,  a  figure  obtained  from  a  grape-grow- 
ing district  in  California — the  cost  of  raw 
material  for  a  gallon  of  alcohol  will  be 
30  cents. 

In  the  case  of  watermelon,  if  a  90  per 
cent  extraction  of  juice  containing  2.5 
per  cent  of  sugars  is  obtained,  a  ton  of 
melons  will  yield  about  three  and  one- 
half  gallons  of  alcohol.  If  the  cost  of 
gathering  and  hauling  the  fruit  is  set  at 
$2  per  ton,  the  raw-material  cost  will 
be  not  less  than  50  cents  per  gallon  of 
alcohol. 

In  these  three  specific  cases,  it  has 
been  assumed  that  the  fruit  itself  was 
valueless  on  the  spot  where  grown,  and 
that  it  could  be  delivered  at  the  distillery 
for  the  mere  cost  of  gathering  and  haul- 
ing. Even  on  that  basis,  it  would  be 
too  costly  to  use  as  raw  material  in  mak- 
ing industrial  alcohol.    The  fact  that  fruit 


18 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


is  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  wines  and  brandies,  lias  no  bearing  on 
the  present  discussion  for  the  reason 
that  the  value  of  potable  liquors  bears 
but  little  relation  to  the  amounts  of  al- 
cohol which  they  contain,  but  is  governed' 
almost  entirely  by  the  qualities  of  their 
flavors  and   aromas. 

Molasses — Beet  molasses,  a  refuse  from 
the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar,  is  used  on 
a  very  large  scale  abroad,  and  in  several 
distilleries  in  the  country,  as  a  raw  ma- 
terial for  alcohol  production.  Usually,  it 
contains  about  50  per  cent  of  sugar,  and 
it  generally  needs  only  to  be  diluted  and 
acidified  to  prepare  it  for  fermentation. 
Sometimes  a  lot  will  not  ferment  readily, 
but  generally  it  is  worked  without  any 
difficulty.  A  ton  should  yield  from  7.5  to 
80  gallons  of  alcohol.  At  $15  per  ton,  the 
raw  material  for  a  gallon  of  alcohol  will 
cost  19  or  20  cents. 

Cane  molasses  contains  usually  about 
25  per  cent  of  water,  20  per  cent  of  non- 
saccharine  solids,  and  55  per  cent  of  su- 
gars. The  following  figures  show  the 
composition  of  two  samples  of  typical  dis- 
tillery molasses  of  different  origins,  one 
being  a  Louisiana  blackstrap  and  the 
other  a  Porto   Rican   molasses. 

Analyses   of   Two   Typical   Kinds   of 
Molasses 

rnrto 
Determination  Louisiana    Rican 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Water  23.5         24.3 

Sucrose    26. G         35.8 

Reducing    sugars    29.1         18.3 

Nonsugars  20.8         21.6 

Total  100.0       100.0 

Almost  invariably  cane  molasses  needs 
only  to  be  diluted  and  yeasted  to  enter 
Into  vigorous  fermentation.  It  is  com- 
mon, however,  for  molasses  distillers  to 
add  a  certain  amount  of  acid  to  the  fer- 
menting solutions  to  prevent  bacteria 
from  invading  them  and  setting  up  false 
fermentations.  In  some  cases  sulphuric 
acid  is  used  for  this  purpose,  as  in  the 
beet  molasses  distilleries,  but  it  is 
equally  common,  and  probably  wiser,  to 
use  sour  distillery  slop  to  produce  the 
desired  acidity.  A  ton  of  molasses,  hav- 
ing   the    composition    of    the    Louisiana 


sample  given  in  the  table,  will  have  a 
volume  of  about  173  gallons  and  yield  ap- 
proximately 85  gallons  of  alcohol.  At 
three  cents  per  gallon,  for  which  such 
molasses  could  be  bought  only  a  few  years 
ago.  the  cost  of  the  material  for  a  gallon 
of  alcohol  would  be  little  over  six  cents. 
The  increasing  utilization  of  molasses  as 
a  feeding  stuff  has  advanced  its  price  to 
from  6  to  10  cents,  but  at  some  planta- 
tions it  is  probably  still  cheap  enough 
to  retain  its  old  position  as  a  most  ad- 
vantageous raw  material  for  the  distiller. 

Sorghum — A  large  number  of  analyses 
made  in  the  Bureau  oi  Chemistry*  indi- 
cates that  the  juice  of  saccharine  sorg- 
hum has  the  following  average  composi- 
tion: 

Per  cent. 

Water    81.4 

Sucrose  12.7 

Reducing  sugars  1.1 

Undetermined   solid   matters 4.8 

Total    100.0 

With  a  light  horse-driven  mill,  about 
60  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  topped 
and  cleaned  cane  can  be  obtained  in  the 
form  of  juice.  With  a  heavy  mill,  such 
as  is  used  in  cane-sugar  manufacture, 
an  extraction  of  at  least  75  per  cent 
should  be  obtained.  An  extraction  cor- 
responding to  65  per  cent  of  the  weight 
of  the  cleaned  stalks  may,  therefore,  be 
considered  a  fair  average.  On  this  basis 
a  yield  of  about  14  gallons  of  180-degree 
alcohol  per  ton  of  cleaned  stocks  would 
be  obtained.  If  the  latter  could  be  de- 
livered at  the  distillery  at  a  cost  of 
$3  per  ton,  the  material  for  a  gallon  of 
alcohol  would  represent  a  value  of  about 
21  cents.  A  relatively  slight  improve- 
ment in  the  quality  of  the  juice  and  in 
the  extraction  would  lower  the  cost  of 
material  per  unit  of  production  very  much. 
Thus,  1,000  pounds  of  the  juice  of  the 
Colman  sorghum,  containing  14.42  per 
cent  of  sucrose  and  1.10  per  cent  of  re- 
ducing sugars,  should  yield  about  12% 
gallons  of  180-degree  alcohol.  The  yields 
of  alcohol  to  be  expected  from  a  ton  of 
cleaned   Colman   stalks,   and   the   cost   of 

*  X\  R.  Denartment  Agriculture.  Division  of 
riiemlstry.   Bulletin    n4,    pp.    2.'?   ct   seQ. 


ALCOHOL 


19 


material  per  gallon  of  spirit,  are  shown 
in  the  following  tabulation  for  different 
degrees   of   juice    extraction. 

Yields  of  .\lcoliol  From  Sorghum  Stalks 

With  Varying  Degrees  of  Juice 

Extraction 


Proportion  of 

juice  extracted 

from  stalks 

Yield  of  180° 
alcohol  per  ton 
of  cleaned  stalks 

Cost  of 
material 
per  gallon 

Per  Cent 

65 

70 

75 

Gallons 
15.92 
17.15 
18.35 

Cents 
18.85 
17.50 
16.35 

Since  the  gums  and  slimy  bodies  con- 
tained in  sorghum  juice  do  not  interfere 
in  the  least  with  its  fermentation,  and 
the  plant  can  be  grown  readily  over  a 
very  wide  range  of  territory,  it  is  plain 
that  the  material  deserves  favorable  con- 
sideration in  connection  with  the  manu- 
facture of  alcohol,  and  that  it  is  likely 
to  be  utilized  in  the  future  in  this  way. 

Sugar  Beets — The  following  figures  rel- 
ative to  the  composition  of  the  sugar  beet 
may  be  considered  as  a  representative 
analyses:    (11 

Per  cent. 

Water    81,51 

Ash    62 

Protein    1.72 

Fiber  1,35 

Fat  07 

Carbohydrates  14.73 

Total    100,00 

The  records  of  several  experimental 
fields  cultivated  at  the  agricultural  ex- 
periment stations  in  California,  Colorado, 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin  show  sugar  per- 
centages running  from  13  to  16,  Fourteen 
per  cent  will  probably  be  a  fair  commer- 
cial average  for  the  content  of  ferment- 
able material  in  sugar  beets  as  grown  at 
present. 

In  France,  where  the  beet  has  been 
used  extensively  as  a  source  of  alcohol, 
it  has  been  found  necessary  to  extract 
the  juice  for  fermentation,  using  one  of 
the  extraction  methods  employed  in  the 
sugar  factories.  The  pulp,  while  it  offers 
no  obstacle  to  fermentation,  forms  a  jelly 
on  heating  which  interferes  seriously  with 

(1)  Twelfth  Annual  Report  Indiana  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station,  1899,  p,  71, 


distillation.  Data  obtained  from  the  re- 
sults of  actual  distillery  yields  show  that 
for  every  100  pounds  of  sugar  contained 
in  the  beets  entering  the  French  dis- 
tilleries, seven  and  one-tenth  gallons  of 
absolute  alcohol  were  produced,  equiva- 
lent to  eight  gallons  at  180-degree  proof, 
which  is  the  minimum  strength  used  in 
this  country  for  denaturing  purposes. 

With  beets  at  $4,75  to  $5  per  ton,  the 
price  commonly  paid  by  sugar  factories 
in  this  country,  and  a  sugar  content  of 
14  per  cent,  the  raw  material  needed  to 
produce  a  gallon  of  180-degree  alcohol 
would  represent  a  value  of  22  cents.  Un- 
der present  conditions  this  probably  would 
be  a  prohibitive  price,  but  the  time  may 
come  when  beets  will  be  used  as  a  source 
of  alcohol  in  the  United  States  as  they 
are  in  Europe. 

Siifiar  Cane — Spencer  gives  the  follow- 
ing figures  as  the  average  of  about  40 
cane-juice  analyses  made  at  the  Mag- 
nolia Plantation,  Louisiana: 

Per   rent. 

Water    83.6 

Sucrose   14,1 

Reducing  sugars  6 

Undetermined  solids  1,7 

Total    100,0 

On  the  presumption  that  72  per  cent  of 
the  total  weight  of  the  sugar  cane  can  be 
obtained  by  two  pressings,  as  juice  of 
this  composition,  a  ton  of  cane  should 
yield  16,7  gallons  of  alcohol.  If  cane  is 
worth  from  |3  to  $3,25  at  the  factory, 
this  would  make  the  cost  of  the  raw 
material  for  the  alcohol  about  19  cents 
per  gallon. 

Sugar-corn  Cannery  Wastes — The  stalks 
of  the  sugar  corn  contain  quite  large 
amounts  of  sugar  analyses  made  in  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry  having  disclosed  its 
presence  in  proportions  varying  between 
7  and  15  per  cent.  Investigations  con- 
ducted at  a  corn  cannery  in  Illinois,  in 
1906,  showed  that  the  waste  stalks 
amounted  to  about  40  per  cent  of  the  total 
weight  of  corn  brought  to  the  factory,  and 
that  it  was  possible  to  produce  from  them 
from  6  to  10  per  cent  of  alcohol,  with  a 
safe  average  of  8  per  cent.  On  this  basis 
about  11  gallons  of  alcohol  should  be  re- 


20 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


covered  for  every  Ion  of  corn  delivered 
to  the  cannery.  Unfortunately,  the  sea- 
son during  which  these  stalks  are  suit- 
able for  utilization  in  the  manufacture 
of  alcohol  is  very  limited,  and  probably 
it  would  not  pay  to  put  up  a  distillery 
to  handle  them,  unless  other  cheap  ma- 
terials were  available  for  use  during  the 
rest  of  the  year. 

Starchy  Materials 

Certain  materials  contain  an  essential 
part  of  their  fermentable  material  in  the 
form  of  starch,  even  though  some  of  them, 
like  artichokes  and  sweet  potatoes,  also 
contain  notable  amounts  of  sugar.  They 
differ  from  the  saccharine  materials,  in 
requiring  to  be  "mashed"  before  they  can 
be  fermented.  This  operation  is  discussed 
in  detail  below. 

Grains 

Barley — The  average  composition  of 
ordinary  six-row  barley  is  approximately 
as  follows: 

Per  cent. 

Water    8.7 

Ash    3.0 

Protein     11.9 

Fiber   5.8 

Fat  2.0 

Starch   58.9 

Pentosans  9.6 

Total    99.9 

On  account  of  its  expensiveness,  barley 
is  never  used  by  itself  as  a  source  of  in- 
dustrial alcohol.  It  is,  however,  used  in 
large  quantities  in  making  malt,  which 
operation  is  described  on  page  25.  The 
composition  of  a  typical  malt  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

Per  rent. 

Water    5.9 

Ash  2.7 

Protein    11.5 

Fiber   6.0 

Fat  2.1 

Starch   48. •* 

Sugars  12.2 

Pentosans  10.6 

Total    99.4 

It  is  customary  to  use  about  eight 
pounds  of  malt  to  saccharify  100  pounds 
of  raw  grain.  Two  pounds  will  be  suf- 
ficient for  mashing  100  pounds  of  po- 
tatoes. 


Maize  (Indian  Corn) — The  following 
figures  represent  the  average  of  a  large 
number  of  analyses  taken  mostly  from 
the  work  of  the  Illinois  experiment  sta- 
tion: 

Per  cent. 

Water    10.0 

Ash    1.5 

Protein    10.4 

Fiber   1.9 

Fat  5.2 

Pentosans  5.0 

Sugars  2.0 

Starch    64.0 

Total    100.0 

A  lot  of  distiller's  corn  (yellow  dent) 
used  in  the  experimental  distillery  of  this 
department,  and  analyzed  in  the  Bureau 
of  Chemistry,  was  found  to  contain  72.8 
per  cent  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  includ- 
ing 57.9  per  cent  of  starch  and  2.3  per 
cent  of  sugars,  in  addition  to  pentosans, 
gums,  etc. 

The  method  of  working  this  and  other 
grains  is  described  on  pages  23  to  27. 
One  ton  of  grain,  made  up  of  1,850  pounds 
of  maize  and  150  pounds  of  malt  of  the 
compositions  given  above,  should  yield 
100  gallons  of  180-degree  alcohol.  At  50 
cents  a  bushel  for  corn  and  65  cents  a 
bushel  for  the  barley  necessary  to 
make  the  malt,  the  ton  of  grain  will 
cost  about  $19,  and  the  cost  of  raw  grain 
per  gallon  of  alcohol,  will  be  19  cents. 

Maize  is,  and  always  has  been,  the 
chief  source  of  industrial  alcohol  in  this 
country.  The  ease  with  which  it  is  raised, 
its  ability  to  stand  transportation  and 
storage,  and  its  low  price  in  past  years, 
have  combined  to  give  it  a  ])reeminence 
as  a  distiller's  raw  material,  which  it  un- 
doubtedly will   retain  for  many   years. 

Oats — This  grain,  which  contains  about 
50  per  cent  of  fermentable  material  and 
which  might  with  care  be  made  to  yield 
about  70  gallons  of  alcohol  per  ton,  is  un- 
suited  to  distillery  use  on  account  of  its 
greater  value  as  a  feeding  stuff,  and  the 
glutinous  nature  of  the  mixture  which  is 
formed  when  it  is  treated  with  hot  water. 

Rye — A  lot  of  this  grain  used  in  the 
experimental  distillery  had  the  following 
composition : 


ALCOHOL 


21 


Per  cent. 

Water    9.4 

Ash  2.1 

Protein    10.7 

Fiber  1.9 

Fat  1.9 

Starch   53.7 

Sugars  5!6 

Pentosans,  gums,  etc 14.7 

Total    100.0 

This  material  Is  used  very  largely  in 
distilleries  which  produce  compressed 
yeast  or  rye  whisky,  and  it  sometimes  is 
employed  in  small  amounts  in  the  yeast 
mashes  of  alcohol  distilleries,  but  it  is  not 
suitable  for  use  as  the  chief  ingredient  of 
the  mash  in  an  alcohol  distillery  on  ac- 
count of  its  expensiveness  and  though 
containing  about  60  per  cent  of  ferment- 
able matter  it  rarely  yields  over  85  gal- 
lons of  alcohol  to  the  ton. 

Sorghum  seed — This  grain,  regardins? 
which  many  inquiries  are  made,  has  the 
following  average  composition,  closely  re- 
sembling that  of  maize: 

Comparison  of  Sorghum  Seed  and 
Eaflr  Corn 

Sorghum  Kafir 

Determination  Seed  Corn 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Water  S.3  12.5 

Ash 1.8  1.3 

Protein 13.3  10.9 

Fiber  1.5  1.9 

Fat 3.0  2.9 

Pentosans    4.3  

Sugars    1.5  

Nitrogen-free  extract 66.3  70.5 

Total 100.0       100.0 

Undoubtedly  sorghum  seed  could  he 
worked  in  the  distillery  as  corn  is  an.:l 
probably  would  require  less  cooking  and 
give  fully  as  good  a  yield,  though  its 
use  for  this  purpose  has  never  been 
tested  as  far  as  the  writer  knows. 

Wheat — What  has  been  said  regarding 
the  yield  of  alcohol  to  be  obtained  from 
rye  applies  in  a  general  way  to  wheat  also. 
Although  wheat  contains  nearly  65  per 
cent  of  starch  and  sugars,  it  is  too  ex- 
pensive to  be  used  for  alcohol  production 
unless  frozen  or  for  other  reason  unavail- 
able for  food  purposes. 


Per  cent. 
Water io.5 

Ash  1.9 

Protein    11.5 

Fat  2.0 

Fiber   2.3 

Sugars  2.8 

Pentosans  7.0 

Starch,  etc 62.0 

Total    100.0 

Roots 

Artichoke — The  tuber  of  the  Jerusalem 
artichoke  has  the  following  average  com- 
position:* 

Per  cent. 
Water 79.0 

Ash  1.0 

Protein  I.3 

Fiber   g 

Fat  2 

Pentosans  1.2 

Nitrogen-free  extract 16.5 

Total  100.0 

It  is  seen  that  artichokes  contain  from 
16  to  18  per  cent  of  fermentable  matter 
in  the  form  of  levulose  and  inulin,  and  as 
the  latter  may  be  converted  into  the 
former  without  the  use  of  malt,  by  merely 
boiling  under  pressure,  it  can  be  worked 
very  cheaply.  When  17  per  cent  of  fer- 
mentable substance  is  present,  a  ton 
should  yield  about  25  gallons  of  alcohol; 
and  as  it  can  be  raised  and  delivered  for 
about  $5  per  ton  the  raw  material  for  a 
gallon  would  cost  about  20  cents.  The 
tuber  has  remarkably  good  keeping  qual- 
ities and  deserves  far  more  attention  than 
it  has  yet  received  as  a  distiller's  ma- 
terial. 

Cassava — The  root  of  the  sweet  cassava 
has  the  following  average  composition: 

Per  cent. 

Water    65.0 

Ash  .7 

Protein 9 

Fiber   1.7 

Fat  3 

Starch 25.4 

Nitrogen-free  extract  6.0 

Total    100.0 

It  is  fair  to  assume  that  about  80  per 
cent  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  root,  or 
about  28   per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the 

•  1  Behrend,  J.   Landw..  1904.  52  :127. 


22 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


root  itself,  is  fermentable.  On  this  as- 
sumption a  ton  of  roots  should  produce 
about  42  gallons  of  alcohol.  At  $5  per  ton, 
which  would  be  a  fair  price  with  modern 
methods  of  cultivation,  the  raw  material 
would  cost  about  12  or  13  cents  per  gal- 
lon of  alcohol.  That  technical  difficulties 
might  arise  in  handling  it  is  very  pos- 
sible, but  the  analytical  data  and  cost  af- 
ford every  reason  for  testing  the  value  as 
a  source  of  alcohol. 

Potatoes — Following  is  the  average  com- 
position of  Maine  potatoes,  as  determined 
a  few  years  ago  in  the  Bureau  of  Chem- 
istry: 

Per  cent. 

Water    77.0 

Ash    9 

Protein    2.2 

Fiber   7 

Fat  1 

Starch  18.3 

Sugars,  etc.,  by  difference 8 

Total    ^ 100.0 

Samples  analyzed  more  recently  in  con- 
nection with  the  work  of  the  experimental 
distillery  were  found  to  contain  about  15 
per  cent  of  starch  and  0.4  per  cent  of 
sugars.  Liquid  wastes  from  starch  fac- 
tories in  Maine  were  also  examined,  but 
did  not  contain  sufficient  fermentable  ma- 
terial to  be  of  value  for  alcohol  produc- 
tion. 

The  method  of  working  potatoes  is  dis- 
cussed at  length  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  410. 
For  every  per  cent  of  starch  contained 
in  potatoes  they  should  yield  about  1.6  gal- 
lons of  alcohol  per  ton.  If  the  tubers  con- 
tain 16  per  cent  of  starch,  a  ton  should 
yield  over  25  gallons  of  alcohol:  and  if 
they  can  be  delivered  at  the  distillery  for 
$5  per  ton,  a  fair  price  for  culls  in  potato- 
growing  regions,  the  raw  material  for  a 
gallon  of  alcohol  will  cost  about  20  cents. 

In  Germany  the  potato  is  almost  the 
only  material  used  as  a  source  of  indus- 
trial alcohol,  not  only  because  it  offers  a 
cheap  raw  material,  but  because  it  is 
highly  advantageous  from  an  agricultural 
point  of  view.  It  undoubtedly  will  be 
similarly  utilized  in  this  country  in  the 
future. 


Sweet  potatoes — The  following  average 
data  are  based  on  work  done  at  the  South 
Carolina  station  (1)  and  may  be  consid- 
ered as  representing  sweet  potatoes  of 
good  quality: 

Per  cent. 

Water    66.0 

Ash    1.0 

Protein    1.5 

Fiber   1.3 

Fat  5 

Sugars  5.5 

Starch   21.8 

Undetermined    material    2.4 

Total    100.0 

These  roots  are  seen  to  contain  about 
27  per  cent  of  fermentable  substances,  of 
which  approximately  one-fifth  is  sugars. 
In  storage  there  is  a  decrease  in  the  starch 
percentage  and  a  corresponding  increase 
in  that  of  sugar. 

Preliminary  experiments  conducted  at 
the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  indicate  that  the 
sweet  potato  can  be  mashed  in  about  the 
same  way  as  the  common  potato.  Un- 
doubtedly there  will  be  some  slight  de- 
struction of  sugar  on  heating  under  pres- 
sure, but  it  ought  not  be  such  as  to  cause 
a  serious  loss.  It  does  not  appear  that 
the  somewhat  fibrous  character  of  the 
root  interferes  with  steaming  it  in  an 
apparatus  built  for  potatoes. 

A  ton  of  sweet  potatoes,  containing 
about  27  per  cent  of  fermentable  sub- 
stances and  costing  $8,  should  yield  ap- 
proximately 38  gallons  of  alcohol  at  a 
cost  of  about  21  cents  a  gallon  for  raw 
material. 

Mannfactiire  of  Alcohol 
Historical  Note 

Although  there  are  processes  by  which 
alcohol  may  be  made  synthetically  in  the 
laboratory,  they  are  too  complicated  and 
expensive  to  have  any  practical  manu- 
facturing value.  Therefore  the  method 
which  has  been  used  for  many  centuries, 
namely,  the  distillation  of  fermented- 
sugar  solutions,  is  still  employed  in  al- 
cohol production.  This  manufacturing 
process  is  very  ancient,  having  been  used 
probably  as  early  as  800  B.  C.  It  seems 
for  many  centuries  to  have  been  employed 

(1)  South  Carolina  Bulletin  136.  1908,  p.  11. 


ALCOHOL 


23 


only  in  preparing  spirituous  beverages  of 
somewhat  higher  alcoholic  strength  than 
coulfl  be  obtained  by  fermentation  alone. 
The  first  stills  were  very  crude  and  sim- 
ple in  design,  and  were  incapable  of  pro- 
ducing distillates  of  great  strength  from 
the  wine  which  invariably  was  used  as 
the  material  for  distillation.  It  was  in- 
deed found  by  the  early  chemists  that  if 
the  first  weak  distillate  was  subjected  to 
a  second  and  third  distillation  its  alco- 
holic strength  could  be  raised  (though  at 
the  expense  of  a  material  diminution  in 
its  volume)  to  such  an  extent  that  it 
would  burn,  but  the  expensiveness  of  the 
product  thus  obtained  was  too  great  to 
allow  its  use  for  any  industrial  purposes. 
At  present  wine  and  other  fermented 
fruit  juices  are  distilled  only  for  the 
production  of  potable  spirits:  and  indus- 
trial alcohol  is  made  altogether  by  the 
distillation  of  fermented  saccharine  solu- 
tions which  are  prepared  either  directly 
from  raw  materials  containing  sugar,  such 
as  molasses,  or  from  starchy  materials 
like  potatoes  or  the  cereal  grains,  after  a 
preliminary  treatment  which  converts 
their  starch  into  sugar. 

Theory  of  Alcoholic  Fermentation 

The  process  of  alcoholic  fermentation 
is  established  whenever  yeast  is  allowed 
to  act  on  sugar  solutions  of  moderate 
strength  at  temperatures  between  50  de- 
grees and  90  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Theo- 
retically the  process  consists  of  a  simple 
splitting  up  of  sugar  into  alcohol  and 
carbonic  acid  gas,  any  given  amount  of 
sugar  yielding  proportionate  and  perfectly 
definite  amounts  of  these  two  products  of 
its  decomposition.  This  is  illustrated  in 
the  following  example: 

The  chemical  composition  of  dextrose, 
which  is  the  form  of  sugar  occurring  in 
most  ripe  fruits,  is  represented  by  the 
formula  CrH,-Ot,  which  signifies  that  one 
molecule  or  unit  of  the  compound  sub- 
stance dextrose  is  made  up  of  six  atoms 
or  units  of  the  element  carbon,  12  of 
the  element  hydrogen,  and  six  of  the  ele- 
ment oxygen.  When  fermentation  takes 
place,  the  molecule  of  dextrose  breaks  up 
substantially  as  is  indicated  by  the  fol- 
lowing equation: 


C,H^O,  =  2  C,H,OH  +  2  CO.. 

This  signifies  that  after  fermentation 
is  over  the  dextrose  will  have  disappeared 
and  in  its  place  will  be  found  an  amount 
of  alcohol  containing  all  the  hydrogen, 
two-thirds  of  the  carbon,  and  one-third 
of  the  oxygen  of  the  sugar,  and  an  amount 
of  carbon  dioxid  containing  one-third  of 
its  carbon  and  two-thirds  of  its  oxygen. 
Theoretically  the  total  weights  of  the  al- 
cohol and  carbon  dioxid  which  are  pro- 
duced in  the  fermentation  should  equal 
exactly  the  weight  of  dextrose  which  is 
decomposed,  and  100  pounds  of  the  sugar 
should  yield  51.11  pounds  of  alcohol  and 
48.89  pounds  of  carbon  dioxid. 

In  practice,  however,  the  decomposition 
is  never  complete,  nor  is  it  ever  so  simple 
as  is  indicated  by  the  foregoing  equation. 
Only  in  carefully  conducted  laboratory 
work  is  it  ever  possible  to  ferment  any 
sugar  completely;  and  even  then,  as  a  re- 
sult of  life  processes  of  the  yeast  which 
are  not  yet  understood  by  chemists  or 
biologists,  small  and  varying  proportions 
of  sugar  escape  transformation  into  al- 
cohol, and  are  converted  instead  into 
other  substances.  According  to  the  inves- 
tigations of  Pasteur,  100  pounds  of  dex- 
trose, instead  of  yielding  the  theoretical 
weights  of  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  in- 
dicated by  the  equation,  will  produce  in 
laboratory  practice  the  following  amounts 
of  fermentation  products: 

Pounds. 

Alcohol    48.55 

Carbon  dioxid  46.74 

Glycerin    3.23 

Organic  acids   62 

Miscellaneous    1.23 

Total     : .:  100.37 

The  fact  that  the  total  weight  of  the 
fermentation  products  exceeds  slightly  the 
weight  of  sugar  fermented  is  explained 
on  the  ground  that  the  formation  of  cer- 
tain of  the  by-products  is  accompanied  by 
the  absorption  and  fixation  of  slight 
amounts  of  water. 

In  manufacturing  work,  such  complete- 
ness of  fermentation  may  be  taken  as  an 
ideal  toward  which  one  is  to  strive.  Ac- 
cording to  the  skill  of  the  distiller,  the 
character    of   his    mechanical    equipment, 


24 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


and  the  quality  of  his  water,  yeast,  and 
fermentable  materials,  his  yields  of  alco- 
hol may  approximate  those  indicated  or 
may,  on  the  other  hand,  fall  far  below  it. 

Nature  of  Teast 

Yeast,   the   exciting   agent   of   the   alco- 
holic fermentation,  is  familiar  to  the  gen- 
eral   public    chiefly    in    the    form    of    the 
small    square    cakes    which    are    sold    at 
groceries,    and    to    workers    in    breweries 
and  distilleries  as  a  more  or  less  frothy 
paste.     Whatever   its   outward   form   and 
appearance  may  be,  it  always  is  made  up 
of  innumerable  microscopic  plants  which 
are   globular   or   ovoid   in   form,   approxi- 
mately 1  4000  inch  in  diameter,  and  fairly 
colorless   and   transparent  as   seen   under 
the    microscope.      Yeast    withstands    pro- 
longed exposure  to  cold   without  serious 
injury,    but    is    weakened    rapidly    when 
kept  at  high  temperatures,  and  is  killed 
quickly  when  heated  to  about  110  degrees 
Fahrenheit.     It   ordinarily   reproduces   it- 
self by  a  process  of  budding,  and  grows 
at  the   expense   of   various   nutrient   ma- 
terials, such   as  lime,  potash,   phosphoric 
acid,   and  nitrogenous  compounds,   which 
it  absorbs  from  the  solutions  in  which  it 
is   placed.     The  vigor  of  a  fermentation 
seems  to  depend  largely  upon  the  phenom- 
enon of  yeast  growth.    Good  fermentation 
can  not  be  established  without  abundant 
and  suitable  nutrients  for  the  yeast  and 
its  vigorous  development. 

The  selection  of  a  suitable  yeast  for 
any  purpose  and  its  preparation  and 
maintenance  in  a  pure  and  vigorous  condi- 
tion are  arts  which  demand  thorough 
training  and  experience.  They  can  not 
be  learned  from  books  alone  and  call  for 
no  small  amount  of  manipulative  skill. 

Preparation  of  Saccharine  Solutions  for 
Fermentatiou 

Certain  saccharine  materials,  such  as 
the  juices  of  most  fruits  and  of  the  sugar 
cane,  are  in  their  natural  condition  so 
susceptible  to  fermentation  that  they  can 
not  be  preserved  unaltered  unless  they 
are  sterilized  in  sealed  bottles  or  some 
antiseptic  or  preservative  material,  such 
as  salicylic  acid,  is  added.  Other  sugar- 
containing  materials,  such  as  molasses,  do 


not  ferment  readily  until  they  have  been 
subjected    to    certain    preliminary    treat- 
ments.   Thus,  both  cane-molasses  and  beet- 
molasses  must  be  diluted  with  water  be- 
fore  they   can   be    fermented;    and   since 
they   often   are   deficient   in   the   nitrogen 
compounds   which   are   essential   to   yeast 
production   it  sometimes   is   found   neces- 
sary to  add  nitrogen  to  their  solutions  in 
the  form  of  ammonium  sulphate  or  some 
equivalent   material.     Furthermore,   beet- 
molasses  is  usually  alkaline,  and  as  yeast 
will  not  work  in  alkaline  solutions  it   is 
necessary  to  acidify  beet-molasses  before 
adding  yeast  to  it.    Diluted  sulphuric  acid 
is  commonly  used  for  this  purpose.     The 
amount  of  water  or  of  chemicals   which 
must  be  added  to  a  given  quantity  of  mo- 
lasses to  fit  it  for  fermentation  will   de- 
pend upon  the  composition  of  the  latter. 
Experience  has  shown  that  with  ordinary 
cane-molasses  it  is  desirable  to  use  about 
six  volumes  of  water  for  one  of  molasses. 
In  this  way  a  solution  is  obtained  which 
contains  about  12  per  cent  of  sugar  and 
is  capable  of  producing  approximately   6 
per  cent  of  alcohol.     This  proportion  of 
sugar  has  been  found,  in  general,  to  give 
the  best  results  with  regard  to  the  rate, 
completeness,   and   economy   of   fermenta- 
tion. 

Preparation   of  Fermentaljle    Solutions 
from  Starchy  Raw  Materials 

While  the  saccharine  raw  materials  of 
the  fermentation  industries  can  be  pre- 
pared lor  use  by  the  relatively  simple 
processes  of  solution  or  juice  expression, 
such  materials  as  potatoes  and  grain, 
which  contain  little  sugar  and  much 
starch,  must  be  subjected  to  special  treat- 
ment in  order  to  convert  the  insoluble  and 
unfermentable  starch  into  sugar.  The 
series  of  operations  by  which  this  starch 
conversion  is  accomplished  is  called 
"mashing."  and  consists  of  a  preliminary 
scalding  or  cooking  process,  the  purpose 
of  which  is  to  liquify  the  starch,  and  of 
the  saccharification  proper,  in  which  the 
soluble  starch  is  converted  into  dextrin 
and  sugar.  The  agency  by  which  the 
latter  conversion  is  accomplished  is  the 
specific  action  (in  the  presence  of  mois- 
ture,  and   at  a  suitable  temperature)    of 


ALCOHOL 


25 


certain  substances  called  enzynis,  which 
usually  are  developed  for  this  particular 
purpose  in  a  portion  of  the  grain  used 
for  mashing,  by  a  process  called  malting. 

Malting — When  the  seeds  of  any  cereal 
are  moistened  and  allowed  to  sprout, 
changes  in  their  chemical  composition 
take  place  which  are  fully  as  striking  as 
the  accompanying  changes  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  grains.  Most  important  of 
these  is  the  formation  of  bodies  which 
have  the  power,  when  dissolved  in  water 
and  allowed  to  act  at  a  suitable  degree  of 
warmth,  of  corroding  the  insoluble  starch 
granules  of  the  grain,  of  rendering  them 
soluble,  and  of  converting  the  starch  ulti- 
mately into  a  fermentable  sugar  called 
maltose.  Grain  which  has  been  treated 
so  as  to  develop  these  bodies  is  called 
malt. 

These  enzyms,  or  active  bodies  of  the 
malt,  are  usually  grouped  under  the  name 
diastase,  and  they  appear  during  the 
sprouting  of  all  starchy  seeds.  Their  for- 
mation has  been  utilized  technically  in 
the  case  of  several  of  the  cereals,  such 
as  wheat,  rye,  oats,  maize,  and  barley. 
Rye  and  barley  produce  diastase  more 
abundantly  than  the  other  grains,  and  are 
employed  in  large  quantities  in  the  malt- 
ing industry.  Of  the  two,  barley  is  most 
used  on  account  of  the  protection  which 
is  afforded  by  its  husk  to  the  tender  ker- 
nel of  the  grain  during  the  rough  handling 
incidental  to  the  malting  process. 

In  making  malt  the  barley  is  cleaned 
thoroughly  by  screening  and  washing,  and 
is  then  steeped  in  water  until  the  grains 
have  absorbed  enough  water  to  soften 
them  thoroughly  and  prepare  them  for 
germination.  The  excess  of  water  is  then 
drained  off,  and  the  wet  grain  is  spread 
evenly  on  a  smooth  and  scrupulously  clean 
floor  in  a  well-ventilated  room  which  can 
be  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  55  de- 
grees to  60  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  grain 
is  turned  frequently,  with  wooden  shovels, 
to  keep  it  uniformly  moist  and  to  prevent 
its  overheating,  and  as  sprouting  pro- 
gresses it  is  gradually  spread  over  a  great- 
er floor  area  so  that  a  pile  which  originally 
was  from  12  to  18  inches  deep  may  finally 
have  a  depth  of  only  three  or  four  inches. 


Malt  which  is  intended  for  shipment  is 
usually  grown  for  about  a  week  at  a  tem- 
perature not  exceeding  6S  degrees  Fahren- 
heit, after  which  it  is  dried  slowly  in 
kilns  that  are  gradually  raised  from  95 
degrees  to  125  degrees,  until  only  two  or 
three  per  cent  of  moisture  remains.  Malt 
which  is  made  in  the  distillery  where  it 
is  to  be  used  may  be  grown  at  about  55 
degrees  for  three  or  four  weeks,  and 
should  then  be  used  without  having  been 
dried.  Green  malt,  thus  prepared,  has  a 
much  higher  diastatic  power  (1)  than  the 
dried  malt  of  commerce. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  good  barley  will 
make  about  75  pounds  of  kiln-dried  dis- 
tiller's malt,  which  will  be  strong  enough 
to  saccharify  about  1,000  pounds  of  raw 
grain  (maize).  The  same  barley,  grown 
longer  and  used  as  green  malt,  can  be 
made  to  saccharify  nearly  twice  as  much 
raw  grain. 

In  converting  starch  into  sugar,  malt 
diastase  exerts  two  distinct  forms  of  chem- 
ical activity — liquefaction,  and  sacchari- 
fication.  The  intensities  of  these  activ- 
ities depend  largely  upon  the  temperature 
at  which  the  diastase  is  made  to  act  upon 
the  starch,  and  the  two  forms  of  activity 
are  differently  affected  by  alterations  in 
this  temperature.  The  liquefying  power  is 
exerted  most  strongly  at  about  158  de- 
grees Fahrenheit,  is  weakened  at  approxi- 
mately 175  degrees,  and  is  destroyed  at 
about  200  degrees.  The  saccharifying 
power  is  strongest  between  120  degrees 
and  130  degrees  Fahrenheit,  is  weakened 
seriously  at  145  degrees,  and  is  destroyed 
completely  at  175  degrees.  These  facts 
show  the  need  of  drying  distiller's  malt 
at  a  relatively  low  temperature,  and  indi- 
cate the  temperature  limit  below  which 
saccharification  must  be  conducted. 

Mashing — The  first  stage  of  every  mash- 
ing is  a  scalding,  which  gelatinizes  and 
partially  liquefies  the  starch  of  the  raw 
materials.  When  this  preliminary  cook- 
ing has  gone  far  enough,  the  mash  is 
cooled  somewhat  and  malt  is  added,  where- 
upon the  liquefaction  is  completed  and 
the   soluble   starch   is   more  or  less   com- 


(1)  The    power    of    converting    starch    into 
sugar. 


26 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


pletely  converted  into  maltose.  The  form 
of  the  mashing  apparatus  and  the  tem-^ 
peratures  at  which  the  several  operations 
are  conducted  are  modified  as  may  be 
necessary  to  fit  the  peculiarities  of  the 
raw  materials. 

In  this  country  maize  is  the  chief 
starchy  material  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  alcohol.  It  is  mashed  in  a  sort 
of  kettle  known  as  a  vacuum  cooker. 

The   vacuum    cooker    is    a   horizontally 
placed    cylindrical    vessel    made    of    steel 
boiler  plate,  and  has  a  capacity  of  about 
40   gallons   for   every   bushel   of   grain   to 
be   mashed    in   one    charge.      Just   below 
the    center    of    each    end    it    is    provided 
with  stuffing  boxes,  through  which  a  shaft 
passes.     The  latter  carries  several   rakes 
or  stirring  arms  inside  the  shell;  outside 
it  is  provided  with  a  strong  toothed  wheel, 
arranged  for  chain  drive.     Thermometers 
and  try  cocks  are  mounted   in   each  end 
of  the  shell,  and  if  the  cooker  is  large  a 
third   thermometer  is   set  in  the   middle 
of  the  side.     In  a  row  along  the  bottom 
are    several    small    steam-inlet   valves    so 
constructed    that    while    steam    can    pass 
freely  into  the  cooker  the  contents  of  the 
latter   can   not  run   back   into   the   steam 
pipe   when   pressure   is   removed   outside. 
At  the  middle  of  the  top  of  the  cooker  is 
a  dome  fitted     with     a     pipe  connection 
which  leads  to  a  "cross."     From  one  side 
of  the   latter  connection   is  made   to   the 
steam  supply,   which  must  be  carried   at 
about  50  pounds  pressure;  from  the  other 
side  connection  is  made  with  the  vacuum 
pump,  and  from  the  top  a  pipe  leads  to 
a  blow-off  valve.     On  top  of  the  cooker, 
at  one  end,  there  is  a  manhole  through 
which  water  and  meal  may  be  introduced, 
and  in  the  bottom,  at  one  end,  there  is  a 
discharge  valve  which  opens  into  a  pipe 
leading  to  the  drop   tub.     The  operation 
of  this  cooker  is  as  follows: 

Water  in  the  proportion  of  20  to  25  gal- 
lons for  every  bushel  of  corn  is  first  run 
in  and  is  warmed  up  to  about  120  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  The  rakes  are  then  started 
and  the  grain,  which  should  be  ground  to 
a  coarse  meal,  is  added  slowly  enough  to 
keep  it  from  forming  lumps.  When  the 
meal  is  all  in,  the  manhole  is  closed  and 


steam    is    turned    on    through    the    small 
valves   in   the  bottom,   the  blow-off  valve 
being  left  open.     When  the   temperature 
of  the  mash  has  risen  to  212  degrees  the 
blow-off   valve   is   closed   and   pressure   is 
allowed  to  rise  within  the  cooker  at  such 
a  rate  that  the  thermometers  and  a  pres- 
sure gauge  in  the  dome  indicate  a  fairly 
constant   equalization    of   temperature    in 
the  contents.     The  pressure  is  allowed  to 
rise  to  about  50  to  55  pounds,  correspond- 
ing to  a  temperature  of  about  300  degrees 
Fahrenheit,   but     is     maintained   at  this 
point  for  a  few  minutes  only,  after  which 
the  steam  is  shut  off  and  the  blow-off  valve 
is  opened  until  the  pressure  is  completely 
relieved.    The  blow-off  valve  is  then  closed 
again,  and  the  valve  between  the  cooker 
and  vacuum  pump  is  opened.    Application 
of  the  vacuum  causes  renewed  boiling  and 
a   rapid   fall   of  temperature   in   the   con- 
tents of  the  cooker,  and   when  the  ther- 
mometers read  from  140  degrees  to  145  de- 
grees Fahrenheit  the  vacuum  is  released 
and  the  malt  is  added. 

The  amount  of  malt  employed  is  usu- 
ally about  one-tenth  of  the  weight  of  corn 
in  the  mash.  It  is  ground  quite  fine  and 
is  mixed  in  the  small  grain  tub  with 
enough  lukewarm  water  to  make  it  flow 
freely  through  the  pipe  which  leads  to  the 
cooker.  The  length  of  time  allowed  for 
saccharification  in  the  cooker  will  vary 
from  fifteen  minutes  to  an  hour,  accord- 
ing to  the  temperature — which  should  be 
held  between  140  degrees  and  145  degrees 
Fahrenheit — and  the  amount  and  diastatic 
strength  of  the  malt.  It  is  advisable  not 
to  hasten  this  part  of  the  mashing  process 
unduly,  and  the  completeness  of  the 
starch  conversion  should  always  be  proved 


Fig.  1.  Small  Laboratory  Still, 
■t  holier  oi-  kettle  of  still:  B,  opening  for  fllling 
or  chai-sinK:  C.  tbermometer,  sometimes 
omitted;  D.  connection  to  condenser:  DO. 
inner  condenser  tube,  passing  tbrough  EF. 
water  jacket,  with  water  inlet  at  E.  and 
outlet  at  f :  O.  outflow  for  distillate. 


ALCOHOL 


27 


before  puniping  the  mash  through  the  cool- 
ers into  the  fermenting  cisterns. 

The  apparatus  and  mashing  process  de- 
scribed are  designed  primarily  for  use  in 
corn  distilleries,  but  they  may  be  adapted 
with  but  little  change  to  use  with  pota- 
toes as  a  raw  material.  (1) 

Fermentation 

In  order  to  minimize  the  chances  for 
souring  and  spoiling,  the  saccharine  so- 
lution intended  for  fermentation  is 
pumped  to  the  fermenting  cisterns  as  soon 
as  possible  after  its  preparation.  Yeast 
which  in  the  meantime  has  been  pre- 
pared (2)  separately  in  a  small  tub  from 
a  mash  containing  malt  and  either  rye 
or  potatoes,  is  added  to  it  at  once  in  a 
proportion  varying  between  five  and  ten 
per  cent.  If  necessary,  water  is  added  to 
fill  the  cisterns  to  within  a  few  inches  of 
the  top,  and  the  whole  volume  of  liquid 
is  thoroughly  plunged  or  mixed.  At  this 
time  the  solution  should  contain  between 
17  and  22  per  cent  of  solids,  as  shown  by 
a  reading  of  17  degrees  to  22  degrees  on 
the  Balling  saecharometer,  and  its  tem- 
perature should  be  between  60  degrees 
and  65  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Within  a  few  hours  gas  bubbles  will  be- 
gin to.  break  the  surface  of  the  fermenting 
liquid,  forming  a  constantly  thickening 
cap  of  foam,  and  the  whole  mass  of  beer 
will  rapidly  come  into  vigorous  motion. 
At  the  same  time  its  temperature  will  be- 
gin to  rise,  and  its  specific  gravity,  as 
indicated  by  the  saecharometer,  will  fall. 
According  to  the  temperature,  the  kind  of 
material  fermented,  and  the  strength  of 
the  yeast,  fermentation  will  be  complete 
within  from  4S  to  96  hours,  as  will  be 
shown  by  the  gravity  and  temperature 
ceasing,  respectively,  to  fall  and  to  rise,  by 
the  solution  coming  to  rest  and  losing  its 
foamy  cap.  and  by  cessation  of  the  escape 
of  gas  bubbles.  The  fermented  liquor,  or 
distiller's  beer,  is  now  said  to  be  "dead" 
or  "ripe,"  and  is  ready  for  distillation. 

If  the  composition  of  the  mash  and  the 
degree  of  fermentation  are  satisfactory, 
the  beer  should  increase  about  30  degrees 


(1)  See  Farmers'  Bulletin  410.  p.  11. 

(2)  Detailed  dirertinns  for  raaltini:   veast  are 
given  on  p.   2."!   of  Farmers'   Bulletin   410. 


Fahrenheit  in  temperature  above  the  point 
at  which  it  was  set,  its  gravity  should 
fall  almost  to  0  degrees  Balling,  and  it 
should  contain  between  six  per  cent  and 
ten  per  cent  of  alcohol. 

Distillation 

The  separation  of  alcohol  from  the  fer- 
mented liquors  in  which  it  is  formed  is 
made  possible  by  the  fact  that  its  boiling 
point,  173  degrees  Fahrenheit,  Is  lower 
than  that  of  water  by  nearly  40  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  On  this  account  a  mixture 
of  alcohol  and  water  boils  at  a  lower  tem- 
perature than  water  alone,  and  the  vapors 
which  first  arise  from  such  a  boiling  mix- 
ture are  richer  in  alcohol  than  the  liquid 
itself.  Thus,  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and 
water  which  contains  eight  per  cent  by 
weight  of  alcohol,  will  boil  at  about  200 
degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  will  produce  a 
vapor  which  contains  approximately  43 
degrees  of  alcohol  by  weight.  A  liquor  of 
the  latter  composition  will  in  its  turn 
boil  at  about  181  degrees  Fahrenheit  and 
will  form  a  vapor  containing  about  68 
per  cent  of  alcohol.  When  such  mixtures 
are  distilled  all  of  their  alcohol,  mingled 
with  more  or  less  water,  will  pass  over  in- 
to the  distillate,  while  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  water  still  remains  in  the 
kettle  of  the  still.  It  is  possible,  there- 
fore, even  with  stills  of  such  simple  type 
as  are  outlined  in  Fig.  1  and  Fig.  2,  to 
obtain  ultimately  a  fairly  strong  alcohol 
by  repeated  distillation  of  the  successive 
distillates. 

Such  a  still  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  2  will 
produce  in  two  successive  distillations 
(Singling  and  doubling)  from  100  volumes 
of  a  beer  containing  approximately  10  per 
cent  of  alcohol  about  37  volumes  of  a  dis- 
tillate of  67  per  cent  strength  together 
with  about  23  volumes  of  weak  distillates 
which  can  be  saved  for  subsequent  re- 
distillation. It  would  be  impossible,  how- 
ever, to  make  any  quantity  of  a  90  per 
cent  distillate  with  such  an  apparatus  ex- 
cept by  incurring  an  expense  for  fuel  and 
labor  which  would  far  exceed  the  highest 
possible  industrial  value  of  the  product. 
Fortunately  it  is  possible  so  to  con- 
struct a  still  that  the  requisite  number 
of  redistillations  take  place  simultaneous- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


ly  in  a  single  apparatus  with  little  more 
outlay  for  fuel  and  labor  than  would  be 
required  to  subject  the  same  volume  of 
Tjeer  to  a  single  distillation  in  the  pot 
still   shown   in   Fig.   2.     Such   a   complex 


Fig.    2.      FHre-pot    Stil 
«,  Kettle  of  still  ;   h.  head  of  still :   c,  di-aw-off 
cock  :   d,  srate  ;   c,  masonry  support ;   f,  flue ; 
p,  condensing  worm  ;   h,  worm  tub. 

apparatus,  known  as  a  column  still,  costs 
much  more  to  build  than  does  a  simple 
still  of  the  same  beer  capacity,  but  its 
almost  automatic  action  and  the  saving 
which  it  affords  with  regard  to  labor,  fuel, 
and  water,  make  it  a  necessary  invest- 
ment for  any  distillery  which  is  designed 
to   produce   industrial   alcohol. 

Although  the  details  may  seem  some- 
what complicated,  the  actual  man- 
agement of  a  continuous  still  is*  in 
fact  quite  simple.  When  its  operation  is 
once  well  under  way  a  condition  of  equi- 
librium is  established  in  the  working  of 
its  various  parts,  and  as  long  as  the  sup- 
plies of  water,  steam,  and  beer  are  kept 
Tmiform  it  is  possible  to  maintain  a  steady 
flow  of  distillate  of  practically  constant 
proof  for  hours  at  a  time,  with  compara- 
tively  little   attention   from   the   distiller. 

OoTernmental  Control  of  a  Small 
Denatured  Alcohol  Distillery 

Certain  important  features  of  the  regu- 
lations of  the  Bureau  of  Internal  Revenue 
are  of  special  interest  to  those  to  whom 
the  subject  is  new. 

First  of  all,  the  mere  possession  of  any 
still  or  distilling  apparatus  set  up,  even 
though  the  same  is  not  employed  in  distill- 
ing alcohol,  subjects  its  possessor  or  cus- 
todian to  heavy  penalties  unless  he  has 
registered  it  in  writing  with  the  collector 
of  internal  revenue  for  the  district  in 
-which   it   is   located.     The   distillation   of 


alcohol  is  forbidden  by  law,  except  when 
conducted  in  accordance  with  the  regula- 
tions issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Internal 
Revenue  and  under  the  supervision  of  a 
designated  officer,  no  matter  how  much 
the  alcohol  may  be  mixed  or  diluted  with 
other  substances.  These  facts  are  em- 
phasized because  they  directly  contradict 
the  statements  sometimes  made  that  ap- 
paratus and  processes  can  be  furnished  by 
which  denatured  alcohol  can  be  made 
without  Government  supervision. 

Other  points  worthy  of  mention  in  this 
connection  are  as  follows: 

Distilleries  are  to  be  constructed  and 
their  machinery  is  to  be  arranged  in  com- 
pliance with  the  regulations.  (Sees.  14-24, 
pp.   45-50.  [1]) 

The  distiller  must  own  or  control  the 
land  on  which  the  distillery  is  erected. 
In  case  that  he  does  not  own  it  or  that 
it  is  mortgaged  he  must  file  the  written 
consent  of  the  owner  or  mortgagor  to  its 
use  for  distillery  purposes.    (Sec.  4,  p.  41.) 

The  distiller  must  give  written  notice 
of  his  intention  to  engage  or  continue  in 
the  distilling  business,  stating  what  kinds 
of  material  he  intends  to  use.  (Sees.  5  and 
13,  pp.  41-42  and  45.) 

The  distillery,  when  ready  for  operation, 
must  be  "surveyed"  by  a  designated  Gov- 
ernment official.  (Sees.  25  and  6-12,  pp. 
50   and   42-45.) 

Before  beginning  operations,  the  distill- 
er must  file  a  bond,  signed  by  himself  and 
two  sufficient  sureties,  for  an  amount  not 
less  than  the  tax  on  all  the  spirit  that 
the  distillery  could  produce  in  a  month. 
(Sees.  26-27,  pp.  50-52.) 

The  survey  having  been  made  and  the 
bond  filed,  the  distiller  must  give  notice 
of  the  day  on  which  he  will  begin  opera- 
tions.   (Sec.  29,  p.  52.) 

Records  must  be  kept  by  the  distiller, 
for  inspection  by  the  revenue  officers,  of 
the  amounts  and  kinds  of  material  re- 
ceived and  used  and  of  the  amount  of  al- 
cohol produced.     (Sees.  34-37,  pp.  54-57.) 

No  kind  of  spirit  save  alcohol  for  de- 
naturing purposes  can  be  produced  at  an 
industrial  distillery.   (Sec.  38,  p.  57.) 


( 1 1  t'.   S.   Internal   Revenue  Reg.  No.   30,  rev. 


ALCOHOL 


29 


When  a  revenue  officer  is  assigned  to  a 
distillery,  it  must  be  operated  regularly 
on  every  day  except  Sundays.  (Sec.  39,  p. 
57.) 

Methods  are  prescribed  by  which  de- 
naturants  may  be  obtained  and  used. 
(Sees.  41-44  and  49,  pp.  58,  59,  and  61.) 

Factors   Influenring  the   Cost  of 
Slaniifactnring  Alcohol 

While  cheap  and  abundant  raw  material 
is  indeed  essential  to  the  profitable  produc- 
tion of  denatured  alcohol,  there  are  other 
factors,  no  less  important,  which  enter  in- 
to the  cost  of  manufacture.  Some  of  these 
are  as  follows: 

Interest  and  depreciation — A  small  dis- 
tillery can  hardly  be  built  and  equipped 
for  less  than  $12,000.  Interest  on  the  in- 
vestment may  therefore  be  set  at  about 
$700  a  year;  and  a  like  amount  ought  to 
be  allowed  for  keeping  the  plant  in  good 
working  order.  The  capacity  of  such  a 
plant  can  be  doubled  without  any  very 
great  increase  in  cost:  and  if  the  capacity 
be  halved,  the  reduction  in  cost  will  be 
relatively  small. 

Lat)or — At  least  three  and  probably  four 
men  will  be  needed  to  run  any  distillery, 
however  limited  its  capacity.  Increase  of 
the  production  up  to  400  or  500  proof  gal- 
lons daily  would  probably  not  call  for  ad- 
ditional labor.  Five  men  undoubtedly 
could  handle  a  plant  producing  1,000  gal- 
lons daily. 

yVatei — A  large  amount  of  pure  cold 
water  is  needed  for  the  operation  of  a  dis- 
tillery. This  fact  is  generally  unknown 
save  to  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  dis- 
tilling business.  A  plant  capable  of  pro- 
ducing 100  proof  gallons,  or  55  gallons  of 
180-degree  alcohol,  in  a  working  day  of 
ten  hours,  will  need  a  supply  of  water 
amounting  to  not  less  than  3,000  gallons 
in  that  length  of  time,  five  gallons  per 
minute,  and  ma.v  demand  considerably 
more. 

Fuel — Little  definite  information  is 
available  regarding  the  amount  of  fuel 
necessary  for  the  operation  of  a  small 
alcohol  distillery.  This  dearth  of  accur- 
ate knowledge  is  regrettable,  for  the  coal 


bill  is  a  prominent  item  in  the  distillery's 
expense  account.  Such  data  as  are  at 
hand  indicate  that  the  coal  consumption 
— per  gallon  of  180-degree  alcohol  pro- 
duced— may  vary  from  11  pounds  under 
the  most  favorable  conditions  to  38 
pounds  in  a  poorly  equipped  and  poorly 
managed  plant.  As  11  pounds  of  coal 
as  a  distillery  fuel  yield  almost  159,000 
heat  units  and  a  gallon  of  alcohol  gives 
about  75,000,  it  is  apparent  that  the  use 
of  alcohol  so  produced  for  heating  would 
involve  a  great  waste  and  be  altogether 
unprofitable.  Furthermore,  the  coal  con- 
sumption of  a  small  distillery  will  be 
proportionally  greater  than  that  of  a  large 
one.  since  many  economies  which  are  pos- 
sible in  a  large  plant  are  quite  imprac- 
ticable in  a  small  one. 

Conclusions 

It  is  apparent  that  the  business  of  dis- 
tilling alcohol  is  one  which  calls  for  a 
considerable  investment  and  no  small  de- 
gree of  technical  skill.  It  can  not  be  con- 
ducted advantageously,  from  a  commer- 
cial point  of  view,  in  very  small  plants  on 
account  of  the  proportionately  high  cost 
of  the  plant  and  labor;  and  many  of  the 
so-called  "wastes"  which  have  been  sug- 
gested as  fermentable  raw  materials  are 
so  poor  in  fermentable  substance  or  so  ex- 
pensive to  handle  that  their  availability 
is  thereby  impaired.  It  seems  that  the 
business,  to  be  productive  of  satisfactory 
returns,  must  be  conducted  on  a  fairly 
large  scale,  and  that  the  best  success  is 
likely  to  be  attained  with  raw  materials 
of  the  general  types  already  in  use,  name- 
ly, maize,  potatoes,  and  molasses.  The  in- 
dustry is  not  suited  to  every  locality,  and 
it  is  most  likely  to  be  successful  if  car- 
ried on  systematically  on  a  very  large 
farm,  or  if  supported  by  the  joint  interests 
of  a  fairly  large  community.  The  allur- 
ing statements  sometimes  made  regarding 
large  financial  returns  to  be  obtained  by 
making  industrial  alcohol  with  waste  raw 
materials,  unskilled  labor,  and  a  "cheap" 
distilling  outfit  are  misleading  and  can 
only  result  in  loss  if  followed. 


H.  W.  Wiley.  Chief.  Bureau  of  Chemistry, 
Revised  by  H.  E.  Sawyer.  Fermentation  Chem- 
ist, V.  S.  Denartment  of  Aericulture. 


30 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


INDUSTRIAL  ALCOHOL— ITS  USES 

Heating  and  Illiunination 

The  most  important  of  the  uses  of  in- 
dustrial alcohol  as  far  as  the  farmer  is 
directly  concerned  are  those  included  in 
heating  and  illumination.  For  these  pur- 
poses the  farmers  of  the  country,  when 
the  processes  are  adjusted  and  the  technic- 
al difficulties  of  production,  manufactur- 
ing, and  denaturing  are  overcome,  will 
find  alcohol  extremely  useful.  Especially 
will  this  be  true  in  localities  remote  from 
centers  of  the  production  of  wood,  coal, 
kerosene,  gasoline,  natural  gas,  and  oil, 
which  now  are  the  chief  heating  and  il- 
luminating agents. 

Alcobol  Stoves 

The  success  of  the  alcohol  stove  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  character  of  the 
wick,  which  must  absorb  the  alcohol  and 
be  so  adjusted  as  to  give  the  necessary 
heating  surface.  By  converting  the  alco- 
hol into  a  gas  and  burning  the  vapor  thus 
formed  the  wick  may  be  dispensed  with 
and  a  more  effective  burner  obtained. 
The  general  principles  involved  in  heat- 
ing with  alcohol  are  the  same  as  for 
other  heating  substances.  The  only  dif- 
ferences are  in  the  methods  of  producing 
the  combustion.  Alcohol  burns  with  a 
pale  blue  flame  which  is  intensely  hot. 
It  is  without  smoke,  and  if  there  be  any 
odor  at  all  it  is  an  agreeable  and  not  a 
disagreeable  one.  The  products  of  com- 
bustion of  pure  alcohol  are  water  and  car- 
bon dioxid.  The  latter  gas  should  be 
conducted  out  of  the  room  by  the  ordinary 
methods  of  ventilation.  No  form  of 
burner  should  be  allowed  to  pour  the 
products  of  combustion  into  the  room.  The 
water  which  is  formed  is  harmless,  but 
the  carbon  dioxid,  which  is  produced  in 
large  proportions,  will  soon  vitiate  the  air 
of  the  room  and  tend  to  produce  drowsi- 
ness, headache,  and  injury  to  health.  The 
common  methods  of  burning  gas  and  kero- 
sene in  a  room  without  ventilation  are 
also  objectionable  for  the  same  reason. 
Some    form   of   ventilation    by    means    of 


which  the  products  could  be  removed 
from  the  room  through  a  chimney  or 
otherwise  is  highly  desirable. 

Stoves  of  many  different  kinds  have 
been  invented  for  burning  alcohol.  There 
are  stoves  for  heating  flatirons.  soldering 
irons,  crimping  irons,  roasting  coffee,  etc. 

Alcohol  Lamps 

Alcohol  can  not  be  used  directly  for  il- 
luminating purposes.  The  flame  does  not 
possess  any  notable  illuminating  power.  In 
order  that  alcohol  may  be  used  for  illu- 
mination it  must  be  burned  in  a  state  of 
gas  and  the  heat  produced  by  the  com- 
bustion utilized  to  produce  incandescence 
in  the  ordinary  mantle  which  surrounds 
the  common  gas  flame  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. It  has  been  discovered  that  when 
certain  earths,  such  as  thoria,  in  a  state 
of  fine  subdivision,  are  subjected  to  the 
action  of  a  high  temperature,  they  become 
intensely  white  and  produce  by  their  in- 
candescence the  maximum  degree  of  il- 
lumination. The  thoria  is  first  deposited 
upon  some  substance  such  as  cloth  and 
so  distributed  that  when  the  cloth  burns 
away  the  particles  of  thoria  remain  in  the 
original  shape  of  the  mantle.  When  held 
over  the  flame  of  gas  or  alcohol  the  par- 
ticles become  incandescent.  To  adjust  an 
alcohol  lamp  for  this  purpose  it  is  only 
necessary  to  make  an  attachment  where- 
by the  alcohol  is  first  converted  into  a 
vapor.  In  order  to  light  such  a  lamp  a 
portion  of  the  alcohol  must  first  be  va- 
porized. 

It  is  evident  that  the  amount  of  heat 
produced  is  to  some  extent  a  measure  of 
the  illuminating  value  when  the  incan- 
descent mantle  is  taken  into  consideration. 
It  is  the  high  temperature  which  produces 
the  incandescence  and  therefore  the  gas 
which  in  burning  gives  the  highest  tem- 
perature, other  conditions  being  the  same, 
would  be  of  the  most  value  for  illumina- 
tion. All  of  these  points  must  be  con- 
sidered to  prevent  the  formation  of  wrong 
opinions  concerning  the  efficiency  of  alco- 
hol for  illumination,  heating,  and  motive 
power,  as  compared  with  gasolene,  which 
is  the  agent  most  used  for  these  purposes, 
and  which  alcohol  is  expected  to  super- 
sede. 


ALCOHOL 


31 


Quantity  of  Heat  Yielded  in  the  Com- 
bustion of  Alcohol 

It  has  been  estimated  that  1  gram  (o) 
of  gasolene  will  yield  on  complete  combus- 
tion 11,000  calories,  (6)  and  1  gram  of 
pure  alcohol  7,200  calories.  No  determin- 
ation of  the  heat  of  combustion  of  ordi- 
nary commercial  gasolene  of  the  grade 
commonly  used  for  fuel  is  found.  Prod- 
ucts of  that  nature  appear  to  yield  from 
9,700  to  11,000  calories.  In  so  far  as 
heating  purposes  are  concerned,  there- 
fore, it  is  evident  that  gasolene,  weight 
for  weight,  is  more  valuable  than  alco- 
hol. 

Alcohol  Motors 

It  is  quite  certain  that  the  use  of  al- 
cohol motors  on  the  farm  will  become 
quite  common  as  soon  as  the  technique 
of  construction  is  practically  complete 
and  the  price  of  alcohol  is  sufficiently 
low.  Alcohol  can  be  used  for  all  purposes 
for  which  gasolene  is  employed,  namely, 
the  driving  of  wagons,  carriages,  sta- 
tionary motors,  water  pumps,  mowing  ma- 
chines, plows,  etc.  Very  little  change 
need  be  made  in  the  engine  of  a  motor 
car  designed  to  use  gasoline  to  fit  it  for 
the  use  of  alcohol.  Gasolene  becomes 
volatile  at  a  temperature  of  blood  heat 
(98.5  degrees  Fahrenheit),  while  a  much 
greater  degree  of  heat  (15S  degrees  to 
176  degrees  Fahrenheit)  is  necessary  to 
volatilize  alcohol  rapidly  enough  for  mo- 
tor purposes.  This  fact  makes  necessary 
a  change  in  the  explosion  chamber  of  the 
engine  when  alcohol  is  to  be  used.  This 
adjustment  is  especially  important  in  the 
starting  of  the  machine,  as  after  it  is  in 
action  the  temperature  of  combustion  is 
quite  sufficient  to  easily  produce  the  gasi- 
fication  necessarj'. 

In  regard  to  heavy  machines  it  may 
be  said  that  they  probably  would  come 
into  use  only  on  large  farms  where  the 
surface  of  the  soil  is  practically  level. 
They  would  not  be  suitable  for  small 
farms  nor  those  in  hilly  sections.  In  this 
connection  attention  is  called  to  the  fact 
that  steam  plowing,  although  practicable 


a  I  CT'ani  rrr  0.0.^.527  ounce,  or  In  CTains. 

b  A  calorie  is  the  amount  of  heat  necessarv 
to  raise  1  ?ram  of  water  1"  centierade  {1.8° 
Fahrenheit) . 


and  profitable  under  certain  conditions, 
has  not  been  practised  to  any  great  ex- 
tent in  this  country,  in  fact,  not  nearly 
so  much  as  in  England.  It  is  not  likely, 
therefore,  that  plowing  and  harvesting  by 
alcohol  motors  will  come  into  use  very 
soon,  although  the  possibilities  are  worthy 
of  the  consideration  of  the  thoughtful 
farmer.  On  the  other  hand,  it  seems  prob- 
able that  small  motors  for  driving  ma- 
chines for  chopping  and  grinding  cattle 
food,  pumping  water,  and  similar  pur- 
poses may  be  brought  into  very  general 
use  as  soon  as  the  denatured  alcohol  be- 
comes cheap  enough  to  render  its  use 
practicable. 

In  the  driving  of  motor  engines  the 
quantity  of  heat  evolved  is  not  always  a 
measure  of  efficiency.  It  is  not  the  pur- 
pose of  this  article  to  go  into  this  subject 
at  all.  only  to  say  that  the  vapor  of  alco- 
hol can  be  more  highly  compressed  at  any 
given  temperature  without  exploding  than 
can  the  vapor  of  gasolene.  As  the  de- 
creased volume  of  the  mixture  of  the  ex- 
plosive vapor  and  air  is  to  a  certain  extent 
a  measure  of  efficiency  when  engines  are 
driven  by  the  expansion  of  gases,  the  high 
degree  of  compressibility  of  the  alcohol 
vapor  without  danger  of  explosion  may 
compensate  for  the  smaller  quantity  of 
heat  which  is  generated  by  its  combus- 
tion. 

The  problems  connected  with  the  use 
of  alcohol  for  driving  machinery  are 
somewhat  technical,  and  it  is  only  de- 
sired to  call  attention  to  the  possible  ad- 
vantages to  the  fai-mer  froji  this  source 
of  power,  and  also  to  point  out  the  diffi- 
culties which  must  be  overcome.  In  this 
connection  it  seems  that  a  word  of  cau- 
tion is  needed,  as  in  the  exploitation  of 
tax-free  alcohol  extravagant  opinions  re- 
garding its  possibilities  have  been  ex- 
pressed. These  exaggerated  statements 
have  been  made  without  any  intent  to  de- 
ceive or  mislead,  but  on  account  of  in- 
sufficient information.  The  natural  tend- 
ency in  all  such  matters  is  to  select  those 
points  which  are  certain  to  be  of  great 
benefit  and  publish  them  broadcast,  and 
to  neglect  the  difficulties  and  dangers 
which   lie  in  the  path  of  progress  along 


32 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


these  lines.  Farmers,  who  are  naturally 
conservative,  need  very  little  caution  in 
such  matters,  but  it  is  important  that  a 
full  understanding  of  the  difficulties  of 
these   problems   should    be    disseminated. 

It  is  quite  certain  that  if  alcohol  can 
be  produced  in  the  near  future  at  a  cost 
not  exceeding  25  or  30  cents  per  gallon  of 
95  per  cent  strength,  it  will  be  a  most 
valuable  source  of  power  on  the  faim. 
Although  with  the  present  relative  prices 
of  alcohol  and  gasolene  there  is  no  finan- 
cial advantage  in  the  use  of  the  former, 
it  is  highly  probable  that  the  price  of 
gasolene  will  advance  and  that  of  alco- 
hol fall.  Thus  the  farmhouse  and  the 
barn  may  be  liberally  supplied  with  water 
at  such  an  elevation  that  it  can  be  used 
with  all  the  facility  enjoyed  by  those 
who  live  in  the  city  by  means  of  a  safe, 
cheap,  and  effective  method  of  pumping 
made  possible  by  the  alcohol  motor.  The 
machinery  around  the  barn  and  the  sta- 
bles which  is  utilized  for  chopping  food 
and  grinding  grain  in  the  preparation  of 
rations  for  domesticated  animals  should 
be  of  a  character  which  is  efficient  and 
at  the  same  time  without  danger.  An 
alcohol  motor  placed  in  a  small  room 
separated  from  the  barn  at  such  a  dis- 
tance as  not  to  endanger  it  in  case  of  an 
accident  would  make  it  possible  to  sup- 
ply power  of  this  kind.  Although  alcohol 
is  far  less  dangerous  in  use  than  gasolene 
as  far  as  probability  of  explosion  is  con- 
cerned, there  should  be  no  misunderstand- 
ing respecting  the  fact  that  it  is  an  ex- 
plosive substance  both  when  in  the  form 
of  vapor  and  when  mixed  with  air.  and 
all  the  precautions  which  are  used  in  the 
case  of  gasolene  should  be  employed  also 
with  alcohol.  While  the  use  of  these  pre- 
cautions will  practically  eliminate  any 
source  of  danger,  it  is  nevertheless  ad- 
visable, even  in  the  case  of  alcohol,  to 
separate  the  building  in  which  it  is  used 
from  the  barn,  which  contains  more  or 
less  highly  combustible  matter.  The  fact 
that  a  substance  is  less  dangerous  than 
another  is  no  excuse  for  omitting  any  of 
the  precautions  to  prevent  injury  as  the 
result  of  accident. 


Uses  >'ot  Directly   for   Farm   Operations 

It  seems  advisable  that  some  of  the 
uses  of  industrial  alcohol  not  directly 
connected  with  farm  operations  should 
be  known  to  the  farmer,  in  order  that 
he  may  be  fully  informed  respecting  the 
industry  in  which  he  necessarily  takes  so 
important  a  part.  The  purposes  for 
which  tax-free  alcohol  can  be  used  in  the 
arts  are  fully  set  forth  in  a  public  docu- 
ment entitled  "Free  Alcohol,  Hearings 
before  the  Committee  on  Ways  and 
Means.  House  of  Representatives,  Fifty- 
ninth  Congress,  First  Session,  February- 
March.  1906."  A  very  full  discussion  of 
the  subject  is  also  found  in  an  English 
report  entitled  "Industrial  Alcohol  Com- 
mittee, Minutes  of  Evidence  Taken  Be- 
fore the  Departmental  Committee  on  In- 
dustrial Alcohol,  with  Appendices.  Pre- 
sented to  Both  Houses  of  Parliament  by 
Command  of  His  Majesty.  Printed  for 
His  Majesty's  Stationery  Office  by  Wy- 
man  &  Sons  (Limited),  Fetter  Lane.  Lon- 
don. E.  C,  1905."  The  evidence  submit- 
ted in  the  two  reports  mentioned  con- 
tains practically  all  that  is  known  con- 
cerning the  uses  of  denatured  alcohol.  It 
is  not  intended  here  even  to  make  a  res- 
ume of  this  evidence:  only  the  most  im- 
portant uses  which  are  benefited  by  tax- 
free  alcohol  can  be  mentioned. 

Yamishes,  Lacqners,  Etc. 

One  of  the  most  important  technical 
uses  of  alcohol  is  in  the  manufacture  of 
varnishes  and  lacquers,  where  the  gums 
which  are  employed  are  necessarily  dis- 
solved in  alcohol.  This  use  of  alcohol  is 
extremely  important  and  affects  a  great 
many  industries. 

Ether 

The  ether  of  commerce,  sometimes 
called  sulfuric  ether,  is  manufactured  ex- 
clusively from  alcohol  by  the  action  of 
sulfuric  acid  and  heat.  This  ether  is 
used  in  a  great  many  technical  operations, 
since  it  is  one  of  the  best  solvents  known, 
especially  for  fats.  It  is  also  extensively 
used  in  surgery  as  an  anesthetic.  Under 
the  present  arrangements  ether  used  for 
technical  purposes  can  only  be  made  from 
alcohol  on  which  tax  has  been  paid,  and 


ALCOHOL 


33 


thus  its  price  is  phenomenally  high.  By 
the  use  of  tax-free  alcohol  for  making 
ether,  this  price  would  be  proportionally 
reduced,  and  in  some  countries  the  law 
permits  the  use  of  alcohol  denatured  by 
a  special  formula  for  this  purpose.  The 
denaturation  of  alcohol  by  the  general 
process  prescribed  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Internal  Revenue  (a)  may  unfit  it  for 
the  manufacture  of  ether,  even  if  such 
use  were  deemed  admissible  under  the 
new  law  (6)  and  the  regulations  made  in 
conformity  therewith. 

Imitation  Silk 

The  substance  which  is  known  as  imi- 
tation silk  is  really  a  production  from 
cotton  or  other  cellulose  material  which, 
in  its  finished  state,  resembles  silk  some- 
what in  luster.  It  is  not  silk,  and  hence 
not  even  artificial  silk.  It  is  a  textile 
product  which  has  the  promise  of  a  suc- 
cessful future  and  is  therefore  of  interest 
not  only  to  the  manufacturer  and  the 
consumer  but  to  the  farmer  who  produces 
the  cellulose.  Imitation  silk  is  in  a  meas- 
ure the  same  substance  as  smokeless 
powder,  except  that  after  it  is  made  the 
nitrogenous  constituents  are  removed,  so 
as  to  restore  the  finished  product  again 
to  the -condition  of  ordinary  cotton,  devoid 
of  explosive  properties.  In  the  making 
of  imitation  silk  a  partial  nitrification  of 
the  cotton  is  accomplished  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  in  making  smokeless 
powder.  The  partially  nitrated  cotton  is 
then  reduced  to  a  paste  by  solution  in 
alcohol,  ether,  or  other  solvent,  and  in 
this  condition  is  forced  through  small  ori- 
fices, producing  fine  fibers  of  a  silky 
luster.  After  these  are  produced  the  oxid 
of  nitrogen  is  removed  from  them  by  a 
chemical  process  which  does  not  interfere 
with  their  lustrous  appearance.  These 
fibers  are  then  spun  and  woven  as  ordi- 

a  The  formula  for  completely  denaturins  al- 
cohol piven  by  the  regDlations  of  the  Unitpfl 
States  Internal  Revenue  is  as  follows.  To  100 
parts  of  ethyl  alcohol  add  10  parts  of  approved 
methyl  alcohol  and  one-half  of  1  part  of  ap- 
proved benzin.  Formulas  for  special  denatur- 
ants  for  specific  purposes  are  to  he  submitted 
b.v  manufacturers  to  the  Commissioner  of  In- 
ternal Revenue,  who  will  announce  from  time 
to  time  what  formulas  may  be  used  in  the 
several   classes   of   industries. 

h  For  the  text  of  the  law  permitting  the  use 
of  denatured  alcohol,  tax-free,  for  industrial 
purposes,  see  p.  28. 


nary  silk  or  cotton,  producing  fabrics 
which  resemble  in  luster  the  natural  silk. 
The  utilization  of  tax-free  alcohol  would 
be  a  great  stimulus  to  the  advancement 
of  industries  of  this  class. 

Artificial  Vinegar 

Dilute  alcohol,  commonly  known  as  low 
wines,  can  be  utilized  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  vinegar.  For  this  purpose  the 
dilute  alcohol  is  made  to  pass  over  the 
fresh  shavings  of  beech  wood.  These 
beech  shavings  furnish  the  organisms 
which  oxidize  the  alcohol  into  acetic  acid, 
and  after  passing  through  a  series  of  vats 
containing  these  shavings  the  alcohol  is 
converted  into  a  dilute  solution  of  acetic 
acid.  During  the  process  there  is  a  con- 
siderable loss  of  alcohol  by  evaporation. 
It  is  estimated  that  only  about  70  per 
cent  of  alcohol  is  finally  recovered  as  vin- 
egar. This  material  ought  not  to  be 
called  vinegar,  as  it  is  acetic  acid  pure 
and  simple.  It  is  colored  and  treated  so 
as  to  resemble  vinegar  made  from  cider 
or  wine  or  malt,  and  to  this  extent  be- 
comes an  adulteration.  This  industry 
may  be  mentioned  as  one  that  would  be 
promoted  by  the  use  of  tax-free  alcohol, 
although  it  deserves  little  if  any  encour- 
agement. Section  59  of  the  Regulations 
concerning  denatured  alcohol,  however,  es- 
pecially names  "manufacturers  of  vinegar 
by  the  vaporizing  process"  among  the 
classes  of  persons  who  may  not  store  de- 
natured alcohol  on  their  premises  or 
make  use  of  it. 

Flavoring  Extracts 

The  flavoring  extracts  of  commerce  are 
made  largel.v  with  alcohol  as  a  solvent. 
This  should  be  the  purest  possible  alcohol, 
and  since  it  can  not  possibly  be  denatured 
and  still  remain  potable  and  attractive, 
the  law  would  probably  not  apply  under 
conditions  of  this  kind. 

Use  of  Undenatnred  Alcohol  Free  of'  Tax 

Lender  laws  other  than  the  denatured  al- 
cohol law.  alcohol  may  be  withdrawn  from 
the  distillery  warehouse  free  of  tax  for 
certain  purposes.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned  its  use  by  the  United  States 
Government,  its  use  for  scientific  pur- 
poses   under   certain    conditions,    and    its 


34 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


use  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from 
sorghum.  During  the  year  ended  June 
30,  1905,  2,112,830.9  gallons  of  spirits  were 
withdrawn  for  these  purposes.  Details  in 
regard  to  such  withdrawals  can  be  ob- 
tained from  the  Commissioner  of  Internal 
Revenue,  whose  annual  report  for  the 
year  ended  on  the  date  mentioned  fur- 
nishes valuable  information  for  those  pro- 
posing to  engage  in  any  way  in  the  dis- 
tillation of  alcohol. 

Attention  should  also  be  called  to  the 
fact  that  large  quantities  of  undenatured 
alcohol  are  manufactured  in  the  United 
States  on  which  no  tax  is  paid.  The  prin- 
cipal sources  of  this  alcohol  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

Hard  Cider 

The  natural  conversion  of  sweet  cider 
into  hard  cider  by  the  ferments  which  it 
contains  is  a  process  in  which  large 
quantities  of  alcohol  are  produced  and 
on  which  no  tax  is  paid.  The  term  alco- 
hol when  used  alone  does  not  apply  to 
such  products,  but  only  to  alcohol  pro- 
duced by  distillation.  As  is  well  known, 
the  sugar  which  is  one  of  the  principal 
constituents  of  fresh  cider  is  mixed  with 
yeasts  which  naturally  attach  to  apples, 
so  that  when  exposed  without  steriliza- 
tion fermentation  takes  place,  the  sugar 
disappears,  and  alcohol  is  formed.  If  we 
assume  that  the  average  apple  juice  con- 
tains 12  per  cent  of  fermentable  matter, 
it  is  seen  that  about  six  per  cent  of  alcohol 
may  be  developed  in  a  hard  cider.  No 
tax  is  put  upon  this  cider,  nor  is  there 
any  supervision  on  the  part  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Internal  Revenue  in  its 
production. 

AVine 

In  the  manufacture  of  wine  the  natural 
yeasts  which  attach  to  the  grapes  pro- 
duce in  the  expressed  grape  juice  a  fer- 
mentation by  means  of  which  the  grape 
juice  is  converted  into  wine.  This  is  a 
vast  industi-y  in  many  countries  and  a 
very  important  industry  in  the  United 
States.  The  alcohol  which  is  formed  in 
this  way  pays  no  tax,  nor  does  the  manu- 
facturer of  ordinary  wines  conduct  his 
business  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue.   What 


is  true  of  the  juices  of  the  grape  and  the 
apple  is  true  of  other  fruit  juices.  They 
may  be  all  of  them  fermented  and  their 
sugar  converted  into  alcohol  without  Gov- 
ernment supervision  and  without  paying 
any  tax.  But  when  the  alcohol  which  is 
produced  by  the  fermentation  of  fruit 
juices  is  subjected  to  distillation  it  comes 
under  the  control  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Internal  Revenue.  The  distillation  of  al- 
cohol from  waste  products  is  conducted 
under  special  regulations  authorized  by 
law. 

Sweet  Wine 
Brandy  and  other  distilled  spirits  made 
from  grapes  or  their  refuse  may  be  used 
for  fortifying  sweet  wines  upon  the  pay- 
ment of  a  nominal  tax  of  3  cents  a  gallon, 
as  provided  for  by  the  following  act  of 
Congress,  which  indicates  the  character  of 
the  wines  that  may  be  fortified  in  this 
way: 

AN  ACT  To  amend  existing  laws  relating 
to  the  fortification  of  pure  sweet  wines. 
Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America  in  Congress  asesmhled.  That 
section  forty-three  of  the  Act  entitled 
"An  Act  to  reduce  the  revenue  and  equal- 
ize duties  on  imports,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses," approved  October  first,  eighteen 
hundred  and  ninety,  as  amended  by  sec- 
tion sixty-eight  of  the  Act  of  August 
twenty-seventh,  eighteen  hundred  and 
ninety-four,  be  further  amended,  so  as 
to  read  as  follows: 

Sec.  43.  That  the  wine  spirits  men- 
tioned in  section  forty-two  of  this  Act 
is  the  product  resulting  from  the  distilla- 
tion of  fermented  grape  juice,  to  which 
water  may  have  been  added  prior  to,  dur- 
ing, or  after  fermentation,  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  facilitating  the  fermentation 
and  economical  distillation  thereof,  and 
shall  be  held  to  include  the  product  from 
grapes  or  their  residues,  commonly 
known  as  grape  brandy:  and  the  pure 
sweet  wine,  which  may  be  fortified  free 
of  tax,  as  provided  in  said  section,  is 
fermented  grape  juice  only,  and  shall  con- 
tain no  other  substance  whatever  intro- 
duced before,  at  the  time  of,  or  after 
fermentation,  except  as  herein  expressly 
provided;  and  such  sweet  wine  shall  con- 
tain not  less  than  four  per  centum  of 
saccharine  matter,  which  saccharine 
strength  may  be  determined  by  testing 
with  Balling's  saccharometer  or  must 
scale,  such  sweet  wine,  after  the  evapora- 
tion of  the  spirits  contained  therein,  and 


ALCOHOL 


35 


restoring  the  sample  tested  to  original 
volume  by  addition  of  water:  Provided, 
That  the  addition  of  pure  boiled  or  con- 
densed grape  must  or  pure  crystallized 
cane  or  beet  sugar  or  pure  anhydrous  su- 
gar to  the  pure  grape  juice  aforesaid,  or 
the  fermented  product  of  such  grape  juice 
prior  to  the  fortification  provided  by  this 
Act  for  the  sole  purpose  of  perfecting 
sweet  wines  according  to  commercial 
standard,  or  the  addition  of  water  in 
such  quantities  only  as  may  be  neces- 
sary in  the  mechanical  operation  of  grape 
conveyors,  crushers,  and  pipes  leading  to 
fermenting  tanks,  shall  not  be  excluded 
by  the  definition  of  pure  sweet  wine 
aforesaid:  Provided,  however.  That  the 
cane  or  beet  sugar,  or  pure  anhydrous 
sugar,  or  water,  so  used  shall  not  in 
either  case  be  in  excess  of  ten  per  centum 
of  the  weight  of  the  wine  to  be  fortified 
under  this  Act:  And  provided  further. 
That  the  addition  of  water  herein  author- 
ized shall  be  under  such  regulations  and 
limitations  as  the  Commissioner  of  Inter- 
nal Revenue,  with  the  approval  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  may  from  time 
to  time  prescribe:  but  in  no  case  shall 
such  wines  to  which  water  has  been 
added  be  eligible  for  fortification  under 
the  provisions  of  this  Act  where  the 
same,  after  fermentation  and  before  for- 
tification, have  an  alcoholic  strength  of 
less  than  five  per  centum  of  their  vol- 
ume. 

Sec.  2.  That  section  forty-nine  of  said 
Act,  approved  October  first,  eighteen  hun- 
dred and  ninety,  be  amended  so  as  to 
read   as   follows: 

Sec.  49.  That  wine  spirits  used  in  for- 
tifying wines  may  be  recovered  from 
such  wine  only  on  the  premises  of  a 
duly  authorized  grape-brandy  distiller; 
and  for  the  purpose  of  such  recovery 
wine  so  fortified  may  be  received  as  ma- 
terial on  the  premises  of  such  a  distiller, 
on  a  special  permit  of  the  collector  of 
internal  revenue  in  whose  district  the 
distillery  is  located:  and  the  distiller  will 
be  held  to  pay  the  tax  on  a  product  from 
such  wines  as  will  include  both  the  alco- 
holic strength  therein  produced  by  the 
fermentation  of  the  grape  juice  and  that 
obtained  from  the  added  distilled  spirits, 
subject,  however,  to  the  provisions  of 
section  thirty-three  hundred  and  nine  of 
the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States. 
as  amended  by  section  six  of  the  Act 
entitled  "An  Act  to  amend  the  laws  re- 
lating to  internal  revenue."  approved 
March  first,  eighteen  hundred  and  seventy- 
nine:  and  such  spirits  so  recovered  may 
be  used  by  such  distiller  to  fortify  wines 
as  authorized  by  section  forty-two  of  the 
aforesaid  Act.  approved  October  first, 
eighteen  hundred  and  ninety. 

Sec.  3.     That  the  Commissioner  of  In- 


ternal Revenue  is  hereby  authorized  to 
assign  at  each  winery  where  wines  are 
to  be  fortified  such  number  of  gangers 
or  storekeeper  gangers,  in  the  capacity  of 
gangers,  for  special  duties  as  may  be  nec- 
essary for  the  proper  supervision  of  the 
making  and  fortifying  of  such  wines,  and 
the  compensation  of  such  officers  shall 
not  exceed  five  dollars  per  diem  while 
so  assigned,  together  with  their  actual 
and  necessary  traveling  expenses,  and 
also  a  reasonable  allowance  for  their 
board  bills,  to  be  fixed  by  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Internal  Revenue,  but  not  to 
exceed  two  dollars  per  day  for  said  board 
bills:  and  to  cover  the  expenses  to  the 
Government  attending  the  making  and 
fortification  of  such  sweet  wines  there 
shall  be  levied  and  assessed  against  each 
maker  of  such  wines,  and  collected 
monthly,  a  charge  of  three  cents  on  each 
taxable  gallon  of  brandy  used  by  him  in 
the  fortification  of  such  wines  during 
the  preceding  month.  That  bonds  here- 
after given  under  the  provisions  of  the 
aforesaid  Act  of  October  first,  eighteen 
hundred  and  ninety,  as  amended,  shall 
be  conditioned  for  the  payment  of  the 
tax  on  all  brandy  removed  thereunder 
and  not  used  and  accounted  for  within 
the  time  and  in  the  manner  required 
by  law  and  regulations,  and  for  the  pay- 
ment of  all  charges  herein  imposed  on 
the  brandy  so  withdrawn  and  used;  and 
the  said  bond  shall  contain  such  other 
conditions  as  the  Commissioner  of  In- 
ternal Revenue,  with  the  approval  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  may  by  regula- 
tion prescribe. 

Sec.  4.  That  where  brandy  to  be  used 
in  the  fortification  of  wine  is  distilled  on 
premises  adjacent  to  the  winery  premises 
the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue 
may,  in  his  discretion,  authorize  the  erec- 
tion on  either  of  said  premises  of  fer- 
menting vats  for  material  to  be  used 
either  in  the  manufacture  of  such  wines 
or  the  brandy  to  be  used  in  the  fortifica- 
tion thereof:  and  all  such  materials  used 
or  received  on  either  of  said  premises 
shall  be  under  the  supervision  of  the 
officer  assigned  to  such  winery,  and  shall 
be  accounted  for  at  such  times  and  in 
such  manner  as  the  Commissioner  may 
direct. 

Sec  5.  That  the  provisions  of  sections 
thirty-two  hundred  and  twenty-one  and 
thirty-two  hundred  and  twenty-three  of 
the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States, 
as  amended  by  an  Act  approved  March 
first,  eighteen  hundred  and  seventy-nine, 
are  hereby  extended  to  grape  brandy  with- 
drawn for  use  in  the  fortification  of  sweet 
wines,  and  which,  prior  to  such  use,  is 
accidentally  destroyed  by  fire  or  other 
casualty  while  stored  in  the  fortifying 
room  on  the  winery  premises. 


36 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Sec.  6.  That  any  person  who  by  any 
process  recovers  from  wines  fortified  un- 
der the  provisions  of  the  aforesaid  Act 
approved  October  first,  eighteen  hundred 
and  ninety,  or  amendments  thereto,  any 
brandy  or  wine  spirits  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture or  fortification  of  said  wine, 
otherwise  than  is  provided  for  in  said 
Act  and  its  amendments,  or  who  shall 
rectify,  mix,  or  compound  with  other  dis- 
tilled spirits  such  fortified  wines  or  grape 
brandy  or  wine  spirits  unlawfully  recov- 
ered therefrom,  shall,  on  conviction,  be 
punished  for  each  such  offense  by  a  fine 
of  not  less  than  two  hundred  dollars  nor 
more  than  one  thousand  dollars.  But  the 
provisions  of  this  section,  and  the  pro- 
visions of  section  thirty-two  hundred  and 
forty-four  of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the 
United  States,  as  amended,  relating  to 
rectification,  shall  not  be  held  to  apply 
to  the  blending  of  pure  sweet  wines  for- 
tified under  the  provisions  of  the  said  Act 
of  October  first,  eighteen  hundred  and 
ninety,  or  amendments  thereto,  where 
such  wines  are  blended  for  the  sole  pur- 
pose of  perfecting  the  same  according  to 


commercial  standard. 


H.  W.  Wiley, 


Chief,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

ALCOHOL    AND    GASOLINE    IN    FARM 

ENGINES 

Sources  of  Power 

There  are  two  great  sources  of  power 
and  an  infinitely  varied  series  of  me- 
chanical devices  and  machines  for  the 
generation  of  power.  Water  power  always 
has  been  used  and  probably  always  will 
be  used  so  long  as  the  rain  falls,  but  it 
is  insufficient  for  our  present  needs  or 
geographically  unavailable.  The  greatest 
source  of  power  is  fuel.  Fuels  may  be 
divided  into  two  series — those  that  now 
exist  in  the  form  of  natural  deposits  and 
those  which  are  being  produced  continu- 
ously. All  of  the  coals,  hard  and  soft, 
with  the  lignites  and  peats,  the  crude  oils 
and  natural  gas,  exist  in  the  form  of 
deposits;  and,  while  it  is  true  that  the 
decay  of  vegetable  matter  may  be  today 
forming  more  deposits  of  the  same  nature, 
It  is  equally  true  that  we  are  using  the 
present  supply  faster  than  the  rate  of  pro- 
duction. The  newest  fuel  for  power  pur- 
poses is  alcohol.  This  is  made  from  the 
yearly  crops  of  plants.  There  is  in  ex- 
istence no  natural  deposit  of  alcohol,  but 
In  a  sense  it  may  be  said  to  be  possible  to 
produce  inexhaustible  supplies. 


It  is  only  within  recent  time  that  en- 
gineers have  known  how  to  build  engines 
that  would  produce  power  from  alcohol; 
and  still  more  recent  is  the  further  dis- 
covery by  engineers  that  this  power  can 
be  produced  at  a  cost  which  may  permit 
its  general  introduction. 

By  far  the  largest  part  of  the  power  now 
being  used  comes  from  steam  produced 
by  the  use  of  coal.  This  is  chiefly  due  to 
the  fact  that  as  a  rule  when  it  can  be 
used  it  is  cheaper  than  possible  suljsti- 
tutes,  although  it  is  partly  due  to  the  fact 
that  steam  power  is  better  adapted  to  some 
classes  of  work  and  is  older  and  better 
known  than  power  generated  by  the  gas 
engine  in  its  varied  forms.  In  the  point 
of  present  use,  water  power  stands  next 
to  steam  in  importance.  This  is  largely 
due  to  the  fact  that  water  power  is  among 
the  earliest  in  point  of  development,  but 
more  largely  to  the  fact  that  it  has  be- 
come possible  to  transform  water  power 
into  electrical  power,  which  can  be 
transmitted  long  distances,  and  so  over- 
come geographical  isolation  of  the 
sources. 

Next  in  quantity  produced  stands  power 
generated  by  the  gas  engine.  This  class 
of  engines  includes  all  machines  in  which 
the  fuel  mixed  with  air  is  burned  or  ex- 
ploded within  the  working  chambers, 
whether  the  fuel  be  gas  produced  from 
coal,  natural  gas,  vapors  of  any  of  the 
mineral  oils,  vegetable  or  animal  oils,  or 
alcohol.  The  subordinate  position  occu- 
pied by  this  source  of  power  is  due  partly 
to  the  fact  that  engineers  have  only  re 
cently  discovered,  and  are  today  discover- 
ing, how  best  to  build  these  machines  and 
adapt  them  to  the  work  they  are  to  do. 
Wind  and  wave  power  stand  at  the  foot 
of  the  list  and  always  will,  so  far  as 
quantity  of  power  developed  is  concerned. 
This  is  because  of  the  irregularity  of  the 
sources  of  supply  and  their  comparatively 
feeble  nature. 

Comparative  Cost  of  Power  from 
Different  Sources 

The  cost  of  producing  power  from  any 
of  the  above  sources  is  made  up  of  a  num- 
ber of  items,  including  interest  on  the 
first  cost  of  the  installation,  depreciation 


ALCOHOL 


37 


of  the  apparatus,  its  insurance,  etc.,  usu- 
ally called  the  "fixed  chargts."  To  these 
should  be  added  the  costs  of  fuel,  of  labor 
for  attendance,  and  of  repairs,  as  the 
principal  items,  and  the  cost  of  lubri- 
cants, material  for  cleaning,  and  a  great 
many  other  small  miscellaneous  items,  all 
going  to  form  what  are  commonly  called 
"operating  charges."  In  all  cases  where 
fuel  is  used  its  cost  is,  if  not  the  most 
important,  certainly  a  very  important 
item.  In  the  case  of  water  power,  where 
the  fuel  element  is  zero,  the  advantage  is 
offset  by  an  interest  charge  on  the  cost 
of  installation  for  dams,  pipes,  tunnels, 
shafts,  etc.  Assuming  that  power  from 
all  of  these  different  sources  is  equally 
well  adapted  to  the  particular  work  to 
be  done  and  equally  available,  then  that 
system  will  be  selected  for  any  particular 
case  for  which  the  cost  of  power  is  least. 
Leaving  out  of  consideration  water  power, 
it  is  found  that  the  labor  costs  do  not 
differ  nearly  so  widely  for  the  different 
systems,  nor  are  they  so  large,  as  the 
fuel  cost.  Therefore,  the  great  question 
today  in  power  production  as  regards  im- 
mediate cost  of  power  and  maintenance  is 
this  lowering  of  the  fuel  cost. 

The  cost  of  fuel  per  unit  of  power  de- 
veloped depends,  first,  on  the  market  price 
of  that  fuel  at  the  point  where  it  is  to  be 
used,  and  next,  but  by  no  means  least,  on 
the  ability  of  the  machinery  to  transform 
the  fuel  energy  into  useful  work.  If  all 
the  different  kinds  of  machinery  used  for 
power  generation  could  turn  into  useful 
work  the  same  proportion  of  the  energ>- 
in  the  fuel,  coal  would  be  almost  univers- 
ally used,  because  of  the  present  low  cost 
of  energy  in  this  form. 

f onijiaratiTe  Cost  of  Energy  in  Different 
Fnels 

The  different  kinds  of  fuel  contain  dif- 
ferent amounts  of  energj'  per  pound — 
that  is  to  say,  they  have  different  heat- 
ing powers.  Heat  energy  is  measured  in 
terms  of  a  technical  unit  called  by  Eng- 
lish-speaking people  the  "British  thermal 
unit"  (B.  T.  U.).  This  unit  is  the  amount 
of  heat  that  will  raise  the  temperature 
of  one  pound  of  water  one  degree  on  the 
Fahrenheit  thermometer.     In   comparing. 


therefore,  the  value  of  fuels  for  power 
purposes  there  must  be  taken  into  consid- 
eration two  facts — the  market  price  of 
the  fuel  and  the  amount  of  heat  which 
will  be  liberated  when  it  is  burned.  An- 
thracite coal  in  the  neighborhood  of  New 
York  can  be  bought  in  small  sizes  in 
large  quantities  for  power  purposes  at 
about  $2. .50  per  ton.  This  coal  will  con- 
tain about  12,.500  B.  T.  U.  per  pound.  This 
is  equivalent  to  about  10,000,000  heat  units 
per  dollar.  Large  sizes,  such  as  egg  coal, 
containing  about  14,000  B.  T.  U.  per 
pound,  can  be  bought  in  large  quantities 
for  about  $6.25  per  ton,  which  is  equiva- 
lent to  4,500,000  B.  T.  U.  per  dollar. 
Other  grades  of  anthracite  coal  and  the 
various  grades  and  qualities  of  bitumin- 
ous coal  will  lie  between  these  two  limits 
of  cost.  Illuminating  gas  in  New  York 
costs  $1  per  1,000  cubic  feet,  which  is 
equivalent  to  about  500,000  heat  units  per 
dollar.  Natural  gas  in  the  Middle  States 
is  sold  for  10  cents  per  1,000  cubic  feet 
and  upward.  This  fuel  at  the  minimum 
price  will  furnish  about  10.000,000  heat 
units  for  a  dollar.  Crude  oil  sells  in  the 
East  at  a  minimum  price  of  4  cents  per 
gallon,  which  is  equivalent  to  about  4.000,- 
000  heat  units  per  dollar.  Gasoline  sells 
at  a  minimum  price  of  10  cents  per  gallon, 
which  is  equivalent  to  about  1,200,000  heat 
units  per  dollar.  Kerosene  sells  from  10 
to  30  cents  per  gallon,  which  is  equivalent 
to  1,200,000  and  400,000  heat  units  per  dol- 
lar, respectively.  Grain  alcohol,  such  as 
will  De  freed  from  tax  under  the  recent 
legislation,  will  sell  for  an  unknown  price; 
but  for  the  purpose  of  comparison  assum- 
ing 30  cents  per  gallon  as  a  minimum, 
it  will  give  270,000  heat  units  per  dollar. 
Gasoline,  kerosene,  crude  oils,  and.  in  fact, 
all  of  the  distillates  have  about  the  same 
amount  of  heat  per  dollar,  whereas  at 
the  same  price  per  gallon,  ignoring  the 
slight  difference  in  density,  they  would 
deliver  to  the  consumer  about  the  same 
amount  of  heat  per  dollar,  whereas  the 
other  liquid  fuel,  alcohol,  if  sold  at  an 
equal  price,  would  give  the  consumer  only 
about  three-fifths  the  amount  of  heat  for 
the  same  money.  From  the  figures  above 
given  it  appears  that  the  cost  of  heat  en- 
ergj' contained  in  the  above  fuels,  at  the 


38 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


fair  market  prices  given,  varies  widely, 
lying  between  200,000  heat  units  per  dollar 
and  10,000,000  heat  units  per  dollar.  It 
is  possible  to  buy  eight  times  as  much 
energy  for  a  given  amount  of  money  in 
the  form  of  cheap  coal  as  in  the  form  of 
low-priced  gasoline,  or  25  times  as  much 
as  in  the  form  of  high-priced  gasoline  or 
kerosene.  This  being  true,  it  might  seem 
to  a  casual  observer  as  rather  strange  that 
gasoline  should  be  used  at  all,  and  the 
fact  that  it  is  used  in  competition  with 
fuel  of  one-eighth  to  one  twenty-fifth 
its  cost  shows  clearly  that  either  the  gaso- 
line engine  has  some  characteristics  not 
possessed  by  an  engine  or  plant  using 
coal,  which  makes  it  able  to  do  things 
the  other  can  not  do,  or  that  more  of  the 
heat  it  contains  can  be  transformed  into 
energy  for  useful  work.  Both  of  these 
things  are  true. 

Thermal  Efficienoy 

As  was  pointed  out  before,  the  different 
kinds  of  machinery  used  to  generate  pow- 
er render  more  or  less  of  the  fuel  energy 
into  useful  work;  all  systems  do  not  give 
equal  returns  for  equal  amounts  of  heat 
supplied.  If  all  the  heat  energy  in  fuel 
were  transformed  into  work  with  no  losses 
whatever  in  the  mechanism,  the  machin- 
ery would  be  said  to  have  a  thermal  ef- 
ficiency of  100  per  cent,  and  it  would  re- 
quire 2,545  heat  units  per  hour  to  main- 
tain an  output  of  one  horsepower.  If  half 
of  the  energy  in  the  fuel  were  lost  in  the 
machinery,  its  thermal  efficiency  would  be 
said  to  be  50  per  cent,  and  there  would 
be  required  5.090  heat  units  per  hour.  If 
only  one  per  cent  of  the  heat  energy  in 
the  fuel  were  transformed  into  useful 
work,  the  efficiency  of  the  machinery  or 
power  plant  would  be  said  to  be  one  per 
cent  and  there  would  be  required  254.500 
heat  units  per  hour  to  maintain  one  horse- 
power. 

Steam  plants  in  use  represent  a  great 
variety  of  styles  or  types,  but  in  general 
it  may  be  said  that  the  more  complicated 
and  refined  the  plant  the  larger  its  size 
the  more  efficient  it  is,  because  the  com- 
plication exists  only  as  evidence  of  an 
attempt  to  minimize  the  losses  of  heat  in 
the  machinery.    Similarly  the  more  stead- 


ily the  plant  works  at  the  output  for  which 
it  was  designed  the  higher  the  efficiency 
of  the  plant,  and,  conversely,  the  smaller 
the  plant  the  simpler  the  apparatus,  or 
the  more  intermittently  it  works,  the 
lower  its  efficiency.  Steam-power  plants 
are  built  today  to  do  every  conceivable 
sort  of  work,  and  range  in  size  from  one 
horsepower  to  100.000  horsepower.  For 
purposes  of  comparison  neither  the  larg- 
est nor  the  smallest  should  be  used,  nor 
the  best  performance  nor  the  worst  per- 
formance of  these  plants,  but  a  figure  rep- 
resenting a  fair  average  for  the  conditions 
named  should  be  taken.  Large  steam 
plants  in  their  daily  work  seldom  use  less 
than  two  pounds  of  poor  coal  per  hour 
for  each  useful  horsepower  (known  as  a 
brake  horsepower),  which  is  equivalent  to 
about  25,000  B.  T.  U.  per  hour,  and  which 
corresponds  to  about  10  per  cent  thermal 
efficiency.  Small  steam  plants  working 
intermittently,  such  as  hoisting  engines, 
may  use  as  high  as  seven  pounds  of  coal 
per  brake  horsepower,  which  is  equivalent 
to  about  100,000  heat  units  per  brake 
horsepower  hour,  or  2.5  per  cent  thermal 
efficiency.  Some  plants  will  do  better  than 
the  above  with  proper  conditions,  and 
some  may  do  worse,  but  in  general  it  may 
be  said  that  the  performances  of  steam 
plants  lie  between  the  limits  of  2.5  and  10 
per  cent  thermal  efficiency. 

Plants  consisting  of  gas  producers  for 
transforming  coal  into  gas  for  use  in  gas 
engines  have  in  general  a  much  higher 
thermal  efficiency  than  steam  plants  do- 
ing the  same  work.  They  are,  however, 
not  built  quite  so  small  as  steam  plants, 
the  smallest  being  about  25  horsepower, 
and  in  general  they  have  not  been  built 
so  large,  the  largest  being  only  a  few 
thousand  horsepower.  Their  efficiency, 
however,  does  not  vary  so  much  as  is  the 
case  with  steam  plants.  It  may  be  fair  to 
say  that  under  the  same  conditions  as 
above  outlined  these  plants  will  use  I14 
to  2  pounds  of  coal  of  fair  or  poor  quality 
per  brake  horsepower  hour,  which  gives 
a  thermal  efficiency  ranging  from  IS  to  10 
per  cent.  These  plants  can  be  made  to  do 
much  better  than  this,  and  perhaps  may 
do  worse,  although  the  variation  is  not 
nearly  so  great  as  for  steam  plants. 


ALCOHOL 


39 


Gas  engines  operating  on  natural  gas 
or  on  illuminating  gas  from  city  mains 
will,  on  fluctuation  of  load  with  the  reg- 
ular work,  average  about  12,000  heat  units 
per  brake  horsepower  hour,  or  20  per  cent 
thermal  efficiency.  Exploding  engines 
operating  on  crude  oil  will  average  about 
2.5,000  heat  units  per  brake  horsepower 
hour,  which  is  equivalent  to  about  10  per 
cent  thermal  efficiency.  Exploding  en- 
gines using  gasoline  should  operate  at  a 
thermal  efficiency  of  about  19  per  cent  un- 
der similar  operating  conditions. 

The  efficiency  of  an  alcohol  engine  may 
be  assumed  at  this  time  to  be  unknown, 
but  as  alcohol  can  be  burned  in  engines 
designed  for  gasoline,  it  may  be  assumed 
that  such  an  engine  will  have  with  alcohol 
fuel  the  same  thermal  efficiency  as  with 
gasoline,  to-wit,  19  per  cent  for  fair  work- 
ing conditions. 

From  the  above  brief  discussion  of  the 
efficiency  of  different  methods  of  power 
generation  from  different  fuels  it  appears 
that  quite  a  range  is  possible,  though  not 


so  great  a  range  as  exists  in  the  case  of 
cost  of  fuel  energy.  Efficiency  is  seen  to 
lie  somewhere  between  2^i;  and  20  per  cent 
for  all  the  fuels  under  working  conditions. 
It  is  known  that  actual  thermal  efficiency 
under  bad  conditions  may  be  less  than  one 
per  cent  and  under  the  best  conditions 
as  high  as  40  per  cent,  but  these  are  rare 
and  unusual  cases.  The  range  given  is 
sufficient  to  indicate  that  a  highly  effi- 
cient method  may  make  the  fuel  cost  per 
unit  of  power  less  with  quite  expensive 
fuel  than  it  would  be  with  cheaper  fuel 
used  in  a  less  efficient  machine.  It  is 
also  perfectly  clear  that  without  proper 
information  on  the  efficiency  of  the  ma- 
chine or  the  efficiency  of  the  plant  it  is 
impossible  to  tell  what  the  cost  of  fuel 
per  horsepower  hour  will  be,  even  though 
the  price  of  the  fuel  per  ton  or  per  gal- 
lon be  known.  From  the  figures  given  on 
the  cost  of  fuel  and  a  fair  average  for 
plant  efficiency  the  cost  of  fuel  per  horse- 
power hour  is  computed  as  given  in  the 
following  tables: 


Cost  of  Energy  in  Fuels 


Kind  of  Fuel 


Cost  of  Fuel 


British  thermal  units 
(B.  T.  U.) 


Number  of 

B.  T.  U. 

bought 

for  SI 


Small  .anthracite . 
Large  anthracite. 
Illuminating  gas. 

Natural  gas 

Crude  oil 

Kerosene 

do       

Gasoline 

do        

Grain  alcohol . . . . 

do       


$2.50  per  ton 

6.25  per  ton 

1.00  per  1.000  cubic  feet. 

.10  per  1.000  cubic  feet. 

.04  per  gallon 

.10  per  gallon 

.30  per  gallon 

.10  per  gallon 

.30  per  gallon 

.30  per  gallon 

.40  per  gallon 


12,500 
14,000 
5.50 
1,000 
20,000 
20,000 
20,000 
20,000 
20,000 
12,000 
12,000 


per  pound .... 
per  pound .... 
per  cubic  foot, 
per  cubic  foot. 
per  pound. .  .  . 
per  pound .... 
per  pound. .  .  . 
per  pound. .  .  . 
per  pound .... 
per  pound ... . 
per  pound .... 


10,000,000 

4,500,000 

550,000 

10,000,000 

3,650,000 

1,200.000 

400,000 

1,200,000 

400,000 

270,000 

200.000 


Fuel  Cost  of  Power 


British 



Fuel  required 

thermal 

Cost  of 

per 

units  re- 

Thermal 

fuel  per 

Fuel  and  type  of  plant 

quired  per 

efficiency 

Cost  of  fuel 

horsepower 

horsepower 

horsepower 

per  hour 

per  hour 

hour 

.\nthracite  coal: 

Per  cent    . 

Cents 

Large  steam  plant 

2  poimds 

25,000 

10 

S2.50  per  ton 

0.25 

do          

2  pounds .... 

25,000 

10 

6.25  per  ton 

.57 

Small  steam  plant.. .  . 

7  poxmds 

100,000 

2H 

2.50  per  ton 

1.00 

do 

100,000 

2H 

6.25  per  ton 

2.20 

Producer  ga.s  plant . .  . 
do 

14  000 

18 

2.50  per  ton. 

14 

14,000 

18 

6.25  per  ton 

.31 

do       

25,000 

10 

.25 

do       

2  pounds 

25,000 

10 

6.25  per  ton 

.57 

Tlluminating  ea.s 

24  cubic  feet. 

12,000 

20 

1.00  per  1.000  cubic  feet. 

2.20 

1.4  pints. 

25,000 

10 

.68 

Gasoline 

1.1  pints 

13,400 

19 

.15  per  gallon 

1.70 

do       

1.1  pints 

13.400 

19 

3.40 

Alcohol 

al9 

.30  per  gallon 

5.00 

do       

ol9 

.40  per  gallon 

6.70 

a  Efficiency  of  alcohol  is  assumed  to  be  the  same   as 
tioDS  of  use. 


that  of  gasoline  for   identical   condl- 


40 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Ad.iptabnity  of  Various  Types  of 
Engines 

The  foregoing  table  shows  very  clearly 
that  the  cost  for  fuel  to  maintain  a  brake 
horsepower  for  one  hour  varies  widely, 
and  at  the  prices  given  the  dearest  costs 
nearly  48  times  as  much  as  the  cheapest. 
The  fact  that  not  everybody  uses  the  fuel 
giving  the  cheapest  power  in  point  of  fuel 
cost,  but  that  even  the  most  expensive 
finds  a  ready  market,  makes  it  clear  that 
there  must  be  good  reasons.  These  rea- 
sons may  be  found  in  local  variations  in 
price  of  fuel,  in  differences  in  adaptabil- 
ity of  the  engines  to  the  work  required, 
and  in  the  fact  that  the  above  figures 
show  fuel  cost  only,  whereas  there  are 
great  differences  in  the  cost  of  attend- 
ance. An  elaborate  steam  plant,  to  be  even 
fairly  efficient,  must  be  continuously  op- 
erated at  fairly  heavy  load;  intermittent 
working  or  working  at  a  decreased  out- 
put makes  them  wasteful  of  fuel.  More- 
over, the  apparatus  is  so  complicated, 
slow  to  start  up,  and  dangerous  to  life 
and  property  in  careless  or  inexperienced 
hands  that  persons  must  become  skilled 
by  years  of  study  and  practice  before 
they  may  he  allowed  the  handling. 

The  gas  engine  with  its  producer  can 
handle  today  the  same  kind  of  coal  that 
is  used  in  steam  plants,  and  yet  the 
weight  of  this  apparatus  and  its  lack  of 
flexibility  compared  with  steam  engines, 
make  it  unavailable  for  steamships  and 
locomotives;  so  it  is  clear  again  that 
adaptability  to  service  is  even  more  im- 
portant than  the  cost  of  fuel.  Similarly, 
gas-producer  plants  have  not  yet  been 
successful  for  sizes  smaller  than  25 
horsepower,  and  especially  unsuccessful 
have  they  been  so  far  for  intermittent 
work.  For  the  small  sizes  the  steam 
plant  is  also  very  wasteful  of  fuel,  re- 
quires a  skilled  operator,  and  is  slow  in 
starting;  so  it  is  clear  why  engines  burn- 
ing crude  oil,  gasoline,  kerosene,  and 
other  liquid  fuels  explosively  should  be 
used  for  light  work  in  isolated  situations 
where  the  work  is  intermittent  and  where 
quick  starting  and  small  care  in  attend- 
ance are  essential.  In  this  connection  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  a  kerosene, 
gasoline,  or  crude-oil  engine  can  be  start- 


ed in  a  few  minutes  and  can  even  be  left 
running  for  practically  a  whole  day  with 
only  an  occasional  examination  to  see 
that  the  oil  cups  are  flowing  properly  and 
the  bearings  are  not  getting  hot  through 
being  dirty.  Steam  engines  with  their 
boilers,  on  the  contrary,  can  not  be 
started  inside  of  one  or  two  hours,  and 
all  the  fuel  necessary  to  raise  steam  is 
wasted  so  far  as  the  work  to  be  done  is 
concerned.  Moreover,  a  steam  engine  re 
quires  continuous  feeding  of  coal  and 
close  attention,  so  that  a  man  must  be 
always  near  it  having  no  other  duties 
but  its  care. 

In  the  natural-gas  regions  a  large  num- 
ber of  gas  engines  are  working  and  in 
the  oil  regions  a  similar  number  of  oil 
engines  and  gasoline  engines,  because  the 
nearness  to  the  supply  makes  the  fuel 
cheaper  than  transported  fuel,  and  the 
exploding  engine  is  more  efficient  than 
the  steam  engine. 

It  thus  appears  that  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  fuel  element  in  the  cost  of 
power  is  high  for  engines  burning  crude 
oil,  kerosene,  and  gasoline  in  comparison 
with  those  using  coal,  at  the  same  time 
they  possess  advantages  that  do  not  exist 
in  steam  plants  and  gas-producer  plants, 
which  give  them  a  very  distinct  field,  as 
indicated  by  the  following  uses  to  which 
these  engines  are  heing  put  today:  Driv- 
ing boats,  automobiles,  and  railroad  mo- 
tor cars;  pumping  water  tor  private 
houses,  for  farms,  for  irrigation,  and  in 
some  cases  for  municipal  service  in  small 
towns;  compressing  air  for  drilling,  hoist- 
ing, riveting,  etc.;  operating  small  car- 
penter shops,  machine  shops,  forge  shops, 
and,  in  fact,  any  kind  of  small  shop; 
operating  ventilating  fans  in  buildings 
and  in  mines;  running  small  factories, 
such  as  creameries  and  butter  factories; 
operating  feed-cutting  and  grinding  ma- 
chinery, corn  shredders,  and  thrashing 
machines;  operating  other  special  ma- 
chines, such  as  ice-cream  freezers,  print- 
ing presses,  mostly  small  in  size,  and 
making  electric  light  in  isolated  local- 
ities. Not  only  is  this  field  a  real  one, 
but  it  is  a  large  one,  as  is  shown  by  the 
number  of  these  small  engines  being  sold 
today.    The  exact  figures  on  the  sales  are 


ALCOHOL 


41 


not  available  and  it  is  impossible  to  se- 
cure them  because  of  the  unwillingness 
of  manufacturers  to  tell  their  business; 
but  when  a  single  manufacturer  (as  is  the 
case)  is  selling  425  per  day,  and  there 
are  in  the  United  States  alone  some  300 
manufacturers  of  importance,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  as  to  the  popularity  of  these 
machines. 

Alcohol  at  a  price  unknown  now  be- 
comes available  for  use  in  engines,  whose 
peculiarities  are  not  fully  known  and 
whose  ability  to  transform  heat  into 
work  is  correspondingly  in  question.  If 
the  alcohol  engine  can  be  shown  to  have 
an  efficiency  as  high  or  higher  than  other 
liquid-fuel  engines  and  be  similar  in  type 
and  characteristics,  it  can  do  all  that  they 
can  do.  and  its  field  will  be  the  same  as 
their  field  in  spite  of  fuel  costs;  but  by 
field  is  meant  the  nature  of  the  work 
rather  than  the  geographical  location.  It 
is  likely  that  the  alcohol  engine  will  find 
as  favorable  a  geographical  location  as 
the  natural-gas  engine  and  the  oil  engine 
have  near  the  source  of  supply  and  far 
from  the  source  of  competing  supply.  But 
should  it  appear  that  the  alcohol  engine 
can  do  more  or  better  work  than  its  oil 
or  gasoline  competitors,  its  field  will  be 
wider.  In  any  case  the  position  which 
the  alcohol  engine  may  take  today  is  no 
criterion  as  to  its  future,  because  it  will 
operate  on  a  source  of  energy  or  fuel 
supply  which,  as  pointed  out,  is  inex- 
haustible, whereas  the  supply  of  both 
crude  oil  and  its  distillates  may  ulti- 
mately become  exhausted. 

The  determination,  then,  of  the  position 
of  the  alcohol  engine  today  involves  a 
forecast  of  the  future,  and  should  it  be 
shown  to  be  able  to  compete  now  it  must 
inevitably  reach  a  stronger  and  more  im- 
portant industrial  position  as  time  goes 
on.  This  is  the  fact  that  has  led  govern- 
ments to  take  up  the  question,  and  among 
them  the  United  States  is  the  latest. 

First  Use  of  Alcoliol  Engines 

About  the  year  1876  there  was  placed  on 
the  American  market  the  first  successful 
internal-combustion  engine  using  petro- 
leum distillate.  This  engine  was  invented 
by    George    Brayton.      Following   the    at- 


tempt of  Brayton  to  use  petroleum  distil- 
late came  a  series  of  inventions  improving 
this  class  of  engine,  lasting  for  about 
twenty  j-ears,  when  the  modern  forms  of 
kerosene,  gasoline,  and  crude-oil  engines 
may  be  said  to  have  been  developed.  Dur- 
ing this  time  the  subject  of  alcohol  as 
fuel  in  engines  seems  to  have  been  either 
not  thought  of  at  all  or  not  given  any 
attention.  The  first  serious  attempt  to  ex- 
amine into  the  possibility  of  alcohol  as 
a  fuel  in  competition  with  petroleum  and 
its  distillates  seems  to  have  been  made 
in  the  year  1S94  in  Leipzig,  Germany,  by 
Professor  Hartman  for  the  Deutschen 
Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft.  The  en- 
gine used  was  built  by  Grobb,  of  Leipzig, 
to  operate  on  kerosene,  and  used  425 
grams  of  kerosene  per  hour  per  brake 
horsepower,  which  is  equivalent  to  0.935 
pound,  or  1.1  pints,  approximately.  This 
indicates  for  the  kerosene  a  thermal  ef- 
ficiency of  13.6  per  cent.  When  operating 
on  alcohol  the  engine  used  about  twice 
as  much,  or  839  grams,  which  with  this 
kind  of  alcohol  was  equivalent  to  a  ther- 
mal efficiency  of  12.2  per  cent  or  a  little 
less  than  with  kerosene.  This  experi- 
ment would  seem  to  indicate  that,  com- 
pared with  kerosene,  alcohol,  as  a  fuel, 
offered  very  little  chance  for  successful 
competition.  In  spite  of  this,  however, 
very  vigorous  efforts  were  made  to  devel- 
op an  alcohol  engine  that  would  be  better 
than  this  one,  and  thus  was  inaugurated 
a  remarkable  series  of  experiments,  con- 
gresses and  exhibitions  with  the  one  end 
in  view— of  stimulating  the  production  of 
the  best  possible  alcohol  motor. 

The  first  stimulus  was  given  by  the 
German  alcohol  distillers,  who  sought  to 
enlarge  their  market.  They  succeeded  in 
interesting  the  German  government  in  the 
question  by  enlarging  on  the  national  sig- 
nificance of  having  available  a  source  of 
fuel  for  power,  inexhaustible  in  quantity, 
to  he  produced  within  the  national  do- 
main from  the  yearly  crops.  Under  the 
double  stimulus  of  government  assistance 
and  the  desire  of  the  distillers  to  increase 
their  output,  inventors  and  manufacturers 
were  induced  to  spend  their  time  and 
money  with  a  resulting  decided  improve- 


42 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


ment  in  the  motor.  An  engine  built  by 
Korting  Brothers  of  Hanover,  fitted  with 
a  vaporizer  invented  by  Petreano,  tested 
at  the  Polytechnic  School  at  Charlotten- 
burg  by  Professor  Slaby  showed  a  con- 
sumption of  550  grams  of  S6.2  per  cent 
alcohol  by  weight,  which  is  equivalent  to 
1.21  pounds,  or  1.4  pints,  or  a  thermal 
efficiency  of  17.5  per  cent.  This  result 
showed  an  advance  of  nearly  50  per  cent 
in  thermal  efficiency  over  the  Grobb  en- 
gine tested  a  year  or  so  earlier  by  Pro- 
fessor Hartmann.  Following  this  improve- 
ment there  resulted  a  continual  develop- 
ment of  the  alcohol  motor,  interest  in 
which  was  kept  up  by  exhibitions  in 
which  prizes  were  offered  and  by  scien- 
tific societies.  The  most  important  of 
these   are  given   below: 

Exhibition  at  Halle-on-Saal,  Germany, 
.Tune  13-18,  1901. 

Exhibition  (national)  at  Paris,  France. 
November  16-24,  1901. 

Exhibition  at  Berlin,  Germany,  Febru- 
ary  8-lfi,   1902. 

Exhibition  (international)  at  Paris, 
France.  May  24- June  1.  1902. 

Exhibition  at  Madrid,  Spain,  late  in  the 
year  1902. 

Congress  at  Montpellier.  October  11-21, 
1902. 

Congress  at  Paris,  France,  March  11-17, 
1902. 

Exhibition  (international)  at  Vienna, 
Austria.  April  2-June  12.  1904. 

Exhibition  at  Rome,  Italv,  February  6- 
16,  1904. 

Besides  the  above  named,  there  were 
many  others  of  lesser  importance,  all  con- 
tributing to  the  rapid  development  of 
this   class   of   machine. 

The  results  of  this  development  may 
be  summed  up  by  saying  that  the  thermal 
efficiency  of  the  motor  was  raised  to 
something  over  30  per  cent,  which  is 
quite  a  remarkable  showing  in  compari- 
son with  the  original  figure  of  12.2  per 
cent  in  1894./  It  must  be  clearly  under- 
stood, however,  in  interpreting  these  fig- 
ures that  they  are  the  best  possible  at- 
tainable at  the  time  reported.  They  in- 
dicate, so  far  as  the  fuel  costs  are  con- 
cerned, that  with  a  motor  specially  con- 
structed for  alcohol  the  fuel  prices  per 
gallon  might  be  twice  as  much  for  alcohol 
as  for  petroleum  distillate  and  still  give 
power  for  less  money,  assuming  that  at- 


tendance, repairs,  lubrication,  etc.,  cost 
no  more  in  the  case  of  the  alcohol  engine. 
The  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  of 
this  Department,  in  connection  with  its 
Irrigation  and  Drainage  Investigations, 
has  tested  a  number  of  different  types  of 
gasoline  engines  with  alcohol,  and  ob- 
tained figures  which  show  the  compara- 
tive consumption  of  gasoline  and  alcohol 
in  the  same  engine.  The  detailed  results 
of  these  tests  will  be  published  in  a  tech- 
nical bulletin,  but  the  general  results 
may  be  given  here.  The  first  tests  were 
made  without  any  particular  attempt  at 
obtaining  the  best  adjustment  of  the  en- 
gine for  each  fuel,  and  showed  a  consump- 
tion of  alcohol  two  to  three  times  as 
great  by  weight  per  horsepower  hour  as 
was  necessary  with  gasoline  or  kerosene. 
These  figures  indicate  the  necessity  or  de- 
sirability of  determining  the  proper  con- 
ditions of  adjustment,  because  these  were 
found  to  have  a  serious  influence  on  the 
amount  of  fuel  consumed.  With  care  in 
adjusting  the  engine  so  as  to  secure  the 
most  economical  use  of  the  alcohol,  it 
was  found  that,  under  like  conditions,  a 
small  engine  consumed  1.23  pounds  of  al- 
cohol to  0.69  pounds  of  gasoline  per  brake 
horsepower  hour — that  is  to  say,  with  the 
best  adjustment  of  the  engine  for  each 
fuel  there  was  required  1.8  times  as  much 
alcohol  by  weight  as  gasoline  per  brake 
horsepower  hour.  It  was  also  shown  in 
making  this  adjustment  that  it  was  pos- 
sible to  burn  more  than  twice  as  much 
alcohol  as  stated,  by  improper  adjust- 
ments, and  still  have  the  engine  working 
in  an  apparently  satisfactory  way.  The 
range  of  excess  gasoline  which  might  be 
burned  without  interfering  seriously  with 
the  working  of  the  engine  was  not  so 
great,  being  a  little  less  than  twice  as 
much  as  the  minimum.  These  early  ex- 
periments, therefore,  confirmed  the  early 
results  secured  in  Germany,  to-wit,  that 
an  engine  built  for  gasoline  or  kerosene 
will,  when  unchanged,  require  about  twice 
as  much  alcohol  by  weight  for  the  same 
work;  but  they  also  indicate  something 
that  is  not  pointed  out  by  the  reports 
sent  us  from  abroad — that  Is,  the  great 
importance  of  securing  the  best  adjust- 
ment of  the  machine. 


ALCOHOL— ALMONDS 


43 


To  understand  why  this  adjustment  of 
the  machine  can  have  such  a  serious  effect 
and  at  the  same  time  understand  why  ex- 
ploitation and  study  were  successful 
abroad  in  raising  the  efficiency  of  the 
alcohol  engine  from  12.2  to  over  30  per 
cent  in  five  or  six  years  requires  a  knowl- 
edge of  technolog>-.  The  reasons  can  only 
heconie  clear  to  one  understanding  the 
mechanism  of  these  engines  and  to  one 
familiar  with  the  chemistry  of  the  fuels 
and  the  physical  theories  of  expiosive 
combustion. 

Ch.\rles  Edward  Lucke, 

M.S..  Ph.D..  Assistant  Piofessor  of  Mechanical 
Engineering,   Columbia   University. 

S.  M.  Woodward, 

M.S..  M.A..  Irriftatlon  Engineer.  Office  of  Ex- 
perimental Stations.  V.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Alkali 

The  Standard  Dictionary  gives  the  fol- 
lowing definitions: 

Alkali  is  a  chemical  compound  of  hy- 
drogen and  oxygen  with  any  one  of  the 
elements  of  lithium,  sodium,  potassium, 
rubidium,  and  caesium  or  the  radical 
ammonium.  Alkali  is  characterized  by 
great  solubility  in  water  and  capability 
of  neutralizing  acids.  In  popular  lan- 
guage the  term  is  extended  to  anything 
that  will  neutralize  an  acid,  such  as  lime, 
magnesia,  etc. 

Aqueous  solutions  of  alkali  act  cor- 
rosively on  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, and  also  alter  the  tint  of  many 
coloring  matters,  as  red  litmus,  which 
it  turns  to  blue. 

Most  of  the  alkalis  in  our  soils  have 
been  formed  by  the  washing  out  of  the 
ashes  of  sea  plants  the  sodium  and  potas- 
sium. 

Alkali-flat  is  an  arid  plain,  permeated 
or  encrusted  with  alkali  salts,  the  bed 
of  an  evaporated  lake. 

Alkali-grass,  a  species  of  grass  Distich- 
Us,  growing  in  the  alkaline  soils  of  the 
western  part  of  the  United  States. 

Alkali-land,  a  region  marked  by  the 
presence  of  alkali  in  the  soil,  and  on  the 
surface. 

Alkali-soil,  a  soil  containing  an  unus- 
ual amount  of  soluble  mineral  salts.  It 
frequently   collects  on   the  surface  under 


arid  conditions  and  excessive  evapora- 
tion, and  forms  a  saline  crust.  The  salts 
as  they  are  found  in  the  soils  are  gen- 
erally chloride,  carbonates,  sulphates,  and 
bi-carbonates  of  sodium,  potassium,  mag- 
nesium and  calcium.  Sometimes  there 
are  also  borates  and  nitrates.  Sometimes 
alkali  is  derived  by  the  liberation  from 
the  rocks  of  certain  soluble  salts,  set  free 
by  the  process  of  disintegration  and  soil 
formation.     See  ffoils. 


Allspice 


Allspice  is  the  unripe  fruit  of  a  West 
Indian  tree.  It  is  gathered  and  dried  in 
the  sun,  has  an  aromatic  flavor  and  has 
been  thought  to  combine  the  qualities  of 
cinnamon,  cloves  and  nutmeg.  Used  much 
in  cooking. 

Almonds 

The  almond,  Aniygdalus  Communis,,  grew 
originally  in  Barbary  and  Morocco.  Now 
it  is  widely  cultivated  throughout  the 
milder  portions  of  the  temperate  zones. 
It  is  akin  to  the  peach,  the  prune,  the 
plum  and  the  cherry,  yet  tenderer  than 
any  of  these.  The  writer  had  an  almond 
tree  in  his  orchard  in  Yakima  county, 
Washington,  which  grew  vigorously  and 
bore  fruit  about  every  second  year  until 
it  was  12  years  of  age.  The  very  severe 
winter  of  1908-09  when  the  mercury 
ranged  for  several  days  about  16  degrees 
below  zero  killed  the  tree.  We  had  in 
the  same  orchard  peaches,  prunes,  apri- 
cots, plums  and  cherries  and  the  wood 
of  these  trees  was  not  seriously  injured, 
although  two  degrees  to  four  degrees 
colder  would  have  damaged  the  wood  of 
the  peach  trees.  The  following  year  the 
peaches  and  apricots  bore  no  fruit  of  any 
consequence,  but  the  wood  was  not  In- 
jured. The  almond  tree  was  injured  so 
that  we  gave  up  hope  of  reinvigorating  it 
and  dug  it  up.  Experience  has  shown 
that  the  almond  will  not  stand  severe 
freezing,  and  therefore  is  better  adapted 
to  warmer  climates  like  California  or 
southern  portions  of  the  United  States. 

It  blooms  a  little  earlier  than  the 
peach,  therefore  is  more  likely  to  be  hurt 
by  early  frost.     In  the  si  ring  of  1907  our 


44 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL,  HORTICULTURE 


almond  bloomed  about  four  days  earlier 
than  the  peaches  and  earlier  than  the 
apricot,  plum  and  prune.  Thus  It  seems 
impractical  to  grow  the  almond  for  com- 
mercial purposes  in  a  climate  where  the 
mercury  in  winter  registers  as  low  as 
16  degrees  below  zero,  or  where  there  is 
danger  of  early  frosts  killing  the  buds 
In  the  spring  time. 

However,  for  home  use  the  almond  may 
be  grown  even  where  there  is  consider- 
able hazard,  for  one  or  two  trees  will 
supply  a  family  with  all  the  nuts  they 
are  likely  to  need.  If  the  fruit  is  killed 
on  one  or  two  trees,  the  loss  is  not  very 
great,  or  if  the  trees  themselves  are 
killed,  the  loss  is  not  great,  but  if  a 
whole  orchard  is  killed,  there  is  not  only 
the  loss  of  the  crop  for  that  year,  but 
the  loss  of  time  and  expense  in  growing 
a  new  orchard.  Trees  may  be  protected 
where  nuts  are  grown  for  family  use; 
they  may  be  wrapped  with  paper  or  with 
canvas,  or  canvas  may  be  stretched  over 
the  top  of  one,  two  or  three  trees  with- 
out any  very  great  expenditure  of  time 
and  money,  and  thus  in  a  comparatively 
cold  climate  almonds  may  be  grown  for 
home   use. 

The  almond  can  be  grown  with  proper 
cultivation  in  semi-arid  regions  where  the 
rainfall  is  not  sufficient  to  grow  apples, 
pears,  peaches  or  other  fruits,  for  while 
it  is  akin  to  the  peach  and  its  habits  of 
growth  are  very  similar,  yet  its  root  sys- 
tem adapts  it  to  a  dry  climate,  and  its 
leaf  system  evaporates  less  water  than 
that  of  the  peach.  The  leaf  is  small  and 
slender  with  not  a  great  portion  exposed 
to  the  air  and  sunshine,  and  is  so  formed 
that  less  water  evaporates  in  proportion 
to  the  surface  than  would  evaporate  from 
the  leaves  of  other  fruits.  I  have  no 
doubt  but  that  with  proper  cultivation 
and  care  the  almond  can  be  grown  suc- 
cessfully where  there  is  rainfall  sufficient 
to  grow  wheat.  It  should  be  planted  in 
deep,  dry  soil,  and  in  an  irrigated  coun- 
try should  be  given  less  water  than  other 
fruits.  Another  reason  for  this  is  ob- 
vious when  we  consider  that  the  fruit 
of  peaches,  plums,  pears,  apples  and  other 
varieties    is    in    the    pulp    which    reaches 


the  highest  degree  of  perfection  if  they 
have  water  enough  to  make  them  juicy 
and  luscious,  while  the  fruit  of  the  al- 
mond is  in  the  seed,  formed  very  much 
like  the  seed  of  the  peach,  which  is  en- 
closed in  a  hard  shell.  The  almond  shell 
is  soft,  and  is  enclosed  in  turn  in  a  thin 
pulpy  substance.  It  takes  less  water  to 
develop  the  pit  or  seed  of  the  almond 
than  it  does  to  develop  both  the  pulp 
and  seed  of  the  peach;  therefore,  the  al- 
mond can  be  grown  successfully  with  less 
water  than  is  required  for  almost  any 
other  fruit.  Experience  has  shown  that 
if  the  almond  tree  is  planted  in  a  wet 
soil,  or  if  it  is  given  too  much  water,  it 
will  not  reach  its  best  development,  and 
will   not  be  a  long-lived  tree. 

Species  of  tlie  .Vlmond 

There  are  two  species  and  several  va- 
rieties of  almonds. 

First,  there  is  the  bitter  almond,  which 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  flavoring 
extracts  and  of  prussic  or  hydrocyanic 
acid.  "When  the  leaves  of  the  cherry 
laurel,  bitter  almond,  the  kernels  of 
peaches  and  cherries  are  distilled  In  wa- 
ter the  distillate  contains  hydrocyanic 
acid.  It  is  the  most  rapid  poison  known, 
and  causes  death  within  a  few  seconds. 
The  bitter  almond  is  grown  mostly  in 
the  countries  that  cluster  around  the 
Mediterranean  sea. 

Second,  the  sweet  almond,  which  is  di- 
vided into  two  general  varieties,  the 
hard  shell  and  the  soft  shell.  The  hard 
shell  is  considered  of  little  value  and  is 
not  grown  for  commercial  purposes;  while 
the  soft  shell,  which  might  be  character- 
ized as  thin,  thinner,  thinnest,  the  last 
sometimes  being  called  the  paper  shell 
almond,  is  the  almond  of  commerce. 

Perhaps  no  other  tree  of  commerce  has 
been  more  disappointing  in  its  productive, 
value  than  the  almond.  The  almond 
growers  of  California  have  probably  spent 
more  time  and  money  than  any  others 
in  experimenting  and  preparing  the  way 
for  profitable  almond  culture,  and  even 
now  are  not  quite  sure  that  they  have 
solved  the  problem;  but  insofar  as 
they  have  determined  there  are  three 
questions  that  are  of  great  Importance: 


Plate  I 

The  Green  Apple  Aphis.  Kiss.  1  and  2.  The  Brnwn  Apple  Apliis,  Figs.  3,  4,  5 
and  ti.  The  Woollv  Apple  Aphis,  Figs.  7  and  S.  Kgg  of  the  Bron-n  Apple 
Aphis,  Fig.  0.  Egg  of  the  Green  Apple  Aphis.  Fig.  10.  Egg  of  Woolly 
Apple  Aphis,  Fig.  11. 


ALMONDS— APHIDS 


45 


First,  to  select  varieties  that  are  pro- 
lific bearers,  for  some  varieties  will  not 
bear  fruit  enough  to  pay  the  cost  of  cul- 
tivation. 

Second,  to  select  varieties  that  cross  pol- 
linate, for  most  varieties  of  the  almond 
will  not  pollinate  from  the  same  tree. 

Third,  to  select  a  site  for  the  almond 
orchard  that  is  as  nearly  as  possible  free 
from  frost,  because  the  tree  is  an  early 
bloomer  and  the  fruit  buds  are  tender. 

There  are  about  25  varieties  grown  in 
California  and  the  general  treatment  and 
cultivation  given  to  them  is  similar  to 
that  given  to  the  peach. 

The  almond  is  propagated  by  budding 
on  seedling  stock,  and  at  maturity  the 
nuts  are  gathered  some  time  in  the  au- 
tumn. The  kernels  should  be  smooth, 
plump  and  symmetrical  in  order  to  bring 
the  highest  price  in  the  market. 

Almonds  Produced  in  the  United  States 

There  are  but  few  states  in  the  Union 
which  produce  almonds  for  commercial 
purposes.  The  number  of  bearing  trees 
by  states,  as  reported  in  the  census  of 
1910,  gives  California  1,166,730;  Arizona, 
6,639;  Utah,  1,408;  Nevada,  13.  We  per- 
son,ally  know  of  a  few  trees  in  Washing- 
ton, and  doubtless  there  are  in  many  other 
states  a  few  grown  for  home  use.  The  in- 
dustry in  the  other  states,  however,  has 
not  assumed   commercial    importance. 

Varieties 

The  more  important  varieties  are  as 
follows: 

California,  California  Jordan.  Chilinese, 
Commercial,  Drake,  Eureka  Jordan,  Gol- 
den State,  I.  X.  L.,  Languedoc,  Lassen, 
Nonpareil,    Prolific.    St.    Joseph,    Texas. 

Gr.^x^tlle   Lowther 


Altitude.  See  Apple  Orchard.  Select- 
ing Site  For. 

Anthe.icxose,  Time  to  Spr.^y  for.  See 
San  Jose  Scale  on  Apple,  under  General 
Recommendations.  See  also  Black  Spot 
Canker. 


Aphids 


The  Aphididae  or  plant-lice  are  among 
the  largest  families  in  the  great  Order 
Hemiptera.  Economically  they  rank 
among  the  groups  of  the  higher  impor- 
tance and  few  indeed  of  the  higher  plants 
there  are  that  are  not  subject  to  their 
attack.  Many  of  our  most  injurious  forms 
on  fruit  trees  and  truck  crops  were  im- 
ported from  Europe,  while  indigenous 
species  include  the  grape  Phylloxera,  first 
imported  from  wild  American  vines  into 
France  and  later  from  that  country  into 
the  grape  regions  of  California.  Aphids 
feed  solely  by  means  of  a  stout  beak 
which  they  thrust  Into  the  plant  tissue 
and  through  which  the  juices  of  the  plant 
are  sucked  up.  In  certain  species  this 
sucking  mode  of  feeding  causes  the  plant 
tissue  to  form  galls  or  pseudo-galls  In 
which  the  lice  continue  to  dwell  pro- 
tected from  their  foes.  Certain  other 
species  live  on  the  roots  of  trees  or  small 
plants,  but  the  great  majority  exist  un- 
protected on  the  leaves,  stems  or  flower- 
heads  of  their  food-plants.  Many  aphids 
— and  among  these  are  a  number  of  very 
injurious  forms — migrate  at  certain 
periods  from  one  host  plant  to  another 
and  such  hosts  may  be  widely  separated 
botanically.  Our  knowledge  of  these 
migrations  and  the  causes  which  pro- 
duce them  is  as  yet  far  from  complete. 
Most  aphids  are  confined  to  one  host  or 
to  several  closely  related  plant  species, 
but  a  few  forms,  as  for  example  the 
Green  Peach  Aphis  (Myzus  persicae 
Sulz.),  attack  a  large  number  and  variety 
of  plants.  Parthenogenetic  reproduction 
occurs  In  the  vast  majority  of  aphids,  al- 
though true  sexual  forms  are  produced  in 
most  species  once  a  year,  the  sexual  fe- 
male after  copulation  with  the  male  de- 
positing winter  eggs.  In  some  species, 
especially  those  inhabiting  evergreen 
plants,  it  is  thought  that  two  or  more 
years  may  elapse  between  appearances  of 
the  sexed  forms,  as  these  forms  have 
failed  to  appear  when  expected.  Parthen- 
ogenetic females  are  winged  and  wing- 
less, in  some  species  only  the  former. 
Sexed  males  and  females  may  be  winged 
or   wingless,   according   to   species.     Lab- 


46 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


oratory  experimenters,  working  with 
species  having  both  winged  and  wingless 
agamic  females,  have  succeeded  in  caus- 
ing the  aphids  to  produce  winged  forms 
or  only  wingless  forms  at  will  by  sub- 
jecting the  insects  to  certain  tempera- 
tures and  by  introducing  certain  chemi- 
cals into  the  food-plants. 

Plant-lice  increase  very  rapidly,  some 
species  producing  20  or  more  generations 
in  a  single  year,  each  female  on  arriving 
at  maturity  producing  in  course  of  time 
from  10  to  400  eggs  or  young,  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  varying  with  the  species. 
Their  numbers  are  kept  in  check  by  a 
large  number  of  natural  enemies.  These 
include  parasitic  wasps  of  the  families 
Braconidae  and  Chalcididae.  and  preda- 
ceous  forms  such  as  lady-bird  beetles 
(Coccinellidae).  Syrphus-fly  maggots  (Syr- 
phidae),  spiders,  larvae  of  lace-wing  flies 
fChrysonidae)  and  aphis-lions  (Hemer- 
obidae),  and  certain  predaceous  Heterop- 
tera.  Ants  attend  aphids  to  feed  on  the 
sweet  substance  excreted  by  them,  and 
in  certain  forms  play  the  role  of  hus- 
bandmen towards  them,  carrying  them 
off  and  caring  for  them  during  the  win- 
ter months. 

Biblioerapliy 

A  complete  bibliography  of  economic 
plant-lice  would  occupy  too  much  space 
for  the  purpose  of  this  paper.  The  fol- 
lowing references  include  literature  deal- 
ing with  practically  all  injurious  species: 

"Insect  Pests  of  Farm,  Garden  and  Or- 
chard"; E,  D.  Sanderson  (.John  Wiley  & 
Sons);   1912. 

"The  Aphides  Affecting  the  Apple": 
A.  L.  Quaintance  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  Circ. 
No.  81);  1907. 

"The  Melon  Aphis":  F.  H.  Chittenden 
(U.   S.  Dept.  Agric.  Circ.  No.   80);    1906. 

"The  Woolly  Aphis  of  the  Apple";  C.  L. 
Marlatt  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  Circ.  No.  20) ; 
1908. 

"The  Pea  Aphis":  F.  H.  Chittenden  (U. 
S.  Dept.  Agric.  Circ.  No.  43);   1909. 

"Two  Plant-Lice  of  the  Peach":  C.  P. 
Gillette  and  G.  P.  Weldon  (Colo.  Agric. 
Exp.  Station,  Bull.  169);   1910. 

"A  Few  Orchard  Plant  Lice";  C.  P. 
Gillette  and  E.  P.  Taylor  (Colo.  Agric. 
Exp.  Station,  Bull.  133);   1908. 


"The  Potato  Plant  Louse";  E.  M.  Patch 
(Maine  Agric.  Exp.  Station,  Bull.  No. 
147);   1907. 

"The  Corn-Leaf  Aphis  and  Corn-Root 
Aphis";  F.  M.  Webster  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric. 
Circ.  No.  86) ;    1907. 

"The  Spring-Grain  Aphis";  E.  M.  Web- 
ster (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  Circ.  No.  85): 
1907. 

APPLE 

Tlie  Green  .Vpple  .\pliis 

Aphis  pomi  De   Geer 

This  is  the  green  aphis  that  is  often 
very  abundant  on  the  leaves,  young 
shoots  and  young  fruit  of  apple  and  pear. 
It  also  infests  quince,  pomegranate  and 
occasionally  plum  and  hawthorn.  Its  life 
history  is  as  follows:  A  week  or  so  be- 
fore the  buds  open  in  the  spring  the 
young  dark  green  stem-mothers  com- 
mence hatching  from  the  winter  eggs  and 
for  a  time  feed  on  tender  bark  or  on  the 
bud  scales.  After  the  buds  open  they 
confine  their  attentions  to  the  foliage. 
In  about  25  days  the  lice  are  full  grown, 
pale  green  with  a  dark  head,  cornicles 
and  tail.  The  stem-mother  lice  are  always 
wingless.  Upon  attaining  maturity  they 
at  once  begin  depositing  young,  produc- 
ing within  three  weeks  from  25  to  100 
young.     A  few  of  the  lice  of  the  second 


Fis.  1.     Wingless  Female  of  Green  Apple  .\phis. 
Stem   Mother — Greatly   enlarsed. 

— Author's  Illustration. 


APHIDS 


47 


generation  will  be  winged  and  migrate 
to  other  trees,  but  the  great  majority 
will  be  wingless  and  remain  to  colonize 
the  growing  shoots.  These  develop  in 
from  14  to  20  days  and  when  mature  im- 
mediately deposit  young.  The  lice  of  the 
third  and  subsequent  generations  during 
the  summer  season  develop  in  10  days. 
Sometimes  winged  and  sometimes  wing- 
\  ' 


Fig.    2.     Winsed    Viviparous    Female    of    Green 
Apple    Aphis.      Enlarged. 

less  forms  predominate  in  the  summer 
generations,  most  of  the  former  migrating 
to  other  trees.  These  generations  are  all 
parthenogenetic,  that  is,  the  females  give 
birth  to  their  young  without  the  pres- 
ence of  the  male  element.  The  young  in 
this  case  are  born  alive,  or  viviparously. 
There  may  be  from  10 
to  16  such  generations 
in  a  single  season. 
About  the  time  of  the 
first  frosts  in  the  fall 
appears  the  sexual  gen- 
eration consisting  of  a 
wingless  male  and  a 
wingless  egg-laying  or 
oviparous  female.  The 
males  are  smaller  than 
the  other  forms  of  this 
louse,  and  are  of  a  yel- 
lowish-brown color  with 
dusky  appendages  and 
cornicles.  The  sexual 
females  resemble  in  size 
and  general  appearance 
the  wingless  summer 
forms,  but  they  are  dull 
green  with  a  tinge  of 
rusty  yellow.  The  sexes 
occur  mostly  on  the  un- 
der side  of  the  leaves. 
They  mate  and  the  fe- 
male then  lays  three 
or  four  greenish  eggs 
Fig.  3.  Eggs  of  Green  on  the  smaller  limbs  of 

Apple  .\piiis  on  Ap-    ,,         .  ,,        . 

pie  Twig.  the    tree,    generally    in 


the  crotches  of  the  twigs  or  at  the  base 
of  a  next-year's  bud.  In  a  day  or  two  the 
egg  turns  a  shining  jet  black. 

The  summer  lice  var.v  considerably  in 
size  and  in  the  green  shade  of  the  body. 
The  average  length  of  the  body  of  the 
wingless  viviparous  lice  is  1.75  mm., 
while  that  of  the  winged  lice  is  1.55  mm. 
The  average  egg  measurement  is  .60x.25 
mm. 

Injury 

The  Green  Apple  Aphis  attacks  leaves, 
young  shoots  and  fruit.  When  abundant 
the  lice  curl  the  leaves  badly  and  greatly 
reduce  the  size  and  marketable  value  of 
the  fruit. 

Control 

This  species  can  be  controlled  most 
easily  by  the  application  of  winter  washes 
directed  against  the  winter  eggs.  Home 
made  lime-sulphur,  using  the  1-1-3  for- 
mula, commercial  lime-sulphur  1  to  8 
or  1  to  10,  or  a  12  per  cent,  crude  oil 
emulsion  will  be  found  satisfactory  as  an 
ovicide.  The  winter  spray  should  be  ap- 
plied as  late  as  possible  before  the  buds 
open,  as  the  best  results  accrue  when  the 
trees  are  sprayed  just  before  the  buds 
begin  to  open.  Against  the  lice  on  the 
foliage  spraying  should  be  done  directly 
the  lice  have  all  hatched  and  before  they 
have  had  time  to  curl  the  leaves.  Once 
the  leaves  have  been  curled  it  will  be 
very  hard  to  destroy  the  lice  on  them. 
Whale-oil  or  fish-oil  soap  1  pound  to  5 
gallons  of  water,  kerosene  emulsion  7  per 
cent,  or  diluted  tobacco  extract  (Black 
Leaf  "40"  1-1,200,  Black  Leaf  1-80)  is  ef- 
fective. Good  pressure  is  a  requisite  for 
the  spring  applications.  Pruning  the 
twigs  in  winter  will  destroy  a  large 
number  of  the  eggs. 

The  Rosy  Apple  Aphis 

Aphis  sorbi  Kalt. 
This  species  occurs  on  the  apple  all 
over  the  United  States.  In  Europe,  its 
original  home,  it  infests  also  wild  apples 
(Sorhus  spp.)  and  hawthorns.  Its  life 
history  is  not  fully  known.  The  stem- 
mother  lice  hatch  at  about  the  same 
time  as  the  leaves  open  out  in  the  spring. 
They  feed  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf 
and   very   soon   cause   it   to   curl    around 


48 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


them.  When  full  grown  the  stem-mother 
is  purplish-gray  covered  with  a  sparse 
white  bloom  and  is  almost  as  broad  as 
long.  The  lice  of  the  third  generation 
are  full  grown  in  early  June  and  are 
all    winged    pinkish     individuals.       They 


migrate  in  a  body  to  an  alternate  host- 
plant,  as  yet  unknown.  In  the  fall  a 
generation  of  migrants  return  to  the 
apple  and  give  birth  to  the  true  sexes. 
Of  these  the  male  is  black  and  winged 
while  thp  fpmale  if  small  and  ypllowish. 


m 

r 

k. 

wKl\ 

r 
4 

^' 

1  _-..-''^-- 

\rM 

^^■bI 

< 

W^ 

^^SHP 

Fig.  4.     Green  Apple  Aphis  Ovipai-ous  Females  and   Males  on   Apple  Twig 

— Del.  Ex.  Sta. 


APHIDS 


49 


Fig.  5. 


Aphids  on  Apple  Blossom.    At  O  is  seen  a  stem-mother  of  tlie 
Rosy  Apple  Apliis. — Del.  Ex.  Sta. 


green.  The  sexes  mate  and  the  female 
deposits  about  three  winter  eggs  on  the 
twigs  or  in  crevices  in  the  barli  of  the 
trunlv  and  large  limbs.  The  injury  caused 
by  this  aphid  is  similar  to  that  caused 
by  the  Green  Apple  Aphis.  It  can  be 
controlled  in  a  like  manner. 

The  European  Grain  Apliis 

Apltis  parli  L. 
Although  quite  injurious  in  the  east- 
ern United  States  this  species  is  rarely 
an  apple  pest  in  the  West.  In  color  and 
size  it  very  much  resembles  the  Green 
Apple  Aphis,  but  may  always  be  distin- 
guished from  that  species  by  the  very 
small  apical  cell  of  the  wing.  The  life 
history  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
Rosy  Apple  Aphis,  the  winter  eggs  be- 
ing laid  on  fruit  trees  and  the  summer 
generations  living  on  grasses.  In  the 
South  and  in  California  the  lice  winter 
also  on  grasses.  When  infesting  the 
apple  it  may  be  controlled  in  the  man- 
ner suggested  for  the  Green  Apple  Aphis. 

Tlie    Clover   Aphis 

Aphis    bakeri   Cowen 

This  plant  louse  infests  apple  trees   in 
certain    portions    of    the    United    States, 


notably  Colorado.  Its  life  history  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  Rosy  Apple  Aphis, 
the  summer  generations  living  on  clover 
and  alfalfa.  The  stem-mother  on  the 
apple  in  spring  is  dark  red  or  reddish- 
green  while  the  migrants  are  pale  green 
with  orange  spots  at  the  base  of  the  cor- 
nicles. The  remedies  for  the  Green  Apple 
Aphis  will  control  this  aphis  on  the  apple. 

The   Woolly    Apple   Aphis 

firhizoneura  lanigera  Hausm. 

This  is  the  most  injurious  aphid  in- 
fecting pomaceous  fruits  and  is  found  all 
over  the  world  wherever  apples  and  pears 
are  grown.  It  has  been  known  in  Europe 
for  over  100  years.  It  is  not  known  in 
what  part  of  the  world  this  insect  origi- 
nated but  recent  investigations  seem  to 
show  that  it  is  identical  with  the  Ameri- 
can Elm-gall  Aphis  *  (Schizoneura  ameri- 
cana  Riley),  a  native  American  aphid. 
The  louse  attacks  the  trees  below,  as 
well  as  above,  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  is  thus  very  hard  to  eradicate.  The 
somewhat  complex  life  history  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  young  hatch  in  early  spring 
from    winter  eggs   placed    in    crevices    in 


♦Editli  M.  Patch.  Maine  Bull.  203. 


50 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the  bark.  These  immediately  seelc  new 
tender  bark  to  feed  on  and  their  num- 
bers are  reinforced  by  young  lice  that 
have  hibernated  in  crevices  of  the  bark 
under  the  dead  bodies  of  lice  of  the  pre- 
vious year,  and  by  an  upward  migration 
of  lice  from  the  roots.  Above  ground 
the  only  lice  that  survive  the  winter  are 


-^w. 


Fig.  6.     WinRPd  and  Wingless  Female  of  Wooll.v 
Aphis.      Much   enlarj^ed. 

— Author's   Illustration. 

the  very  small  hibernants  of  the  last  sum- 
mer generation  and  those  hatching  in 
spring  from  winter  eggs.  On  the  roots 
under  a  more  even  temperature  the  lice 
live  through  the  winter  in  comfort.  At 
maturity  the  lice  of  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer generations  are  all  wingless,  about 
one-tenth  of  an  inch  long,  reddish-brown 
covered  with  a  white  cottony  filamentous 
secretion.  The  lice  are  very  gregarious 
and  when  massed  together  are  often  en- 
tirely hidden  from  view  by  this  woolly 
covering.  The  wingless  forms  produce 
parthenogenetically  as  many  as  100  young 
in  two  weeks.  These  develop  in  about 
two  weeks.     In  September  a  winged  gen- 


Fig.  7.  Elm  Lea£  Gall  or  Curl  in  Which  the 
Winged  Aphids  Develop  Before  Flying  to  the 
Apple.  — Photo  by  Masted. 

eration  makes  its  appearance  and  migrates 
to  other  trees.  The  winged  lice  are  a  lit- 
tle shorter  than  the  wingless,  are  dark 
brown,  covered,  all  except  the  wings,  with 
woolly  secretion.  They  produce  the  true 
sexed  insects  on  the  trunk  of  the  tree. 
These  latter  are  much  smaller  than  the 
viviparous    forms    and    have    no    mouth- 


parts.  Both  sexes  are  without  wings,  the 
orange-colored  females  being  a  little  larger 
than  the  brown  males.  The  sexes  become 
full  grown  in  a  week  and  after  mating 
the  female  lays  a  single  large  egg  in  a 
crevice  in  the  bark.  The  life  histor.v  of 
the  root  form  is  not  fully  known.  The 
root  lice  apparently  are  all  wingless.  This 
louse  seems  to  be  capable  of  passing  sev- 
eral years  of  continuous  agamic  genera- 
tions, as  the  proportion  of  winged  lice 
is  generally  very  small  and  consequently 
there  are  but  few  winter  eggs  deposited 
each  season. 

Injury 
The  root  form  is  especially  harmful  to 
young  trees  and  nursery  stock,  often 
killing  a  tree  in  less  than  two  years  from 
the  time  of  original  infestation.  Large 
trees  do  not  succumb  so  quickly.  Infested 
roots  produce  knotty  swellings  and  galls 
which  subsequently  decay  and  the  lice 
move  to  a  fresh  part.  As  a  rule  the  root 
lice  work  within  eight  inches  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil,  a  fact  that  rather  sim- 
plifies their  successful  treatment.  Above 
ground  woolly  aphids  occur  on  any  part 
of  the  tree  except  on  the  fruit.  Leaves 
are  usually  free  from  attack.  The  parts 
of  the  tree  most  preferred  are  the  apices 
of  water  sprouts  and  other  young  growths: 
on  scars,  formed  by  pruning,  between  the 
outer  bark  and  the  central  woody  portion, 
and  at  the  base  of  the  larger  limbs.  Limbs 
and  twigs  badly  infested  will  become  knot- 
ted in  the  same  manner  as  the  roots. 

Control 

The  aerial  lice  may  be  controlled  by 
any  of  the  contact  insecticides  suggested 
for  the  control  of  the  Green  Apple  Aphis. 
High  pressure  is  necessary  in  order  to 
penetrate  the  woolly  covering,  and  for 
this  purpose  if  tobacco  extract  be  em- 
ployed it  would  be  advisable  to  add  two 
pounds  of  iish-oil  soap  to  each  50  gallons 
of  spray.  In  the  spring  Tanglefoot  bands 
around  the  tree  trunk  will  catch  the  lice 
migrating  upward  from  the  roots.  To 
combat  the  root  form  it  will  be  necessary 
to  remove  the  earth  around  the  tree  for 
a  depth  of  five  or  six  inches  so  as  to 
uncover  a  portion  of  the  larger  roots 
and  then  apply  a  diluted  tobacco  extract 


APHIDS 


51 


(Black  Leaf  "40"  1  to  SOO  or  Black  Leaf 
1  to  50).  A  badly  infested  tree  will  re- 
quire three  gallons  or  more.  The  lice 
hibernating  on  the  trunk  can  be  destroyed 
by  a  winter  application  of  lime-sulphur. 
The  stock  of  the  Northern  Spy  Apple  is 
resistant  to  the  Woolly   Aphis. 

Pe.\r.     See  Apple. 

Quince.    See  Apple. 

Pomegranate.     See  Apple. 


PLUM  .VJfD  PBUIVE 

Tlie  Mealy  Plum  Aphis 

Hyalopterus  anindinis  Fabr. 
This  is  a  longish,  rather  narrow  aphid. 
It  is  pale  green  in  color  and  is  covered 
with  a  whitish  mealy  powder.  It  inhab- 
its the  plum  during  winter  and  spring, 
often  becoming  intensely  abundant  on 
the  leaves  during  March  and  April.  In 
May  the  great  majority  of  the  lice  be- 
come winged  and  migrate  to  grasses,  but 
a   few    remain    on    the    plum    during   the 


Fig.    9.      Effect   of   Woollj 


Aphis   on    Root. 

— EssiK. 


Fig.     8. 
Twigs. 


Galls    Caused    by    "Woolly 


Aphis    on 
— Essig 


summer.  Migrants  return  in  October  to 
the  fruit  trees  and  produce  the  sexed 
forms.  The  winter  eggs  are  laid  on  the 
twigs  around  the  axils  of  the  buds.  This 
aphid  is  a  cosmopolitan  species  and  is 
probably  of  European  origin,  and  it  and 
the  two  following  plum  plant-lice  may 
be  controlled  in  the  manner  advised  for 
the  Green  Apple  Aphis. 

The  Hop  Aphis 

Phorodon  humuli  Schrank 
This  is  a  pale  green  non-pulverulent 
aphid  at  times  injurious  to  plums.  Its 
life  history  is  similar  to  the  preceding 
species,  the  alternate  host-plant  being  the 
hop. 

The  Rusty-brown  Plum  .Vpliis 
Aplii.s    seUiriae   Thos. 
This     is     a     small     rusty-brown     aphid 
which  often  infests  the  young  leaves  and 


52 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


shoots  of  plums  in  spring.  The  stunting 
effect  of  its  injury  is  sometimes  very  no- 
ticeable on  the  trees.  The  summer  gen- 
erations  live  on  grasses. 

CHERRY 

The   Black    Cherry   Aphis 

Myzus  cerasi  Fabr. 
This  is  a  jet  black  shiny  louse  with 
long  slender  black  cornicles.  It  infests 
chiefly  the  heads  of  young  shoots  and  is 
often  very  injurious,  checking  consider- 
ably the  growth  of  the  tree.  The  life  his- 
tory and  control  are  similar  to  those  of 
thC'Green  Apple  Aphis. 

PEACH 

The    Green    Peach    Aphis 

Myzus  persicae  Sulz. 
The  majority  of  the  individuals  are 
green  or  green  with  black  markings,  but 
some  are  pink,  reddish-brown  or  yellow. 
This  louse  measures  about  one-tenth  of 
an  inch  in  length.  No  other  aphid  with 
such  a  wide  range  of  food  plants  as  the 
Green  Peach  Aphis  is  known.  Its  food 
plants  include  nearly  all  deciduous  fruit 
trees,  nearly  every  vegetable,  many 
greenhouse  plants  and  numerous  weeds. 
In  Colorado  and  Missouri  it  is  often  quite 
harmful  to  peaches  and  other  stone  fruits, 
but  on  the  Pacific  Slope  it  is  rarely  in- 
jurious to  fruit  trees.  The  life  history 
is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  Rosy 
Apple  Aphis,  in  that  the  third  generation 
migrates  from  fruit  trees  to  weeds,  veg- 
etables and  greenhouse  plants.  In  the 
fall  occurs  a  return  migration  to  the 
fruit  trees  on  which  the  winter  eggs  are 
deposited.  In  California  viviparous  lice 
may  be  found  throughout  the  year  on 
weeds  and  in  greenhouses.  The  princi- 
pal injury  occurs  to  fruit  trees  in  the 
spring,  the  lice  feeding  on  the  young 
fruit  buds  and  weakening  them  to  such 
a  degree  that  they  finally  shrivel  and  fall 
off.  Later  the  foliage  will  be  curled  by 
the   lice   feeding  thereon. 

Control 

As  the  lice  hatch  fully  two  weeks 
before  the  buds  open  a  winter  wash  may 
be  applied  very  successfully  at  this  time. 
The  winter  sprays  recommended   for  the 


Green  Apple  Aphis  are  successful  in  com- 
bating this  aphis.  Black  Leaf  "40",  1 
to  1,000,  or  Black  Leaf,  1  to  70,  is  also 
effective.  After  the  trees  are  in  foliage 
the  tobacco  extracts  may  be  used  effect- 
ively, but  spraying  should  not  be  delayed 
too  long  as  the  lice  are  very  hard  to 
reach  once  the  leaves  are  curled. 

The  Black  Peach  Aphis 

Aphis  persicae-niger  Smith 
This  is  a  native  American  species  dis- 
tributed all  over  the  United  States.  Both 
winged  and  wingless  viviparous  females 
are  shining  black  and  the  young  lice  are 
brown.  The  louse  infests  roots  as  well 
as  the  aerial  portion  of  the  tree.  Its 
life  history  is  somewhat  similar  to  that 
of  the  Woolly  Apple  Aphis.  In  winter 
only  the  wingless  root  forms  exist.  Some 
of  these  migrate  upward  in  late  spring 
and  found  colonies  on  the  leaves  and 
shoots.  These  colonies  remain  through- 
out the  summer,  the  winged  individuals 
migrating  to  other  trees.  The  sexed 
forms  are  as  yet  unknown.  The  root 
form  occurs  chiefly  on  the  smaller  and 
more  tender  roots  and  thrives  best  on 
light  sandy  soils. 

Control 
The  aerial  lice  ma.v  be  controlled  by  any 
of  the  contact  insecticides  suggested  for 
the  Green  Apple  Aphis.  For  the  root 
form  the  surface  soil  above  the  roots 
should  be  scraped  away  and  tobacco  dust 
applied.  This  will  be  leached  down  by 
the  rain. 

CURRA>TS   \yn   GOOSEBERRIES 

The   Currant  .\phis 

Myzus  ribis  L. 
This  is  a  small  green  or  yellow  louse 
with  black  markings  which  curls  the 
terminal  leaves  of  the  shoots  of  currants 
and  gooseberries.  Its  life  history  is  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  Green  Apple  Aphis. 
As  the  lice  collect  on  the  under  side  of 
the  leaves  it  is  necessary  to  use  an  under- 
spray  nozzle  to  reach  them.  Any  of  the 
contact  sprays  suggested  for  the  Green 
Apple  Aphis  may  be  used  but  applica- 
tions should  be  made  before  the  leaves 
are  badly  curled.  Very  often  hand-pick- 
ing of  the  curled  leaves  will  suflSce  to 
clean  up  this  pest. 


PUTE    II. 

The  Plum  Hop  Aphis.  Figs.  1  and  2.     The  Black  Cherr.v  Aphis,  Figs.  3  and  4. 
The  Green  Plum  Aphis.  Figs.   '<   and  li. 


APHIDS 


53 


STRAWBERRY 

The  Straw Iierry  Root  Aphis 

Aphis    forhesi    Weed 

This  species  Is  very  destructive  to 
strawberry  plants  in  the  eastern  and  mid- 
dle western  states.  The  lice,  which  are 
greenish-black  and  about  one-twentieth 
of  an  inch  long,  cluster  in  great  numbers 
on  the  larger  roots.  The  winter  eggs 
are  laid  above  ground  but  the  lice  work 
chiefly  under  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  are  especially  troublesome  in  light 
soils.  In  the  control  of  this  aphis  sev- 
eral points  should  be  noted:  First, 
plants  should  not  be  set  out  on  land  in- 
fested within  the  two  years  previous,  as 
infested  roots  were  probably  left  in  the 
soil  when  the  plants  were  pulled  up  and 
these  remain  infested  for  months;  second, 
plants  to  be  set  out,  if  infested,  may  be 
disinfected  by  being  dipped  In  diluted 
tobacco  extract,  provided  the  winter  eggs 
have  hatched:  third,  straw  burnt  over 
the  beds  just  as  the  plants  are  beginning 
to  grow  in  spring  will  destroy  eggs  and 
lice  on  the  leaves  and  stems.  Several 
species  of  plant  lice  occur  occasionally 
on  the  leaves  of  the  strawberry.  These 
can  be  destroyed  by  any  of  the  contact 
insecticides  suggested  for  the  Green  Apple 
Aphis.  In  Europe  Schizoneura  fodiens 
Buckt.  infests  the  roots  of  the  straw- 
berry. "' 

BLACKBERRY    AXl)    RASPBERRY 

The  Blackberry  .4phis 

Amphoropliora  rtibi  Kalt. 

This  is  a  large  pale  green  louse  with 
dilated  cornicles.  It  is  a  European 
species  and  occasionally  colonizes  the 
growing  shoots  of  blackberries  and  rasp- 
berries in  spring.  Its  life  history  is  not 
well  known.  It  may  be  controlled  by 
spraying  with  whale-oil  soap  1  pound  to 
6   gallons  of  water. 

WALAUT 

The  European   Walnut   .Vphis 

Chromaphis  jufjlanrlicola  Kalt. 

This  Is  a  small  lemon-yellow  species 
occurring  on  nuts  and  leaves  of  the 
European  walnut.  Its  life  history  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  Green  Apple  Aphis 


except  that  the  agamic  or  viviparous  lice 
are  all  winged.  The  winter  eggs  are 
often  laid  in  crevices  of  the  bark  and 
are  thus  not  easily  reached  by  spraying. 
The  lice  on  the  leaves  can  be  controlled 
by  spraying  with  a  combination  spray 
of  dilute  oil  emulsion  and  tobacco  ex- 
tract (Black  Leaf  "40",  1-1,600,  or  Black 
Leaf  1-100). 

CHESTNUT 

The  Chestnut  Aphis 

Callipteriis  castaneas  Buckt. 

This  species  infests  the  leaves  of  com- 
mercial chestnuts.  In  appearance  and 
habits  it  greatly  resembles  the  walnut 
louse.  Doubtless  it  can  be  controlled  in 
a  similar  manner. 

CITRUS  TREES 

In  America  five  species  of  plant  lice 
are  found  on  citrus  fruits.  They  are  (1) 
the  Citrus  Aphis  ( Toxoptera  aurantiae 
Koch);  (2)  the  Cotton  Aphis  (Aphis 
gossypii  Glover);  (3)  Aphis  cookii  Essig; 
(4)  the  Green  Peach  Aphis  (Myzus  persi- 
cae  Sulz.) :  (5)  Macrosiphum  citrifolii 
Ashm.  The  first  three  of  these  are  small 
dark  brown  or  black  insects  while  the 
last  is  a  larger  pale  green  form.  The 
Green  Peach  Aphis  will  be  found  de- 
scribed under  the  article  on  Peach  plant- 
lice.  Occasionally  one  or  more  of  these 
lice  become  abundant  on  the  tender 
growth  of  citrus  foliage  and  may  do  much 
injury  to  young  buds.  As  far  as  citrus 
trees  are  concerned  the  life  histories  of 
these  species  have  not  been  entirely 
worked  out. 

Control 

Whale-oil  soap.  1  pound  to  6  gallons  of 
water,  7  per  cent  kerosene  oil  emulsion, 
soap  and  dilute  tobacco  extract,  or  car- 
bolic acid  emulsion  (diluted  so  that  about 
I'i  gallons  crude  carbolic  acid  is  used 
to  200  gallons  of  water)  will  be  found 
effective  washes  for  citrus  plant-lice.  A 
second  application  may  be  necessary 
about  four  days  after  the  first  in  order 
to  insure  the  complete  control.  High 
pressure  is  requisite  except  for  young 
buds,  which  should  be  sprayed  with  a 
knapsack  or  bucket-pump  as  pressure  will 
knock  them  off  the  tree. 


54 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


PEAS 

The  Pea  Aphis 

Macrosiphum   destructor  Johnson 

This  is  a  large  pale  green  species  which 
winters  on  clovers  and  other  leguminous 
plants  and  migrates  to  peas  shortly  after 
they  appear  above  ground.  Sometimes 
there  will  be  an  invasion  in  the  late  fall 
from  the  wild  hosts.  This  louse  is  very 
susceptible  to  fungus  attacks.  When 
abundant  the  lice  are  capable  of  ruining 
a  whole  crop  in  a  few  weeks. 


Fig.  10.     Destructive  Pea  Louse.    Winged  Vivip- 
arous  Female.      Enlarged   six   times. 

Control 

Peas  grown  on  well  fertilized  land  are 
more  resistant  to  the  attacks  of  the 
aphids,  and  earlier  varieties  escape  much 
of  the  injury.  On  large  areas  the  best 
method  of  control  is  to  brush  the  lice  off 
the  peas  with  pine  boughs  and  as  soon 
after  as  possible  cultivate  down  the 
rows.  This  will  result  in  the  lice  being 
buried  In  the  ground  and  destroyed.  If 
the  soil  is  dry  and  hot  those  lice  that 
are  not  buried  will  be  killed  by  the  dust 
closing  their  breathing  pores.  The  treat- 
ment should  be  repeated  every  week  or 
more  often,  until  the  crop  is  picked,  and 
is  only  possible  where  peas  are  sown  in 
rows  far  enough  apart  to  allow  of  the 
passage  of  the  cultivator.  Another  method 
is  to  drag  long  shallow  pans  in  which 
floats  a  film  of  kerosene  down  the  rows 
and  brush  off  the  lice  into  it.  On  the 
terminals  the  lice  will  often  escape  such 
treatments  and  spraying  with  whale-oil 
soap  will  destroy  many  of  these.  The 
wild  legumes  harboring  the  lice  in  win- 
ter should  be  destroyed  if  practicable. 


BEA> 

The  Beau  Aphis 

Aphis   rumicis  L. 

This  is  a  small  black  plant-louse  of 
European  origin.  The  nymphs  or  pupae 
have  a  conspicuous  row  of  white  spots 
on  the  body.  The  aphids  cluster  about 
the  terminal  leaves  and  stalks  of  the 
English  bean  and  often  attack  the  pods. 
The  life  history  is  somewhat  similar  to 
that  of  the  Pea  Aphis.  The  winter  eggs 
are  laid  on  shrubs  such  as  the  snowball 
plant,  the  lice  migrating  in  spring  to  the 
bean,  dock  and  other  plants.  The  aphis 
can  be  controlled  by  spraying  with  whale- 
oil  soap  (4  pounds  to  100  gallons  water) 
combined  with  tobacco  extract  (Black 
Leaf  ■'40",  1  to  2,000)  or  with  flour  paste 
and  tobacco  extract. 


CBCCIFEROrS  CROPS 

The  Cabbage  -\phis 

Aphis  brassicae  L. 

This  grayish-green  mealy  aphis  occurs 
all  over  the  United  States  on  cabbages, 
turnips  and  related  plants  cultivated  and 
wild.  The  winter  eggs  are  deposited  on 
the  leaves,  the  lice  hatching  therefrom 
in  early  spring.  In  the  southern  states 
and  in  California  viviparous  lice  may  be 
found    throughout   the   year. 

Control 

The  refuse  of  the  crop  should  be  de- 
stroyed in  the  fall.  By  destroying  wild 
mustard  and  wild  radishes  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  cultivated  crop  migratory  infesta- 
tion will  be  prevented.  The  lice  can 
also  be  controlled  by  spraying  with  whale- 
oil  soap  1  pound  to  6  gallons  of  water 
or  with  a  7  per  cent  kerosene  oil  emul- 
sion. 

rill-  (iri'CM   Peacli   Aphis 

Mi/zus  pfrsicae  Sulz. 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
this  pest  may  be  found  on  a  number  of 
vegetables  such  as  cabbage,  turnip,  cel- 
ery, spinach  and  lettuce.  It  may  be  con- 
trolled in  the  manner  advised  tor  the 
Cabbage   Aphis.      See    under    Peach. 


APHIDS 


55 


BEET 

The  Beet  Apliis 

Pemphigus  betae  Doane 

This  is  a  robust  greenish-wliite  or 
white  mealy  louse  infesting  the  roots  of 
the  lieet  on  the  Pacific  coast.  When  in 
abundance  it  becomes  very  injurious,  its 
presence  being  indicated  first  by  wither- 
ing and  stunted  growth  of  the  leaves. 
The  lice  attack  first  the  small  roots,  later 
moving  to  the  main  root  and  causing  it 
to  become  spongy.  Agamic  winged  and 
wingless  females  occur  on  the  plant  the 
year  around  and  the  se.xed  forms  have 
yet  to  be  found.  This  species  also  in- 
fests the  roots  of  pigweed,  dock  and  kin- 
dred plants.  The  only  known  remedy  is 
to  discontinue  for  at  least  one  year  plant- 
ing beets  on  infested  land  and  to  de- 
stroy the  wild  host-plants. 

The  Beet-root  Aphis 

Tychea  brevicornis  Hart. 

This  occurs  in  Colorado  on  the  roots  of 
beets  and  may  be  controlled  by  the  dis- 
continuance of  planting  beets  on  infested 
land  until  such  time  as  is  required  for 
the  lice  remaining  in  the  soil  to  die  of 
starvation. 

The  California  Beet-root  Aphis 

Trifirlaphis  radicicola  Essig 
The    food-plants    and    control    of    this 
species   are   similar   to   that   of   the   Beet 
Aphis. 

CUCURBITOrS  CROPS 

The  Melon  or  Cotton  Aphis 

Aphis  gossypii  Glover 

This  aphis  inhabits  a  large  variety  of 
plants  including  cotton,  orange,  straw- 
berries and  most  of  the  Cucurbitaceae.  Its 
life  history  is  yet  imperfectly  known.  In 
early  spring  it  migrates  from  various 
weeds  and  shrubs  to  cultivated  plants. 
Later  migrations  follow  during  summer 
and  fall.  The  progeny  of  the  migrant 
lice  settle  in  colonies  on  the  under  side 
of  the  leaves  of  the  cucurbits  and  soon 
cause  considerable  curling.  Control 
measures  should  be  initiated  as  soon  as 
the  pest  makes  its  appearance.  Under 
spraying  the  foliage  with  oil  emulsions 
or  tobacco  extracts  is  often  satisfactory 
or    the    plants    can    be    fumigated    with 


carbon  bisulfid  or  tobacco  paper.  The 
carbon  bisulfid  should  be  evaporated  un- 
der a  tub  or  similar  tight-fitting  recep- 
tacle placed  over  the  plant.  A  dram  of 
liquid  may  be  used  for  each  cubic  foot  of 
space.  The  plants  can  be  fumigated  suc- 
cessfully by  burning  tobacco  paper  under 
a  canvas  frame  fitted  over  the  plant. 
The  amount  of  tobacco  paper  to  be  used 
varies  with  the  cubic  measurement  of 
air  space  under  the  frame.  If  the  leaves 
are  badly  curled  fumigation  is  prefer- 
able to  spraying. 

COTTON 
Two  species  of  plant-lice  occur  on 
young  cotton  plants.  These  are  the 
Melon  or  Cotton  Aphis  {Aphis  gossypii 
Glover!  and  the  Bur-clover  Aphis  (Aphis 
medicaginis  Koch).  Both  are  small  black 
or  dark  brown  species  and  inhabit  nu- 
merous weeds,  migrating  thence  to  the 
cotton  plant.  The  best  ■  means  of  con- 
trol lies  in  the  prevention  of  the  lice 
from  reaching  the  cotton  and  this  may 
be  done  by  ridding  the  fields  of  weeds. 
If  melons  are  planted  near  the  cotton 
they  will  prove  a  continuous  source  of 
infestation. 

COR\ 

The  Corn-root  Aphis 

Aphis  maidi-ratlicis  Forbes 
This  aphis  is  a  small  bluish-green 
mealy  species.  Besides  corn  it  infests 
sorghum,  broom-corn,  cotton  and  grasses. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  late  fall  in  ants' 
nests,  the  egg-laying  females  having  been 
carried  thither  by  the  ants.  The  young 
hatching  in  spring  attack  the  roots  of 
grasses,  later  migrating  to  cultivated 
plants.  As  the  Corn-root  Aphis  is  chiefly 
troublesome  where  corn  has  been  planted 
on  the  same  ground  for  several  years  in 
succession,  a  rotation  of  crops  will  greatly 
check  its  ravages.  Fertilizing  the  land 
with  barnyard  manure  will  help  the  corn 
to  withstand  injury,  and  deep  plowing  and 
harrowing  in  winter  will  destroy  the  ants' 
nests  in  which  the  winter  eggs  are  stored 
besides  getting  rid  of  the  ant  protectors. 

The  Corn-leaf  Aphis 

Aphis    maidis    Fitch 
With  the  exception  of  the  cotton  plant 
this  species  has  the  same  range  of  food- 


56 


EtllCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


plants  as  the  Corn-root  Aphis.  It  is  about 
one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in  length,  bluish- 
green  and  without  bloom.  It  migrates 
from  weeds  to  cultivated  host-plants  in 
summer  and  when  abundant  stunts  the 
plants  and  causes  the  leaves  to  wither 
and  finally  die.  Injury  is  heavier  on 
broom-corn  and  sorghum  than  on  corn. 
In  Texas  it  has  been  found  on  barley  in 
winter.  Little  seems  to  have  been  done 
on  the  control  of  this  louse.  Whale-oil 
soap  1  pound  to  5  gallons  will  destroy 
the  aphis,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  this  would 
be  practicable  in  the  field  on  large  areas. 

SMALL  GRAINS 

Three  species  of  plant-lice,  all  Euro- 
pean, are  injurious  to  small  grains.  These 
are:  (1)  the  English  Grain  Aphis 
(Macrosiphum  granarium  Buckt.) ;  (2) 
the  Spring  Grain  Aphis  (Toxoptera 
graminum  Rond.);  (3)  the  European 
Grain  Aphis  ( Aphis  padi  L.).  These  are 
all  bright  green  forms,  the  first-named 
being  considerably  larger  than  either  of 
the  other  two.  In  the  warmer  parts  of 
the  United  States  they  produce  parthen- 
ogenetically  all  the  year  around  on  grains 
and  grasses,  but  In  the  North  winter  is 
passed  in  the  egg  stage.  The  injury  they 
do  to  young  grain  plants  is  often  severe, 
and  grain  should  be  watched  for  their 
appearance.  Small  localized  outbreaks 
may  be  controlled  either  by  plowing  un- 
der, by  covering  the  spots  with  straw 
and  burning,  or  by  spraying  with  whale- 
oil  soap  (1  pound  to  10  or  12  gallons  of 
water).  On  large  areas  of  infested  grain 
the  only  known  methods  of  control  are 
the  suppression  of  all  volunteer  wheat 
and  oats  in  the  fall,  late  sowing  of  fall 
wheat,  and  fertilization  of  the  soil  to 
help  the  plants  to  resist  attacks. 

POTATO 

Tlie   Potato    Apliis 

Macrosiphum  solatiifolii  Ashmead 

This  is  a  large  green  plant-louse  which 
is  occasionally  very  injurious  to  the  po- 
tato in  the  eastern  states.  The  aphid 
passes  the  winter  on  Shepherd's  Purse 
and  other  weeds,  migrating  in  spring 
and  summer  to  the  potato  and  returning 
in  the  fall  to  the  weeds.     The  usual  con- 


tact insecticides  (whale-oil  soap,  oil  emul- 
sions and  tobacco  extracts)  are  not  prac- 
ticable against  this  louse  on  a  large  scale, 
but  they  may  be  employed  with  success 
on  a  small  patch.  Control  on  a  large 
area  is  reduced  to  clean  culture,  fall 
plowing  and  the  burning  over  of  weedy 
places  in  the  vicinity  of  potato  fields  in 
order  to  clean  up  the  land  of  the  alter- 
nate host-plants  of  the  aphis. 

HOP 

The  Hoi)  .Vpl'is 

Phororion  humuli  Schrank 

This  is  a  light  green  non-pulverulent 
louse  originating  in  Europe  and  now  dis- 
tributed all  over  the  United  States.  The 
winter  is  passed  in  the  egg  stage  on 
plums  and  prunes,  wild  and  cultivated, 
the  lice  migrating  in  spring  to  hops.  In 
California  researches  would  indicate  that 
the  aphis  may  pass  its  whole  annual  life 
cycle  on  the  hop.  as  plums  growing  in 
the  vicinity  of  hop-yards  badly  infested 
have  been  carefully  examined  and  found 
to  be  totally  uninfested  by  the  winter 
eggs.  This  plant-louse  may  be  destroyed 
by  suraving  with  tobacco  extract  (Black 
Leaf  1-2.000  to  1-3.000)  combined  with 
flour  paste  (4  pounds  to  100  gallons 
water). 

W.  M.  DAvmsoN 


Apple 


HISTORY  AM)  ORIGIN 

The  histor.v  of  the  apple  is  an  interest- 
ing illustration  of  modification  through 
artificial  selection.  Its  history  before  the 
period  of  its  domestication  is  unknown. 
The  best  we  can  do  is  to  point  to  the 
wild  ancestor  and  say.  "Here  is  where 
our  particular  variety  had   its  origin." 

Since  the  period  of  its  cultivation,  how- 
ever, the  changes  have  been  rapid  and 
always  in  the  direction  best  suited  to 
the  wants  of  mankind.  We  have  studied 
the  habits,  adaptations,  wants,  likes  and 
dislikes  of  fruits,  and  more  especially  the 
apple,  because  it  is  the  "King  of  fruits," 
and  have  reduced  this  study  to  more  or 
less  of  a  science.  We  have  systems  of 
experimentation  and  discovery  which  tend 


A,J.S. 

6      Ore  E,p   5U 


The  Green  Currant  Aphis.  Figs.  1  and  2.     The  Gooseberr.v  .\phis.  Figs.  ?•  and  -J. 
The  Black  Peach  Aphis.  Figs.  5  and  0. 


APPLES 


57 


toward  a  rapid  improvement  and  better 
adaptation  to  human  needs.  So  great 
have  been  the  changes  that  to  the  un- 
scientific mind  the  lowly  origin  of  the 
apple  seems  incredible. 

The  Apple  and  tlie  Hawthorn 

Botanically  the  hawthorn,  choke-berries, 
service-berries,  mountain  ash,  crab  apple 
and  the  improved  varieties  of  apples  be- 
long to  the  same  family.  As  a  boy  in 
"West  Virginia  the  writer  saw  100  grafts 
from  a  seedling  apple  inserted  in  haw- 
thorn stock,  and  a  few  of  them  grew. 
The  fact  that  they  lived  shows  such 
structural  relations  as  to  make  reasonable 
the  contention  of  botanists  that  they  be- 
long to  the  same  group. 

The   Apple  and  the  Wild  Crab 

There  is  now  no  question  among  hor- 
ticulturists that  the  improved  varieties 
of  apple  have  come  from  a  wild  crab, 
discovered  originally  in  the  forests  of 
Europe  and  the  Orient. 

■^Tien  the  first  settlers  came  to  America 
they  found  a  species  of  wild  crabs  grow- 
ing in  the  forests  and  being  used  by  the 
aborigines  for  food.  When  these  settlers 
crossed  the  Allegheny  mountain  range 
and  came  into  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
valleys,  they  found  it  growing  there.  In 
1865  the  writer  came  to  Illinois,  settled 
on  the  prairies  near  the  eastern  border 
of  the  state,  and  found  groves  of  crab 
trees,  hawthorns,  plums  and  cherries 
scattered  along  the  streams  skfrting  the 
bodies  of  timber,  and  in  clumps  on  the 
prairies,  sometimes  not  more  than  a 
dozen  trees  in  a  group,  but  there  they 
were,  with  every  evidence  of  having 
grown  there  for  a  long  period  before  the 
first  w-hite  settlers  came  to  that  country. 
How  they  came  to  be  there  no  one  seemed 
to  know,  and  few  cared  to  inquire.  The 
original  settlers  took  it  as  a  matter  of 
course — the  way  of  nature — and  thought 
no  more  about  it  than  they  did  of  the 
larger  forests  that  skirted  the  rivers,  or 
the  grass  that  grew  upon  the  prairie. 
However,  from  these  wild  fruits  they 
made  crab  apple  butter,  plum  preserves, 
cherry  pies  and  other  delicacies  that  fur- 
nished   fruit    acids   much    needed    as    an 


article  of   food   and   for  the   preservation 
of   health. 

Varieties  of  Crabs 

There  are  four  varieties  of  crab  apples 
said  to  be  native  to  North  America. 

The  first  is  the  Common  Wild  Crab,  of 
the  northeastern  United  States  and  Can- 
ada. 

The  second  is  the  Narrow  Leaved  Crab 
of  the  middle  and  southern  states. 

The  third,  the  Prairie  States  or  Soulard 
Crab. 

The  fourth,  the  Oregon  Crab. 

Of  these  varieties  the  Soulard  Crab 
is  the  best.  Considerable  controversy 
has  grown  up  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
Soulard  Crab.  Downing  in  his  "Fruit  and 
Fruit  Trees"  says:  "It  originated  with 
Antoine  Lessieur,  Portage  des  Sioux,  a 
few  miles  above  St.  Louis."  The  Hon. 
James  G.  Soulard  of  Gibson,  Illinois,  in- 
troduced it  and  claimed  to  be  the  origi- 
nator. His  account  of  its  origin  is  as  fol- 
lows: "It  originated  on  a  farm  about  12 
miles  from  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  where 
stood  an  American  crab  thicket  not  en- 
closed near  the  farm  house.  The  thicket 
was  cut  down  and  the  ground  cultivated 
some  two  or  three  years.  Culture  being 
discontinued  another  crab  thicket  sprung 
up  and  when  bearing,  one  tree,  the  iden- 
tical of  which  is  called  the  Soulard  Crab, 
was  discovered.  The  fruit  astonished  me 
by  its  remarkable  size.  I  immediately 
propagated  it  by  grafting  upon  crab 
stock  and  seedling  apples,  both  stocks 
producing   the   same    fruit." 

Mr.  Soulard  believed  it  was  originated 
by  accidental  hybridization  with  the 
common  apple.  Others  believe  it  is  a  nat- 
ural variation  from  the  crab.  Not  know- 
ing the  circumstances  of  this  particular 
case  we  are  not  able  to  offer  a  solution 
of  the  controversy;  but  under  the  laws 
of  variation  now  commonly  known  it 
might  have  originated  by  either  of  the 
methods  claimed.  It  seems  to  us  more 
probable,  however,  that  it  originated  by 
the  natural  process  of  variation  from  the 
original  stock,  cultivation  having  much 
to  do  in  causing  the  changes  that  oc- 
curred. 

This  crab  produces  apples  so  nearly    in 


58 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


quality  and  appearance  like  some  of  our 
seedlings  as  to  show  a  very  close  con- 
nection between  the  crab  and  the  seedling. 
In  fact,  there  are  varieties  of  crabs  so 
nearly  like  certain  varieties  of  seedlings 
as  to  make  it  next  to  impossible  to  deter- 
mine which  is  the  crab  and  which  is  the 
seedling. 

Again  it  sometimes  occurs  that  seed- 
lings produce  the  very  finest  varieties  of 
apples,  and  by  this  means  domestic  vari- 
eties have  been  greatly  improved,  which 
tends  to  establish  the  fact  that  apples  have 
followed  the  law  of  plant  variation  in 
general.  This  law  if  wisely  used  will 
lead  us  along  a  line  of  indefinite  improve- 
ment of  even  the  best  varieties  now 
grown. 

Granville  Lowther 

BOTANY 

The  apple  tree  is  a  near  relative  of  the 
roses,  raspberries,  blackberries,  strawber- 
ries, and  is  somewhat  further  removed 
from  the  plums,  peaches,  cherries,  etc. 
It  is  therefore  a  member  of  the  rose  fam- 
ily (Rosaceae),  and  has  many  character- 
istics common  to  the  one  thousand  related 
species. 

The  place  of  this  family  among  the 
flowering  plants  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom has  been  a  matter  of  some  contro- 
versy, but  the  more  rational  view  is  the 
one  which  regards  its  species  as  standing 
not  far  from  the  lower  or  primitive  dicot- 
yledons (i.  e..  plants  with  two  seed 
leaves),  and  hence  not  distantly  related 
to  the  buttercups,  anemones,  etc.  Indeed 
it  is  not  difficult  to  see  in  the  strawberi'y, 
•  raspberry,  and  blackberry,  and  even  in 
the  apple  itself,  a  good  many  resemblances 
to  buttercups  and  anemones.  If  the  re- 
ceptacle of  a  buttercup  should  become 
fleshy  we  would  have  a  pretty  close  imi- 
tation of  a  strawberry.  If  we  compare 
the  species  of  SpiriPa  with  some  of  the 
members  of  the  buttercup  family,  the  re- 
semblance is  still  more  striking.  It  is 
safe  for  us  to  assume,  therefore,  that  the 
family  of  plants  to  which  the  apple  be- 
longs Is  not  one  of  high  botanical  rank, 
however  high  we  may  rank  it  from  an 
economic    standpoint. 


In  the  rose  family  there  are  several 
marked  types  of  flowers,  of  which  the 
most  important  are  the  following:  (1.) 
With  several,  separate,  free  pistils,  as  in 
the  strawberry,  blackberry,  raspberry. 
Spiraea,  etc.  (2.)  With  several  pistils 
which  are  covered  with  the  adherent  ca- 
lyx-tube, as  in  the  apples,  pears,  quinces, 
etc.  (3.)  With  but  one  free  pistil,  as  in 
cherries,  peaches,  plums,  etc. 

The  plants  of  the  second  type  are  some- 
times set  off  in  a  sub-family  called  the 
apple  sub-family  (Pomaceae),  and  occa- 
sionally this  has  been  regarded  as  a  dis- 
tinct family  under  the  same  name.  In  the 
apple  sub-family  botanists  have  been  able 
to  distinguish  14  different  genera,  of 
which  the  most  important  from  the  hor- 
ticulturist's standpoint  are  the  following: 
Cotoneaster.  of  which  one  or  more  species 
are  in  common  cultivation  as  pretty, 
thorn-like  trees;  Cydonia,  the  quinces; 
Pirus.  the  apples;  Eriohotrya.  the  Japan- 
ese medlars;  Amelanchier.  the  service  ber- 
ries; Mespiliis,  the  common  medlars;  and 
Crataefiiis.  the  hawthorns.  In  this  ar- 
ticle we  are  particularly  concerned  with 
the  genus  which  includes  the  apples,  and, 
as  will  be  seen  below,  even  here  we  need 
notice  but  a  few  of  the  many  species. 

Pirns  L 

Flowers  containing  both  stamens  and 
pistils;  calyx  a  five-lobed  cup  adhering  to 
and  enclosing  the  two  to  five  ovaries; 
petals  five,  inserted  on  the  top  of  the  ca- 
lyx cup;  stamens  many  (about  20)  in- 
serted on  the  top  of  the  calyx  cup;  ovaries 
usually  with  two  ovules,  producing  as 
many  seeds;  fruit,  a  pome,  consisting  of 
the  enlarged  and  fleshy  calyx  cup,  enclos- 
ing the  papery  carpels  (core)  and  brown, 
tough-coated  seed;  leaves  alternate,  de- 
ciduous, simple  or  compound. 

About  50  species  of  this  genus  are  now 
known,  mostly  natives  of  the  north  tem- 
perate zone,  a  few  extending  into  the 
tropics  upon  high  mountains.  Seven  or 
eight  species  occur  in  North  America. 

The  genus  is  divided  into  six  sub- 
genera, namely: 

1.  The  Apples  (Mahis).  with  globose 
fruit,  containing  soft  flesh:  leaves  simple. 


APPLES 


59 


2.  The  Pears  (Eupirus),  with  pear- 
shaped  fruit,  containing  granular  flesh; 
leaves  simple. 

3.  The  Beam-Trees  (Aria),  with  pear- 
shaped  or  globose  fruit,  containing  gran- 
ular flesh;   leaves  simple. 

4.  The  Choke-Berries  (Aronia),  with 
berry-like,  pear-shaped,  or  globose  fruits, 
and  simple  leaves. 

5.  The  Dwarf-Apples  (Micromeles), 
with  small  apple-like,  two  to  three  celled 
fruits,   and   simple   leaves. 

6.  The  Mountain  Ashes  (Sorbus),  with 
berry-like  mostly  three-celled  fruits,  and 
compound   leaves. 

Here  the  species  of  the  first  sub-genus 
only  will  be  noticed,  inasmuch  as  they 
alone  are  properly  entitled  to  the  name 
"Apple."  All  the  species  considered  are 
of  more  or  less  horticultural  interest. 

Tlie  Apple   Species 

Section  1.  Calyx-lobes  persistent  upon 
the  ripe  fruit;  styles  five;  fruits  five- 
celled. 

A.  Leaves  folded  in  the  hud,  more  or 
less  pinnately  lobed;  flowers  white  or 
pink;  trees  more  or  less  thorny. 

1.  Eastern  Apple  (Pirus  coronaria  L.) 
Leaves  ovate  to  triangular-ovate,  sharply 
cut-serrate,  and  often  three-lobed;  twigs 
and  leaves  soon  smooth;  flowers  on 
smooth  pedicels;  ripe  depressed  globose, 
yellow-green,  one  to  one  and  one-half 
inches  in  diameter.  A  shrub  8  to  10  feet, 
or  small  tree  20  to  30  feet  high.  Native 
of  North  America,  from  New  York  to 
Michigan,  and  south  to  Georgia  and  Ala- 
bama, and  frequently  planted  for  orna- 
mental purposes. 

2.  Prairie  Apple  (Pirus  ioensis  [Woodl 
Bailey).  Leaves  elliptic-oblong  to  ovate- 
oblong;  irregularly  and  obtusely  toothed; 
twigs  and  under  surface  of  leaves  white- 
woolly;  flowers  on  white- woolly  pedicels; 
ripe  fruit  depressed-globose,  yellow-green, 
one  to  two  inches  in  diameter.  A  shrub 
or  tree  like  the  preceding.  Native  of  the 
Mississippi  valley.  This  is  probably  the 
parent  form  of  the  "Soulard  Crab,"  which 
Professor  Bailey  has  described  as  P.  soii- 
lardi. 

3.  Southern  Apple  (Pirns  aiigustifolia 
Ait.).     Leaves  lanceolate-oblong,  coarsely 


and  bluntly  toothed;  twigs  and  leaves 
soon  smooth;  flowers  on  smooth  pedicels; 
ripe  fruit  depressed-globose,  yellow-green, 
three-fourths  to  one  inch  in  diameter.  A 
shrub  or  tree  like  the  preceding,  native 
from  Pennsylvania  to  Florida,  and  west 
to  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  frequently 
planted  for  ornamental  purposes. 

It  is  probable  that  the  three  foregoing 
species  are  but  geographical  varieties  of 
one  species,  as  they  show  easy  gradations 
from  one  to  the  other.  The  Prairie  apple 
appears  to  be  the  most  valuable,  and  as 
a  consequence  it  is  the  most  promising 
as  a  stock  for  the  development  of  cul- 
tivated varieties. 
B.    Leaves  rolled  in  the  bud,  not  lobed. 

(a.)  Fruit  crowned  by  the  caly.x  lobes 
only   (not  by  a  tube). 

4.  Smooth  Wild  Apple  (Pirus  silves- 
tris  [Mill.]  Koch).  Leaves  ovate,  cre- 
nate,  when  young  hairy,  when  old  smooth, 
or  nearly  so;  twigs  at  first  sparsely 
hairy,  becoming  smooth,  flower-stalk  and 
calyx  mostly  smooth;  fruit  yellowish  or 
reddish,  three-fourths  inch  in  diameter 
on  a  stalk  about  as  long,  very  sour  and 
bitter.  A  tree  25  to  30  feet  high,  native 
of   Central   Europe. 

5.  Hairy  Wild  Apple  (Pirus  mains  L.). 
Leaves  ovate  or  elliptical,  crenate,  more 
or  less  hairy,  as  are  the  twigs  also; 
flower  stalk  and  calyx  white-woolly;  fruit 
longer  than  its  stalk,  larger  than  the 
preceding,  from  sour  to  sweet.  Two  quite 
well  marked  wild  varieties  are  commonly 
recognized  as  follows: 

var.  dasyphylla,  a  tree  of  moderate  size 
with  horizontal  branches,  bearing  large 
leaves  (3  to  4  inches  long  and  2  to  2% 
broad).     Native  of  the  Orient. 

var.  ptimila,  a  shrub  or  small  tree,  na- 
tive of  Southeast  Russia,  the  Caucasus, 
Tartarj-,  etc.  From  this  variety  have 
come  the  dwarf  apple  known  as  Paradise 
and  Doucain  apples,  so  frequently  used 
by  propagators  for  dwarfing  the  larger 
cultivated  sorts. 

This  species  with  its  varieties  appears 
to  have  given  rise  to  most  of  the  culti- 
vated apples  of  the  world.  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  the  preceding  species  (P. 
silvestris)    should   be   kept   distinct   from 


60 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


P.  mains.  They  appear  to  freely  inter- 
cross and  produce  gradations  from  one 
type  to  the  other. 

The  cultivated  varieties  as  the  Bald- 
win, Jonathan,  Ben  Davis,  Grimes' 
Golden,  are  what  the  botanist  calls  "hor- 
ticultural varieties,"  which  differ  from 
varieties  in  the  botanical  sense  by  being 
less  stable.  A  botanical  variety  will  re- 
produce itself  from  seed,  but  these  "hor- 
ticultural varieties"  will  not  do  so.  And 
yet  the  two  differ  only  in  degree,  not  in 
kind.  The  horticultural  variety  is  a 
slight  temporary  variation  which  will 
easily  lose  its  identity,  while  the  bo- 
tanical variety  is  the  same  in  kind,  but 
with  such  stability  that  it  reproduces 
itself  year  by  year  from  the  seed. 

The  extremely  variable  character  of 
this  species  may  be  inferred  from  the 
statement  made  by  Professor  Bailey  that 
the  horticultural  varieties  undoubtedly 
reach  4,000  or  5,000.  *  Downing  gives 
descriptions  of  1,900  varieties,  and  the 
American  Pomological  Society's  list  in- 
cludes 369. 

(b)  Fruit  covered  by  a  short  fleshy 
calyx  tube,  bearing  the  calyx  lobes. 

6.  Chinese  Apple  (Pirus  spectabilis 
Alton).  Leaves  elongated  -  elliptical, 
smooth;  flower-stalk  and  calyx-tube 
hairy;  fruit  about  as  long  as  its  stalk 
(one  inch),  yellowish.  A  tree  20  to  25 
feet  high,  native  of  China  and  ,Tapan, 
often  found  in  cultivation,  with  much 
"doubled"   flowers. 

7.  Ringo  Apple  (Pirus  ringo  Sei- 
bold.).  Leaves  ovate-elongated,  sharp 
serrate,  at  first  hairy  below,  but  eventu- 
ally smooth:  flower-stalk  and  calyx  white- 
woolly:  fruit  wax-yellow  'with  a  reddish 
tinge,  one  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in 
diameter,  stalk  about  as  long.  A  small 
tree  nine  to  ten  feet  high,  native  of 
.Japan.  Occasionally  cultivated  for  orna- 
mental purposes. 

8.  Large  Siberian  Apple  (Pirns  pru- 
nifolia  Willd.).  Leaves  ovate,  elongated 
or  elliptical,  smooth  below,  on  long  peti- 
oles: flower-stalk  and  calyx  hairy  or 
smooth ;  fruit  wax-yellow,  in  red  and  even 
black,  one  to  one  and  one-half  inches  or 


•See  the  article  ".\pplp"  in  the  now  edition 
of  .Tohnsnn's  ryolnppdia.  ISOn.  pp.    200-201. 


more  in  diameter,  stalk  about  as  long  or 
longer.  A  tree  25  to  30  feet  high,  native 
of  Northern  China,  Tartary,  and  South- 
ern Siberia.  This  is  the  parent  form  of 
the  larger  cultivated  crab  apple,  such  as 
the  Transcendent,  Hyslop,  etc. 

Section  2.  Calyx-lobes  falling  off  after 
blossoming;  styles  three  to  flve;  fruits 
three  to  five-celled. 

A.  Leaves  rolled  in  the  T)ud. 

9.  Small  Siberian  Apple  (Pirus  ia- 
cata  L.)  Leaves  elongated-ovate,  smooth, 
as  are  the  twigs  also;  flower-stalk  and 
calyx  smooth:  fruit  small,  one-third  to 
three-fourths  inch,  yellow  or  red.  on  a 
much  longer  slender  stalk  (one  to  one 
and  one-half  inches).  A  tree  25  to  30 
feet  high,  native  of  the  Himalayas,  Amur, 
China,  and  Siberia.  This  is  the  parent 
form  of  the  smaller  cultivated  crab  ap- 
ples,   as    the    Red    Siberian    Crab.    etc. 

B.  Leaves  folded  in  the  hud. 

10.  Toringo  Apple  (Pirus  toringo 
Koch).  Leaves  small,  ovate  or  elongated, 
three  to  flve-lobed:  flower  stalk  and  calyx 
sparingly  hairy,  or  smooth:  fruit  small 
spherical,  one-fourth  inch  in  diameter,  on 
a  long  stalk.  A  small  tree  12  feet  high, 
native  of  .Japan,  occasionally  planted  for 
ornamental  purposes. 

11.  Oregon  Apple  (Pirus  rivularis 
Dougl.).  Leaves  ovate-lanceolate,  smooth 
and  firm,  dark  green,  serrate:  flower- 
stalk  and  calyx  somewhat  hairy,  or 
smooth:  fruit  on  long  stalks  obovate  ob- 
long, one-half  to  three-fourths  inch  long, 
from  yellowish-green  to  yellow  and  even 
red,  flavor  "a  pleasant  sub-acid."  A  tree 
30  to  40  feet  high,  native  of  the  Pacific 
coast  of  North  America  from  California 
to  Alaska.  This  species  should  receive 
the  attention  of  the  scientific  horticul- 
turists of  the  western  coast  states. 

Itciiiarks    on    the    Foreffoinff    S|ipeies 

From  this  view  of  the  species  noticed 
above  it  is  seen  that  three  are  natives 
of  Eastern  North  America,  one  of  West- 
ern North  America,  two  of  Europe,  three 
of  China  and  Japan,  and  two  of  the  Si- 
berian region.  Of  these  we  have  brought 
into  cultivation  for  their  fruits  one 
species  from  Eastern  North  America,  one 
or  two  from  Europe,  and  two  from  the 
Siberian  region.     The  species  from  China 


APPLES 


61 


and   Japan   are   ornamental,   as   are   also 
those  from  North  America.     These  facts 


may  be  sliown  more  clearly  by  the  follow- 
ing table:* 


No. 


Name 


Nativity 


Cultivated  or  Not 


1 

2 

3 

11 

4 
5 
6 
7 
10 
8 
9 


For  ornament  only. 

For  ornament  and  for  fruit. 

For  ornament  only. 


Eastern  apple Eastern  North  America .  .  . 

Prairie  apple Mississippi  valley 

Southern  apple Southern  states 

Oregon  apple Pacific     coast     of     North 

America 

Smooth  Wild  apple. .    Europe 

Hairy  Wild  apple.  .  .    Europe 

Chinese  apple China  and  Japan 

Ringo  apple '  Japan 

Toringo  apple j  Japan 

Large  Siberian  apple    Siberia,  Tartary  and  China!  Cultivated  for  its  fruit 
Small  Siberian  apple    Siberia,  Amur  and  China .  . ;  Cultivated  for  its  fruit. 


Sparingly  cultivated  for  ornament 
Probably  cultivated  for  its  fruit. 
Cultivated  for  its  fruit. 
Cultivated  for  ornament. 
Cultivated  for  ornament. 
Cultivated  for  ornament. 


•Charles  E.   Bessey.  assisted  by   A. 
Nebraska,   1894. 

Future  of  the  Xatiye  Crah 

Although  the  apple  (Pints  maJus)  is 
not  a  native  of  American  soil,  it  seems 
to  find  a  congenial  home  here.  It  is  true 
we  have  some  nearly  related  species  in 
our  native  crabs,  and  they  give  promise 
in  the  hands  of  the  experimenters  of 
better  things  in  the  years  to  come,  but 
as  yet  no  specially  valuable  varieties  have 
been  developed  from  this  source.  Our 
cultivated  apples  and  crabs  are  the  lineal 
descendants  of  the  wild  crabs  of  Europe. 
Pyrus  mains  and  Pyrus  baccata,  which 
have  had  many  years  of  careful  culture 
bestowed  upon  them  to  bring  them  to 
our  present  standard  of  excellence.  When 
our  American  species  have  had  as  many 
years  of  domestic  life  and  as  careful  cul- 
ture bestowed  upon  them  they  may  rival 
their  foreign  cousins  in  many  of  their 
good  qualities.  G.  B.   Buackett 

BEGixxrvGS  rv  oregox 

The  Oldest  Apple  Tree  on  the  Pacific 
Coast:  There  stands  in  the  grounds  of 
Old  Fort  Vancouver,  Vancouver,  Wash., 
an  apple  tree  which  dates  back  to  the 
earliest  time  in  the  history  of  white  set- 
tlements in  the  Columbia  river  valley. 
Bancroft,  the  historian,  tells  the  following 
story  of  the  tree: 

"At  a  lunch  party  in  London,  about 
the  year  1825,  given  in  honor  of  some 
young  gentlemen  who  were  about  to  em- 
bark for  Fort  Vancouver  in  the  employ 
of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  seeds  of 
fruit,  eaten  at  the  party  were  slipped 
by  some  young  ladies  into  the  waistcoat 
pockets    of    the    young    men    who,    upon 


F.   Woods,   Annual   Report   State   Horticultural    Society. 


their  arrival  at  their  destination,  gave 
them  to  Bruce,  the  gardener  at  the  fort. 
George  H.  Himes  of  the  Oregon  His- 
torical Society  is  responsible  for  the  fol- 
lowing account: 

Old  Vaucouver  Tree 

Regarding  the  seedling  apple  which 
grew  near  the  Hudson  Bay  Company's 
Fort  Vancouver,  now  Vancouver,  Wash., 
from  seed  brought  from  London  to  that 
place  in  1S25:  Mrs.  Narciss  Prentiss 
Whitman,  one  of  the  two  first  American 
women  to  cross  the  plains  to  Oregon,  ar- 
rived at  Fort  Vancouver  on  September  12, 
1836.  and  her  husband.  Dr.  Marcus  Whit- 
man, and  her  traveling  companions — 
Rev.  Henry  H.  Spalding,  Mrs.  Eliza  Hart 
Spalding  and  William  H.  Gray — were  en- 
tertained by  Dr.  John  McLoughlin,  Chief 
Factor  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company. 
Mrs.  Whitman,  in  her  diary  under  the 
date  above  mentioned,  made  the  follow- 
ing entry: 

"What  a  delightful  place  this  is;  what 
a  contrast  to  the  rough,  barren  sand 
plains  through  which  we  have  so  recently 
passed!  Here  we  find  fruit  of  every  de- 
scription— apples,  peaches,  grapes,  pears, 
plums,  and  fig  trees  In  abundance;  also 
cucumbers,  melons,  beans,  peas,  beets, 
cabbages,  tomatoes  and  every  kind  of  veg- 
etable, too  numerous  to  be  mentioned. 
Every  part  is  very  neat  and  tastefully 
arranged,  with  fine  walks,  lined  on  each 
side  with  strawberry  vines.  At  the  oppo- 
site end  of  the  garden  is  a  good  summer 
house  covered  with  grape  vines.  Here 
1  must  mention  the  origin  of  these  grapes. 


62 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


and  apples.  A  gentleman,  12  years  ago, 
while  at  a  party  in  London,  put  the  seeds 
of  the  grapes  and  apples  which  he  ate  into 
his  vest  pocket;  soon  afterwards  he  took  a 
voyage  to  this  country  and  left  them 
here,  and  now  they  are  greatly  multi- 
plied." 

J.  K.  Townsend.  an  American  natural- 
ist, arrived  at  Fort  Vancouver  September 


16,  1834,  and  after  looking  over  the  farm 
and  examining  its  products,  says:  "The 
greatest  curiosity,  however,  is  the  apple, 
which  grows  on  small  trees,  the  branches 
of  which  would  be  broken  without  the 
support  of  props.  So  profuse  is  the  quan- 
tity of  fruit  that  the  limbs  are  covered 
with  it,  and  it  is  actually  packed  to- 
gether precisely  in  the  same  manner  that 


1.     Old  Apple  Tree  at  Fort  Vaiui.iiviM-,  Wasliinston.  the  Seed  tor  Wliicb  Was 
Planted  About  lS2Tj. 


APF'LES 


63 


onions  are  attached  to  ropes,  when  they 
are  exposed  for  sale  in  our  markets." 

On  December  6,  1835,  Dr.  Samuel  Par- 
ker, who  arrived  at  Fort  Vancouver  sev- 
eral weeks  before  that  date,  says:  "Fruit 
of  various  kinds,  such  as  apples,  peaches, 
grapes  and  strawberries,  for  the  time 
they  have  been  introduced,  flourish,  and 
prove  that  the  climate  and  soil  are  well 
adapted  to  the  purposes  of  horticulture." 

These  references  antedate  Mrs.  Whit- 
man one  and  two  years.  Somewhere  I 
have  a  reference  from  another  source 
substantially  confirming  what  Mrs.  Whit- 
man says  about  the  first  introduction  of 
fruit  seeds.  At  the  same  time,  I  think 
it  is  unsafe  to  say  these  seeds  were 
planted  before  the  year  1825.  Dr.  Mc- 
Loushlin  did  not  arrive  until  late  in  De- 
cember,   1824. 

B.  F.  Brown  established  a  Nursery  on 
"Puget  Sound  two  miles  below  Olympia," 
September   27,   1854. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  estab- 
lished a  branch  known  as  "The  Puget 
Sound  Agriculture  Company"  at  Fort 
Nisqually,  Pierce,  county,  now  known  as 
Dupont,  in  1833.  Soon  after  that  date, 
probably  within  a  year  or  two,  seedling 
fruit  trees  were  taken  there,  one  or  two 
of  which  can  still  be  seen  or  could  be 
seen  up  to  six  years  ago. 

The  first  grafted  fruit  in  the  Puget 
Sound  country  was  taken  there  by  David 
J.  Chambers  in  1849  and  1850,  all  of 
which  was  bought  of  Luelling  &  Meek, 
Milwaukee. 

This  firm  was  composed  of  Henderson 
Luelling  and  William  Meek,  who  came 
across  the  plains  in  1847.  Meek  was  a 
nursery  man  and  was  doing  business  in 
Van  Buren  county,  Iowa.  He  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Luelling  in  1846,  and 
thus  learned  of  his  plans  for  taking  a 
stock  of  selected  fruit  trees  to  Oregon; 
and  not  only  that,  but  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Mr.  Luelling's  daughter, 
and  was  deeply  impressed  by  her  appear- 
ance. He  returned  home  and  decided 
that  he,  too,  would  take  a  small  stock 
of  fruit  trees  to  Oregon.  Accordingly 
needful  preparations  were  made,  and 
on  April  1,  1847,  he  started  to  Oregon 
across  the  plains  and  arrived   at  Oregon 


City  September  9  followin.g.  He  drove 
on  at  once  to  the  "Forks  of  the  Santiam," 
a  section  of  country  a  few  miles  east  of 
Albany.  Here  he  "heeled  in"  his  trees 
for  the  winter.  A  few  weeks  later  he 
made  it  "convenient"  to  call  on  Mr.  Luel- 
ling, below  Milwaukee,  primarily  to  see 
the  condition  his  trees  were  in,  but 
really  to  renew  acquaintance  with  the 
daughter.  To  his  surprise  he  found  Mr. 
Luelling's  trees  properly  set  out  and  all 
in  good  condition.  An  arrangement  was 
then  made  to  add  his  trees  to  the  Luel- 
ling stock,  and  thus  the  firm  of  Luelling 
&  Meek  was  formed.  And  not  long  after 
that,  having  found  favor  in  the  eyes  of 
the  young  lady  already  alluded  to,  a  sec- 
ond co-partnership  was  foi-med,  the  high 
contracting  parties  being  Mr.  Meek  and 
Miss  Luelling. 

The  partnership  with  Mr.  Luelling  con- 
tinued from  1848  to  1854,  when  the  lat- 
ter sold  out  to  his  brother,  Seth,  and  H. 
W.  Eddy,  and  removed  to  California, 
where  he  died  on  December  28,  1878.  In 
1859  Mr.  Meek  sold  out  to  J.  H.  Lambert 
and  removed  to  Alameda  county,  Cali- 
fornia, and  carried  on  fruit  growing  and 
general  farming  until  he  died  in  1882. 

Henderson  Luelling  was  born  in  Greens- 
boro. N.  C  April  23.  1809,  and  his  ances- 
tors were  Welsh  who  removed  from  Wales 
to  North  Carolina  before  the  Revolution- 
ary war.  His  father  was  a  nurseryman 
in  North  Carolina,  and  taught  his  boy 
Henderson  how  to  graft  as  soon  as  the 
latter  was  old  enough  to  whittle.  Early 
in  1831  Henderson  Luelling  removed  to 
Henry  county,  Indiana,  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  state,  not  far  from  Newcastle, 
and  began  the  nursery  business.  Soon 
after  establishing  himself  he  acquired  a 
book  containing  an  account  of  the  Lewis 
and  Clark  exploring  expedition  to  Ore- 
gon in  1804-06,  and  the  reading  of  that 
work  was  what  caused  him  to  begin  his 
plans  to  go  to  Oregon  at  some  future  time. 
In  1839  he  I'emoved  to  Iowa  and  engaged 
in  the  nursery  business,  as  already  in- 
dicated, still  cherishing  the  idea  of  re- 
moving to  Oregon.  At  length  a  plan  was 
evolved  which  he  began  putting  into  exe- 
cution in  1845,  that  of  making  a  selec- 
tion of  seeds  of  what  he  considered  the 


64 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


best  varieties  of  fruit  and  planting  the 
same.  In  the  spring  of  1846  these  root- 
lets were  grafted  with  especially  selected 
scions,  and  particular  attention  was  given 
to  their  cultivation.  Early  in  April,  1847, 
a  critical  selection  was  made  of  between 
800  and  900  of  the  best  of  the  trees,  one 
year  old  from  the  graft,  and  they  were 
planted  in  two  wagon  boxes  in  a  foot  of 
earth  in  which  was  uniformly  mixed  a  lot 
of  pulverized  charcoal.  A  light  frame  work 
was  built  upon  the  top  of  each  box  in 
order  to  protect  the  young  and  tender 
limbs  from  injury  by  stock.  Each  wagon 
was  drawn  by  four  yoke  of  oxen,  Mr. 
Luelling  driving  the  first  team  and  his 
son,  Alfred,  a  lad  of  16,  the  second  team. 
The  trees  were  watered  on  the  plains  as 
opportunity  offered,  and  the  precious  load 
arrived  at  Portland — then  a  hamlet  in  the 
dense  timber  containing  not  to  exceed  20 
rude  log  cabins — without  any  loss  worth 
mentioning.  Finding  a  piece  of  cleared 
land  about  half  a  mile  north  of  Mil- 
waukee owned  by  a  man  named  A.  E. 
Wilson,  Mr.  Luelling  bought  the  tract  and 
at  once  set  out  his  trees  in  proper  form. 
Thus  was  the  first  fruit  nursery  on  the 
Pacific  coast  established.  That  act  gave 
to  Oregon  the  name  of  "God's  Country, 
or  the  Land  of  the  Big  Red  Apples,"  a 
name  I  used  to  hear  often  when  I  first 
came  to  Oregon  .59  years  ago  from  Illi- 
nois. In  the  words  of  Ralph  C.  Geer, 
also  a  pioneer  of  1847,  "That  load  of  trees 
contained  health,  wealth  and  comfort  for 
the  old  pioneers  of  Oregon."  It  was  the 
mother  of  all  our  early  nurseries  and  or- 
chards and  gave  Oregon  a  name  and  fame 
that  she  never  would  have  had  without 
it.  That  load  of  living  shrubs  and  trees 
brought  more  wealth  to  Oregon  than  any 
ship  that  ever  entered  the  Columbia 
river.  In  this  connection  permit  me  to 
say  that  the  source  of  my  information, 
for  the  most  part,  was  Alfred  Luelling, 
the  son  of  Henderson,  who  was  his 
father's  chief  assistant  in  the  original  se- 
lection of  the  varieties,  and  who  attended 
to  all  the  details  of  work  following  until 
the  nursery  was  an  established  fact.  Fur- 
ther reference  to  the  nursery  and  to  Al- 
fred Luelling  may  be  found  on  page  95 
of   the   "Proceedings    and    Papers   of   the 


Twenty-fifth  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Quar- 
ter-Centennial Celebration  of  the  Oregon 
State  Horticultural  Society,"  held  at  Port- 
land, Ore.,  November  30,  1910. 

It  occurs  to  me  at  this  moment  that 
it  would  be  well  to  say  something  about 
Seth  Lewelling.  a  younger  brother  of  Hen- 
derson Luelling.  Naturally  you  will  note 
the  difference  in  spelling  the  names.  The 
following  is  the  explanation:  Originally 
the  name  was  spelled  Llewellyn  or  Llew- 
elyn. Henderson's  father,  so  the  grand- 
son, Alfred,  informed  me,  dropped  the 
original  form  and  spelled  it  Luelling,  and 
followed  that  method.  All  the  members 
of  the  family  followed  that  style  of  spell- 
ing for  many  years — indeed  until  after 
1SS2 — and  then  Seth  began  spelling  his 
name  Lewelling.  and  followed  that  method 
until  he  died  February  21,  1896.  He  was 
born  in  North  Carolina,  March  6,  1819, 
and  in  early  manhood  learned  the  shoe- 
maker's trade.  In  1850  he  crossed  the 
plains  to  California,  worked  in  the  mines 
a  few  weeks,  and  then  went  to  Milwau- 
kee. Oregon  territory,  arriving  there  No- 
vember 20,  1850.  He  worked  at  his  trade 
as  opportunity  offered,  and  in  the  nursery 
of  his  brother,  Henderson,  between  times 
until  November  26,  1853,  when  he  became 
a  partner  of  the  latter  for  a  short  time. 
A  little  later  he  began  the  nursery  busi- 
ness on  his  own  account.  Seth  Lewelling 
originated  the  "Black  Republican"  cherry 
in  the  early  60's,  the  Golden  Prune  in 
1876,  and  the  "Bing"  cherry  a  little  later. 
This  cherry  was  named  "Bing"  after  a 
faithful  Chinaman  who  had  been  many 
years  in  his  employ,  and  who  took  great 
interest  in  his  effort  to  produce  a  new 
and  excellent  variety  of  cherry. 

The  varieties  of  fruits  brought  by  Lew- 
elling were: 

Summer  Apples — Sweet  June.  Red  As- 
trachan.  Golden  Sweet,  Summer  Pearmain, 
Summer  Bellflower. 

AtJTUM.v  Apples — Gravenstein,  Red 
Cheek  Pippin,  Seek-No-Further,  Rambo, 
King  of  Tompkins  County. 

Winter  Apples — Golden  Russet,  Yellow 
Bellflower,  Tulpehocken,  Baldwin,  Lady 
Apple,  White  Pearmain,  Northern  Spy, 
Esopus  Spitzenburg,  Winesap,  Yellow 
Newtown    Pippin.   .Tennetting. 


APPLES 


65 


SuMMEB  Pears — Bartlett,  Early  Butter. 

Autumn  Peaks — Seckel.  Flemish,  Fall 
Butter. 

Winter  Pe.-vks — Winter  Nellis. 

Cherries — Royal  Anne,  Black  Tartar- 
ian, Black  Heart.  May  Duke,   Kentish. 

Pe.\ches — Crawford's  Early,  Crawford's 
Late,  Golden  Cling. 

Gr.\pes — Isabelle,  Delaware,  Concord. 

Also  Siberian  Crab  Apple  and  Orange 
Quince. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  stated  that 
the  first  peaches  in  the  Willamette  valley, 
so  far  as  now  known,  were  grown  from 
pits  brought  across  the  plains  to  Oregon 
in  1844  by  Rev,  Edward  Evans  Parrish. 
who  came  from   Ohio. 

Greer's  Apple  and  Pear  Seeds 
Ralph  C.  Greer,  already  mentioned, 
started  to  Oregon  from  Knox  county, 
Illinois,  and  deserves  a  place  in  connec- 
tion with  any  mention  of  early  fruit 
growing  in  Oregon — that  is,  the  original 
"Oregon  County."  He  brought  with  him 
one  bushel  of  apple  seeds  and  half  a 
bushel  of  pear  seeds.  These  went  far 
towards  supplying  this  coast  with  trees. 
He  supplied  Luelling  with  stock  and  Lu- 
elling  supplied  him  with  buds  from  his 
"Traveling  Nursery";  thus  both  were  en- 
abled to  furnish  cultivated  trees  in  great 
numbers  at  an  early  day. 

Wliifnian  Apple  Trees 
Regarding  the  "Whitman  apple  trees" 
in  Walla  Walla  valley,  it  is  the  current 
idea  in  many  quarters  that  there  were 
fruit  trees  there  at  an  early  date,  but  in 
my  opinion  there  is  no  foundation  for 
that  view.  I  have  heard  it  stated  that 
Whitman  brought  apple  seeds  across  the 
plains  in  1836.  I  do  not  think  that  was 
so.  It  is  probably  true  that  he  brought 
garden  seeds  of  various  kinds,  as  men- 
tion is  made  of  numerous  garden  products 
— corn,  vegetables,  wheat,  squashes,  etc. 
— hut  I  have  never  found  any  mention 
of  fruit  growing  at  the  Whitman  mis- 
sion at  any  time  in  any  one  of  the  50  or 
more  letters  written  by  Mrs.  Whitman 
or  Dr.  Whitman  between  their  arrival 
at  the  point  selected  for  their  mission 
station — Wai-il-at-pu,  six  miles  west  of 
the  present  city  of  Walla  Walla— Decem- 
ber,   1836,    and    on    October,    1847.     In    a 


letter  dated  October  22,  1842,  Mrs.  Whit- 
man alludes  to  receiving  a  keg  of  fresh 
apples  from  Vancouver,  and  also  ex- 
presses a  wish  that  dried  fruit  might  be 
sent  out  from  the  East.  On  April  2,  1846, 
reference  is  made  by  Mrs.  Whitman  in  a 
letter  to  buying  dried  berries  from  Indi- 
ans. To  my  mind  these  references  indicate 
that  no  apples  were  grown  at  the  mission. 
Of  course  it  is  possible  that  there  might 
have  been  seedling  trees  there,  secured 
from  Fort  Vancouver,  which  had  as  yet 
not  begun  to  bear,  and  that  it  is  these 
trees  that  have  been  referred  to  in  later 
years.  Rev.  Cushing  Eells  acquired  the 
Whitman  mission  site  early  in  1860,  and 
started  to  that  point  from  Forest  Grove, 
Oregon,  on  March  10,  1860,  arriving 
there  16  days  later.  The  conditions  he 
found  are  described  but  no  mention  is 
made  of  fruit  trees.  From  the  foregoing 
you  can  readily  see  why  I  am  in  doubt 
about  any  early  apple  trees  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  site  of  the  Whitman  mission. 

Early   Orchards   on   Pnset   Sound 

The  early  orchards  in  the  Puget  sound 
basin,  that  is,  prior  to  1854,  as  a  rule  were 
supplied  with  stock  secured  at  the  Lu- 
elling &  Meek  nursery  at  Milwaukee.  I 
know  of  one  exception,  however,  and 
there  may  be  others.  My  father  brought 
with  him  from  Illinois  a  quantity  of  ap- 
ple seeds,  and  we  arrived  at  our  destina- 
tion, four  miles  east  of  Olympia,  October 
21,  1853.  He  removed  from  his  tempo- 
rar.v  location  to  his  permanent  home  on 
November  9th  following.  The  seeds  he 
brought  were  planted  in  boxes  that  month 
and  set  out  the  following  fall  in  rows, 
and  a  year  later  grafted.  A  nursery  was 
established  at  "Eden  Farm,"  near  Cow- 
litz Landing — (in  the  vicinity  of  Toledo, 
Wash.,  of  today) — by  Edward  D.  War- 
bass,  in  August,  1854.  He  got  his  stock 
from  Morton  M.  McCarver's  nursery,  two 
miles  south  of  Oregon  City,  Ore.,  and  Mc- 
Carver  got  his  start  from  Luelling  & 
Meek.  In  September,  1854,  Hugh  Patti- 
son  began  the  nursery  business  on  "Wash- 
ington Plains,"  six  miles  east  of  Steila- 
coom.  Pierce  county,  Washington.  He  se- 
cured his  stock  from  Henderson  and  Seth 

Lewelling.  Milwaukee. 

Geo.  H.  Himes 


66 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


The  Oldest  Oreliara  in  the  Yakima 
Valley 

Since  the  Yakima  valley.  Washington, 
on  account  of  the  quality  of  the  soil,  its 
climate,  and  the  immense  area  that  is 
capable  of  being  cultivated  to  fruits,  is 
already  a  great  fruit  growing  district,  we 
devote  some  space  to  a  peculiar  charac- 
teristic of  the  soil  and  climate  which 
has  recently  been  discovered. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  oldest 
orchards  in  the  valley  were  planted  about 
1875  or  1876;  since  about  that  time  per- 
manent settlements  began  to  be  made, 
homes  to  be  built,  and  family  orchards 
to  be  planted.  At  this  time  thei-e  was  no 
thought  of  growing  commercial  fruits  for 
eastern  markets,  and  ordinarily  these  or- 
chards were  selected  by  men  without  ex- 
perience in  orcharding,  varieties  being 
chosen  to  suit  the  tastes  of  those  who 
planted  them,  according  to  their  memories 
and  experiences  of  the  orchards  they  had 
known  in  their  home  states.  These  vari- 
eties were  often  unsuited  to  our  climatic 
and  soil  conditions,  were  not  of  the  best 
commercial  sorts,  and  therefore  the  old 
orchards  were  not  highly  regarded  for 
their  commercial  products.  These  or- 
chards, too.  were  planted  on  low  lands, 
that  are  not  now  considered  the  best 
adapted  to  the  growing  of  commercial 
fruits.  They  were  planted  where  they 
would  grow  without  irrigation,  adjacent 
to  the  streams  or  rivers,  because  in  such 
locations  the  trees  would  get  sufficient 
moisture  by  the  process  of  sub-irrigation 
as  the  water  percolated  through  the  sand 
and  gravelly  soil  of  the  alluvial  bottoms. 
At  this  time  irrigation,  had  not  been  intro- 
duced, and  the  only  place  that  trees  would 
live  was  along  the  streams  or  where  the 
orchard  could  get  the  seepage  from  the 
higher  lands.  These  orchards  are  mostly 
standing  yet,  and  are  vigorous  and 
healthy,  some  of  the  trees  almost  as  lar.ge 
as  forest  trees.  There  are  pear  trees  that 
are  two  feet  in  diameter  and  said,  at  this 
writing,  to  be  35  years  old,  and  apple 
trees  almost  as  large,  but  these  are  not 
generally  of   commercial  varieties. 

However,   recently  there   has  been   dis- 
covered  an  orchard   and   its  history   that 


settles  a  question  that  is  so  often  asked, 
"Will  the  orchards  of  this  country  live 
to  be  old,  and  will  they  continue  to  bear 
like  some  of  the  older  orchards  of  the 
eastern  states?"  Sometimes  the  question 
Is  put  in  another  form  something  like 
this,  "Will  an  orchard  after  it  comes  into 
bearing  be  a  profitable  investment  for  a 
man  in  his  old  age,  or  will  it  be  a  profit- 
able heritage  to  hand  down  to  his  chil- 
dren?" 

In  a  general  way  it  is  known  that 
peaches,  plums,  apricots  and  almonds  are 
short-lived  trees,  that  the  Crawford  peach 
will  probably  live  and  bear  profitably  for 
20  years,  the  Elberta  25  years,  while  pears 
and  apples  should  live  and  bear,  provided 
the  soil  conditions  are  right,  for  from 
75  to  100  years.  The  statement  as  to  the 
long  life  of  the  apple  and  the  pear  is 
often  doubted,  because  many  orchards 
are  known  to  be  short-lived  and  observa- 
tion leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that  we 
cannot  count  on  profitable  returns  from 
an  orchard  more  than  50  years  old,  and 
many  are  unprofitable  before  they  reach 
that  age.  This  we  grant  to  be  true,  but 
if  orchards  are  planted  in  climates 
adapted  to  fruit  growing,  in  soils  where 
there  is  sufficient  plant  food,  and  if  they 
are  given  enough  water,  and  then  pro- 
tected from  insect  pests  and  fungus  dis- 
eases: and  if  they  are  cultivated  and 
pruned,  there  is  no  reason  why  an  orchard 
should  not  profitably  bear  for  100  years. 
Orchards  have  been  planted  where  there 
was  not  enough  water  and  they  famished 
with  thirst:  we  have  known  them  planted 
where  the  soil  was  poor  and  they  starved; 
we  have  known  others  killed  by  drouth 
and  the  hot  sunshine  of  summer:  yet 
there  are  orchards  that  live  and  grow  and 
bear  past  the  100  year  period.  (There 
are  orchards  in  Canada  that  are  more 
than  100  years  old,  orchards  which  are 
yet  bearing.  There  are  orchards  in  New 
England.  New  York  and  Virginia  that  are 
more  than  100  years  old  and  some  of  them 
in  fairly  vigorous  health.  In  1910  I  saw 
exhibited  for  sale  in  a  store  in  Syracuse, 
New  York,  apples  that  came  from  trees 
a  hundred  years  old.  This  fruit  was  not 
"extra  fancy."  according  to  the  standards 
set  in  the  Northwest  for  commercial  fruit. 


APPLES 


but  the  fact  that  this  orchard  was  bear- 
ing at  all  at  such  an  age  was  the  wonder. 
Professor  Van  Deman  says  that  there  Is 
an  orchard  in  Ohio  planted  by  his  grand- 
father, which  is  now  in  bearing  and  is 
100  years  old.) 

But  the  question  is  asked,  "Will  or- 
chards on  the  Pacific  coast  live  as  long 
as  it  has  been  proven  that  they  will  live 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  or  in  the  eastern  or 
middle  states?"  There  is  a  general  belief 
that  they  will,  on  account  of  the  fact  that 
forest  trees  have  lived  to  a  great  age  and 
attained  greater  size  than  in  most  east- 
ern states.  But  positive  proof  has  been 
wanting  until  recently  that  orchard  trees 


would  do  the  same.  There  appears  else- 
where an  account  of  the  old  apple  tree 
at  Vancouver,  Wash.,  which  was  planted 
in  1826. 

At  White  Swan,  about  27  miles  south- 
west of  North  Yakima  and  near  Fort 
Simcoe,  there  is  an  orchard  owned  by  an 
Indian  called  Klickitat  Peter,  which  was 
planted  in  1877. 

There  is  a  photograph  in  circulation 
showing  old  Klickitat  Peter  standing  be- 
side one  of  these  trees  which  is  loaded 
almost  to  the  breaking  point.  This  seems 
to  settle  the  question  as  to  whether  or- 
chards in  this  country  will  bear  profitably 
for  a  long  period  of  time  or  not. 


iig. 


Beckwitti   Applt 


Tree   About    luu    Years   Old   at   the   Time    I'icture    Was 
New  York  State. 


lakeu, 


68 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


It  makes  a  difference  when  a  young 
man  is  planting  an  orchard  for  commer- 
cial purposes  on  which  he  expects  to  de- 
pend in  the  future  for  his  living,  and 
for  a  competence  in  old  age,  whether  that 
orchard  has  to  be  renewed  every  quarter 
of  a  century,  or  whether  it  will  live  a 
hundred  years. 

L.  V.  McWhorter,  a  writer  of  Indian 
history,   says: 

"Klickitat  Peter  is  about  80  years  old; 
bought  those  trees  on  White  Salmon  at 
$2.50  per  dozen,  planted  them  35  years 
ago.     Planted  1877." 

It  makes  a  difference  in  the  choice  of 
a  location  whether  a  man  feels  that  if  he 
plants  an  orchard  he  can  gather  fruit 
when  he  is  old  and  that  it  will  provide 
for  his  comfort,  and  that  his  children  and 


grandchildren  may  gather  fruit  from  the 
same  orchard. 

Now  let  us  study  the  age  of  this  or- 
chard by  comparison,  for  it  is  by  com- 
parisons that  we  often  get  more  correct 
views.  We  have  here  an  orchard  that 
was  planted  by  Klickitat  Peter  in  1877. 
It  was  planted  under  conditions  where 
there  was  sufficient  moisture  and  soil 
substance  to  furnish  it  food;  it  was 
planted  on  land  where  there  was  seepage 
from  the  higher  lands  above  and  beyond, 
and  where  the  roots  of  the  trees  could 
get  sufficient  moisture.  Because  of  this 
natural  seepage  or  sub-irrigation  there 
had  been  growing  for  centuries,  perhaps, 
considerable  crops  of  grass  each  year  that 
rotted  on  the  surface  of  the  land  and  fur- 
nished sufficient  humus.     While  it  is  true 


Pig.  S.     Wife  of  Klickitat  Peter  and  One  of  His  Old  Apple  Ti-ees. 


APPLES 


69 


that  this  orchard  has  received  little  or 
no  cultivation,  and  has  not  been  pruned 
or  sprayed,  nevertheless,  as  shown  in 
the  figure  (3)  the  trees  are  in  vigorous 
health,  in  full  bearing,  and  the  quality 
of  the  fruit  is  good.  This  orchard  was 
in  bearing  before  the  days  of  railroads 
in  the  state  of  Washington.  This  seems 
to  establish  the  fact  that  trees  in  this 
Inland  Empire  will  grow  to  be  old  and 
bear  profitably. 

Quality  of  the  Fniit 

I  do  not  know  the  variety  of  the  fruit, 
but  the  agent  of  the  Oregon-Washington 
Railroad  &  Navigation  Company,  Mr. 
Kamm,  who  visited  the  place  and  brought 
home  some  of  the  fruit,  says  that  it  is 
of  fine  qualit.v,  and  believes  that  if  it 
had  been  properly  picked  and  packed  it 
would  have  contested  successfully  for  the 
premium  at  the  Washington  State  Pair. 

The  lesson  we  learn  is  that  if  we  sup- 
ply our  soil  with  water  and  with  humus 
and  then  give  the  orchards  anything  like 
proper  care  in  the  destruction  of  insect 
pests,  there  will  be  a  profitable  income 
covering  a  long  period  of  time. 

One  of  the  notable  landmarks  of  the 
early  pioneer  days  in  the  John  Day  val- 
ley, Oregon,  is  the  Rhinehart  orchard, 
now  more  than  a  half  century  old.  One 
of  the  remarkable  things  about  this  apple 
orchard  is  that,  notwithstanding  it  has 
neither  been  cultivated  nor  pruned,  nor 
in  any  way  eared  for  beyond  what  kindly 
nature  has  done  for  it  during  the  past 
40  or  more  years,  it  is  still  in  compar- 
atively good  bearing  condition  and  annu- 
ally yields  a  valuable  crop  of  marketable 
apples  of  such  varieties  as  the  Spitzen- 
burg  and  Newtown. 

It  is  the  largest  orchard  in  the  valley, 
comprising  some  40  acres.  During  all  the 
years  of  its  half  century  of  existence 
such  a  thing  as  a  wormy  apple  has  never 
been  found  on  its  trees. 

Granville   Lowther 

APPLE  ZONES 

The  temperate  zone  is  the  native  home 
of  the  apple.  All  around  the  world  it 
finds  its  best  general  temperature  for 
growth  In  this  zone.  In  the  temperate 
zone   it   inclines   to   the   north   and   finds 


there  rather  than  in  the  south  its  best  or 
optimum  condition  of  growth.  In  the 
south  temperate  zone  the  apple  deports 
itself  much  the  same  as  in  the  north 
temperate  zone  and  inclines  to  the  cooler 
south  rather  than  towards  the  tropical 
boundary.  As  an  evidence  of  the  hardi- 
ness of  the  apple  tree  and  its  love  for  a 
cool  climate  it  may  be  unknown  to  many 
that  most  magnificent  apples  are  grown 
in  Canada,  away  north  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
on  the  forty-sixth  parallel,  north  lati- 
tude. In  this  region  the  lakes  and  rivers 
are  icebound  for  several  months  of  the 
year,  the  ground  in  winter  is  covered 
with  three  or  four  feet  of  snow  and  the 
thermometer  is  sometimes  30  degrees  be- 
low zero.  In  that  region  the  apple  is 
nearing  the  northern  limit  of  its  growth. 
Considering  these  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture, one  would  begin  to  wonder  how 
North  Carolina,  with  its  mild  climate, 
could  raise  apples  at  all.  It  does  show, 
however,  why  apple  growing  is  so  com- 
monl.v  unsuccessful  in  the  cotton  belt. 
Being  a  cool-loving  plant,  the  apple  tree 
finds  in  the  cotton  belt  its  extreme  south- 
ern limit  of  endurance.  The  pecan  tree, 
on  the  other  hand,  being  a  southern 
neighbor  of  the  cotton  plant,  will  grow 
and  thrive  well  In  the  area  of  cotton 
production.  About  one-third  of  the  area 
of  North  Carolina  is  in  the  cotton  belt, 
one-third  rolling  piedmont  and  one-third 
high  and  mountainous.  It  is  in  this 
mountainous  region  of  the  state,  where 
altitude  guarantees  a  cool  climate,  that 
the  apple   grows   and   thrives.     *     *     * 

Plants,  like  animals,  have  their  prefer- 
ences and  also  their  means  of  showing 
them.  The  environmental  likes  and  dis- 
likes of  plants  are  easily  seen.  When 
they  are  at  home  and  comfortable  in  their 
surroundings  they  give  evidence  of  their 
satisfaction  in  increased  growth  and  pro- 
duction and  in  the  highest  quality  of 
fruit.  When  they  are  not  comfortable 
they  show  a  puny  growth,  scarcity  of 
foliage,  susceptibility  to  the  attacks  of 
insects  and  diseases,  lack  of  fruit  and 
lessened  longevity. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  instinctive 
desires  of  the  apple  tree  and  what  con- 
formitv   it  shows  to  local   conditions.   In 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL,  HORTICULTURE 


the  low  altitudes  where  the  cotton  plant  have   a   struggle   for   life  from   season   to 

is   at   home   the    apple   tree    is   generally  season.  On  loamy  or  clayey  soils  they  feel 

most     uncomfortable.     Except     with     the  more  comfortable,  show  a  correspondingly 

early  or  summer  varieties,  it  is  hard  in  increa.sed  growth  and  productiveness,  are 

such  locations  to  keep  apple  trees  in  life.  freer   from   disease   and   are   longer-lived. 

After    resisting    conditions    unsuited    to  Observations   on   apple   growing  through- 

them  they  have  little  power  left  for  fruit  out  the  whole  of  this  country  show  that 

production.      In    the    warm,    sandy    soils  the   trees   require    for   their   best   growth 

where    sweet    potatoes    grow    large    and  productiveness   and   longevity  the   follow- 

sweet,   apple  trees  lose   their  leaves   and  ing  conditions: 

1.  Zone ^Temperate. 

2.  Climate _Sunimer  cool,  winter  cold. 

3.  Soil    Jtich  loams  and  clays. 

4.  Altitude Jligh. 

5.  Rainfall .Copious  and  constant. 

6.  Drainage Good. 

7.  Sunlight .Abundant   (air  clear  and  cloudless). 

8.  Food    Constant  supply  of  humus  and  plant  food. 

In  America  the  regions  that  produce  elevated  regions  for  the  commercial  grow- 
ths most  and  best  apples  are  those  that  ing  of  hardy  fruits.  At  present  all  along 
afford  the  largest  number  of  these  condi-  the  eastern  slopes  and  foothills  of  the 
tions.  Alleghany  mountains,  in  Pennsylvania,  in 
Mountain  Beg:ions  for  Apple  fnltnre  Maryland,  in  Virginia,  in  West  Virginia 
*  *  *  The  "Sunny  South,"  particu-  and  in  North  Carolina,  lands  which  were 
larly  in  its  mountain  regions,  has  the  formerly  considered  almost  worthless  for 
clear  air  and  abundant  sunlight  that  put  agricultural  purposes  are  now  rapidly 
the  right  colors  on  the  outside  of  the  passing  the  mark  of  $100  per  acre  for 
fruit  and  the  fine  flavors  within.  Other  commercial  orcharding, 
things  being  equal,  the  greater  the  W.  N.  Hutt.  Raleigh.  N.  C. 
amount    of    sunlight    the    higher    colored 

the  fruit.  In  regions  where  cloudy  skies  THE  APPLE  INDUSTRY 
are  prevalent  fruits  and  also  flowers  are  In  this  section  the  statistics  of  the 
of  dull  colors.  Clear,  sunny  weather  apple  business  are  given,  and  a  discus- 
will  give  bright  flowers  and  also  highly  sion  of  the  general  conditions  of  the  in- 
tinted  fruits.  The  maximum  hours  of  dustry,  by  H.  P.  Gould  of  the  U.  S. 
sunlight  are  obtained  at  high  elevations.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

It    is    for    this     reason     that     mountain-  tj     i     *•          c    t    „■„     •     *!,„  tt_!*„j 

^     .^  .                               •             „  Production  of  Apples  in  the  United 

grown  fruit  is  superior  in  color  and  fla-  „.   , 

vor  to  that  of  the  same  varieties  grown  ^   statement  of  the  general   results   of 

in   the   lowlands.     The   best   fruit   grown  ^helSth  census  relative  to  the  number  of 

in  Eastern  United  States  is  that  produced  ^^^^^    reporting    apple    trees    of    bearing 

on  the  slopes  of  the  Blue  Ridge  and  Alle-  ^„^  ^„^i  j^^^^  ^^^  ^.^^  of  bearing  age,  to- 

ghany   mountains.     The   most   lofty   por-  g^^j^^^  ^.^^  ^j^^  j^^^^^g^  „f  j^^gs  in  each 

tions  of  these  mountain  ranges  are  found  ^j^^g  ^^  „j  ^p^ji  ^5    ^gjo    ^^^  gj^i^g  ^^^ 

in  Western  North  Carolina.     Here  a  rich  „u^ber  of  bushels  of  apples  produced  in 

soil,    combined    with    high    elevation,    af-  ^9^9  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^j  ^^^  prop  was  issued 

fords    almost    ideal    conditions    for    com-  jj^y  ^^^  ^^^2,  by  Director  Durand,  of  the 

mercial    apple    culture.      Very    few    fruit  g^^g^^    „f    ^^^^    Census.    Department    of 

growers     in     the     South     appreciate    the  commerce  and   Labor.     Comparable   data 

splendid   opportunities   afforded   for   com-  ^^^  gj^.^^  f^,^  ^9^0  wherever  possible, 
mercial  apple  growing  in  the  high,  cool, 

but  sunny  slopes  of  the  Southern  Appa-  Decrease  in  Number  of  Trees  of 

lachian   region.     It   is   only   in   the   last  .                          Uearing  Age 

decade  or  so  that  fruit  growers  generally  At  the  census  of  1900,  taken  as  of  June 

have  become  aware  of  the  advantage  of  1,   there   were   reported   201.794,000   apple 


APPLES 


71 


trees  of  bearing  age,  as  against  151,323,000 
trees  in  1910  (census  taken  as  of  April 
15),  a  decrease  of  50,471,000  trees,  or  33.4 
per  cent. 

In  1910  there  were  2,980,398  farms  re- 
porting the  growing  of  apple  trees,  or  46.8 
per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  farms 
in  the  United  States.  The  average  num- 
ber of  trees  per  farm  reporting  is  given 
as  51.  No  report  was  received  in  1900 
showing  the  number  of  farms  reporting. 

The  returns  of  the  1900  census  likewise 
did  not  secure  the  number  of  trees  under 
bearing  age.  In  1910,  however,  1.498,746 
farms,  or  23.6  per  cent  of  the  total,  had 
65.792.000  trees  not  of  bearing  age,  or  an 
average  of  44  per  farm. 

The  present  census  shows  that  in  1909 
there  were  produced  in  the  United  States 
147,522,000  bushels  of  apples,  having  a 
total  value  of  $83,231,000.  The  production 
at  that  time  was  somewhat  less  than  it 
was  ten  years  previously,  when  175,397,000 
bushels  were  gathered.  The  reports  of 
the  1900  census  give  no  information  as 
to  value  of  apples. 

ITnmber  of  Apple  Trees  and  Prodnction 
by  Divisions 

Of  the  nine  main  geographical  divisions 
into  which  the  census  divides  the  country, 
the- East  North  Central  Division  in  1910 
and  1900  reported  the  largest  number  of 
trees  of  bearing  age,  34,135,000  and  48,- 
493,000,  respectively.  In  1909  a  total  of 
25,081,000  bushels  of  apples  were  gathered, 
against  47,650,000  bushels  in  1899.  The 
value  of  the  crop  in  1909  was  ?14,669,000. 

The  division  ranking  next  in  the  num- 
ber of  trees  of  bearing  age  is  the  West 
North  Central.  In  1910  this  division  had 
31,745,000  trees  of  bearing  age,  against 
43,678,000  trees  in  1900.  At  the  present 
census  22,633,000  bushels  of  apples  were 
produced  by  this  division,  valued  at  $11,- 
792,000.  Ten  years  ago  the  production 
amounted  to  14,321,000  bushels. 

The  South  Atlantic  division,  with  20.- 
674,000  trees  of  bearing  age,  is  third  in 
rank.  In  1900  the  corresponding  number 
of  trees  was  25,526,000,  a  slight  falling 
off  thus  being  shown.  The  trees  of  bear- 
ing age  in  1909  produced  18,375,000  bush- 
els valued  at  $9,461,000;  ^ut  in  1899  there 
•were  gathered  26,774,000  bushels,  the  de- 


crease during  the  ten  years  being  8,399,- 
000  bushels. 

The  Middle  Atlantic  division  reports 
almost  as  many  trees  of  bearing  age  as 
the  South  Atlantic,  and  shows  more  ap- 
ples produced  than  any  of  the  other 
divisions.  In  1910  there  were  20,302,000 
producing  trees,  as  compared  with  28,- 
640,000  in  1900,  the  decrease  amounting 
to  8,338,000  trees.  The  number  of  bushels 
gathered  in  1909  was  37,865,000,  valued 
at  $19,857,000.  In  1899  the  trees  in  this 
division   produced    52,813,000   bushels. 

These  four  divisions  reported  over  67 
per  cent  of  the  total  product  for  1909. 

Number  of  Apple  Trees  and  Prodnction 
by  States 

Among  the  several  states,  Missouri, 
New  York,  and  Illinois  together  contained 
in  1910  almost  25  per  cent  of  all  apple 
trees  of  bearing  age  in  the  United  States. 

The  number  of  trees  of  bearing  age  in 
Missouri  at  the  census  of  1910  was  14,- 
360,000,  this  being  a  decrease  since  1900 
of  5,680,000  trees.  The  production  of 
apples  in  1909  amounted  to  9,969,000  bush- 
els, while  in  1900  it  was  6.496,000  bushels, 
a  gain  of  3,473,000  bushels.  The  value 
of  the   1909   crop  was   $4,886,000. 

New  York  reported  11,248,000  trees  of 
bearing  age  in  1910,  against  15,055,000 
trees  in  1900.  This  state  alone  produced 
more  apples  in  1909  than  the  entire  East 
North  Central  division,  25,409,000  bushels, 
valued  at  $13,343,000.  In  1899,  a  crop 
of  24,111,000  bushels  w^as  gathered. 

In  1910  there  were  9,901,000  trees  of 
bearing  age  in  the  state  of  Illinois,  while 
in  1900  the  number  was  13,430,000  trees. 
Over  3,093,000  bushels  of  apples  were 
produced  in  1909,  against  9,178.000  bush- 
els in  1899,  a  falling  off  of  over  6,000,000 
bushels.  The  value  of  the  1909  crops  was 
$2,112,000. 

While  the  states  of  Pennsylvania  and 
Michigan  did  not  report  as  large  a  num- 
ber of  trees  in  1910  as  the  above-named 
states,  they  each  produced  a  considerably 
greater  quantity  of  apples  than  Missouri 
or  Illinois. 

The  Tabular  Summary 

Further  details  are  shown  in  the  table 
following: 


72 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Production  of  Apples  in  the  United  States,  by  Geo^aphic  Divisions  and  States, 

Censuses  1910  and  1900 


Trees  reported  April  15,  1910 

Products 

of  1909 

Trees  re- 
ported 

June  1, 
1900 
(thou- 
sands) 

DIVISION 

Of  bearing  age 

Not  of  bearing  age 

of  1899 

OR 

STATE 

Farms 
report- 
ing 

Number 
(thou- 
sands) 

Farms 
report- 
ing 

Number 
(thou- 
sands) 

Bushels 
(thou- 
sands) 

Value 
(thou- 
sands) 

Bushels 
(thou- 
sands) 

UNITED  STATES 

2,980.398 

151,323 

1,498,746 

65,792 

147,522 

$83,231 

201,794 

175,397 

GEOGRAPHIC  DIV'S: 

New  England 

Middle  Atlantic 

F    North  Central 

137.765 
378,507 
773,570 
562,827 
496,527 
363,879 
160,234 
36,412 
70.677 

42.976 
20,420 
23,644 
27,937 
3,327 
19,461 

168,667 
21,127 
188,713 

201,044 
158,104 
160,215 
153,026 
101,181 

59,780 

148,759 

181,396 

1,248 

9.316 

57.408 

104.920 

6.741 

34,798 

34 

115,881 

76,122 

159,883 

40,425 

62,033 

610 

133,037 

123,411 

65,379 

42,052 

67,716 

8,885 

47,578 

36,055 

3,167 

9.414 

737 

7,986 
5.242 

822 
8.419 

625 

27.156 
23.850 
19.671 

8,219 
20,302 
34,135 
31,745 
20,674 
12,273 
11,838 
4,615 
7,522 

3.477 
1.241 
1.184 
1.367 
152 
799 

11.248 
1.054 
S.OOO 

8,505 
5,765 
9,901 
7,534 
2,430 

1,380 

5,847 

14,360 

16 

275 

2,937 

6,930 

430 

1,288 

2 

7,005 

4,571 

4,910 

582 

1,878 

8 

5,538 
4,839 
1,468 

428 

7,650 

93 

2,956 

1,139 

697 
1,006 

28 

1,688 

543 

62 
517 

74 

3.009 
2.030 
2,483 

45,167 
130,699 
372,600 
288,669 
244,593 
213,700 
122,692 
32,182 
48.444 

17.362 
5.311 
7,205 
9,278 
1,005 
5.006 

48.007 

5,851 

76,841 

77,900 
74.256 
60.631 
87.846 
71.967 

55.340 
74.687 
75.035 
3,906 
13,510 
29,920 
36,271 

2,231 
17,157 
3 
61,499 
46,837 
68,268 
20,689 
27,276 
633 

68,478 
67,350 
40.979 
36.893 

46.394 

8.082 

39.172 

29,044 

3,633 
9,447 
1,175 
6,496 
5,489 

965 
4,631 

346 

21,401 
14,327 
12,716 

2,095 
5,849 

10,610 
9,725 

10,065 
5,387 
7.225 
6.679 
8.157 

1.045 
207 
220 
356 
55 
212 

2.829 

520 

2.501 

2.438 
1.962 
2.548 
2.253 
1,409 

1.572 

1.914 

3.625 

70 

461 

967 

1.116 

264 
661 

i5',436 

2,772 

1,835 

269 

822 

6 

2,106 

2.117 

738 

425 

3,940 

97 

2.060 

1,128 

1,308 

1,540 

84 

1,973 

914 

54 

789 

17 

4,863 
2,241 
1,054 

10.508 
37.865 
25.081 
22,633 
18,375 
13,163 
3,240 
5,718 
10,938 

3,636 
1,108 
1,460 
2,550 
213 
1,541 

25,409 

1,407 

11,048 

4,664 
2,759 
3,093 
12,332 
2,232 

1,044 
6,747 
9,969 
4 
192 
3,321 
1,356 

183 

1,823 

3 

6,104 

4,225 

4,776 

363 

896 

3 

7,368 

4,640 

888 

266 

2,296 

34 

742 

16S 

567 
660 

18 

3,559 

417 

73 
350 

74 

2,672 
1,931 
6,335 

S  6,273 

19,857 

14,669 

11,792 

9,461 

6,074 

2,085 

5,536 

7,484 

2,122 
638 
752 

1,780 
147 
833 

13.343 

956 

5.558 

2.971 
1,721 
2,112 
5.969 
1.897 

769 

3.551 

4.886 

7 

159 
1.613 

sqs 

115 

902 

2 

3.130 

2.461 

2.015 

276 

556 

4 

3.067 

2.172 

621 

214 

1.323 

29 

573 

161 

567 
611 

38 

3.405 

421 

109 

320 

66 

2.926 
1.657 
2.902 

11.127 
28.640 
48.493 
43.678 
25.526 
19.193 
11.842 
4.855 
8,440 

4,185 
2,034 
1.675 
1.852 
214 
1,167 

15,055 

1,811 

11,774 

12,953 

8,625 

13,430 

10,928 

2,557 

876 

6,870 

20,040 

2 

165 

3,877 

11,848 

568 

1,824 

1 

8.190 

5.441 

6,439 

695 

2.360 

8 

8.757 

7.714 

2,016 

706 

7,486 

139 

•2.732 

1.485 

531 

982 

9 

2.005 

483 

46 

716 

83 

2.736 
2.826 
2.878 

11,649 
52,813 
47,650 

W.  North  Central 

14,321 
26,774 

12,410 

W.  South  Central 

3,086 
883 

5,091 

NEW  ENGLAND 

1,422 

1,979 

1,177 

3,023 

339 

3,709 

MIDDLE  ATLANTIC: 
New  York                    

24,111 

4,641 

24,061 

E.  NORTH  CENTRAL: 

20,617 

8,620 

9,178 

8,932 

303 

W.  NORTH  CENTRAL: 

120 

3.130 

6.496 

Nnrth  Dakota                        -  ■ 

1 

17 

1,343 

3,214 

SOUTH  ATLANTIC: 

703 

3,151 

District  of  Columbia 

9,836 

7,496 

4,663 

252 

671 

2 

E.  SOUTH  CENTRAL: 

6,054 

5,388 

719 

249 

W.  SOUTH  CENTRAL: 

2,811 

69 

•334 

592 

MOUNTAIN: 

44 

Idaho            

224 

1 

258 

142 

13 

Utah                 

190 

11 

PACIFIC 

729 

878 

3,484 

•Includes  Indian  Territory. 


APPLES 


73 


>umber  of  Beariug  Apple  Trees  in  1910. 

The  number  of  bearing  apple  trees,  by  states,  according  to  the  1910  census,  ar- 
ranged in  the  order  of  their  importance. 

Missouri,  14,359,673. 

New  York.  11.24S.203. 

Ilinois.  9.900.323. 


Ohio.  S.504.SS6. 

Pennsylvania.  S. 000. 456. 

Arkansas,  7.650.103. 

Michigan.  7.354,343. 

Virginia.  7.004.548. 

Kansas.  6.929,637. 

Iowa,  5.847,634. 

Indiana.   5.764,821. 

Texas,   1.138,852. 

Kentucky,   5.538.267. 

New  .Jersey.   1.053.62 

Tennessee.  4.S3S.922. 

Idaho,   1,005,688. 

■■■■ 

West   Viri; 

inia,    4.570.948. 

Maine.  3,4 

76,616. 

Washington.   3.009.337. 

Oklahoma 

2-995.810. 

Nebraska. 

2.937.178. 

California 

2,482.762. 

Wisconsin 

2.430,232. 

Oregon.   2 

029.913. 

^^^i^^^^mm 

Georgia.   1,878,209. 

^^^^^Bm^i 

Colorado. 

1,688,425. 

^^^^^^^m 

Alabama, 

1.468,346. 

IHI^^^^^^H 

Minnesota 

1.380,396. 

I^^HB^^B 

Massachusetts,  1,367,397. 
Mar>-land,   1,288,482. 
New  Hampshire,  1,240,885 
Vermont.    1,183,529. 

Connecticut.    798,734. 

Montana,  669,735. 

South   Carolina,   581,767. 

New    Mexico,    542,528. 

Utah.   517.039. 

Delaware,    429,735. 

Mississippi,  427,652. 

South  Dakota,  274,862. 

Rhode  Island.  152.009. 

Arizona,  115,870, 

■ 

Louisiana,    93,104, 

■ 

Nevada,  74,454. 

I 

North  Carolina,  60,039. 

I 

Wyoming.  27.773. 

I 

North  Dakota.  15.941. 

I 

Florida.  8.180. 

I 


74 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Apple   Shipments,  1911 

Reports  of  apple  shipments  originat- 
ing on  about  one-half  of  the  railroad  mile- 
age of  the  United  States  from  June  1  to 
December  31,  1911,  aggregated  19,000,000 
bushels.  This  total  is  composed  of  ship- 
ments on  roads  for  which  mileage  is  re- 
ported by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission. A  few  intrastate  railroads  and 
some  steamboat  lines  reported  an  addi- 
tional total  of  744,838  bushels,  but  it  is 
not  known  what  fraction  of  the  entire 
traffic  of  such  roads  and  boat  lines  this 
figure  represents.  Of  the  interstate  rail- 
roads, reports  were  received  from  those 
operating  a  total  of  127,751  miles,  or  52.3 
per  cent  of  the  entire  mileage  operated 
in  the  United  States  on  June  30,  1909. 
To  avoid  duplication  each  road  was  re- 
quested to  report  only  shipments  originat- 
ing on  its  own  lines. 

This,  the  first  of  a  series  of  annual  re- 
ports  on   this  subject,   has  the   disadvan- 


tage of  not  having  similar  returns  for  an 
earlier  year  for  comparison.  The  returns 
for  the  second  year,  1912.  will  naturally 
be  more  useful. 

The  figures  given  below  contain  some 
duplication,  due  to  apples  which  were 
shipped  to  storehouses  and  afterwards 
reshipped.  The  shipments  as  reported  do 
not  include  those  made  from  producing 
points  after  December  31,  1911,  except 
for  a  few  railroads.  Among  the  railroads 
failing  to  report  are  a  few  of  the  more  im- 
portant ones  in  New  York.  For  other 
parts  of  the  United  States  it  is  not  known 
whether  the  roads  not  reporting  had  gen- 
erally more  or  less  traffic  in  apples  than 
the  roads  that  did  report.  If  it  is  as- 
sumed that  for  the  entire  country,  includ- 
ing New  York,  the  traffic  was  in  propor- 
tion to  the  mileage,  the  total  apples  origi- 
nating on  interstate  railroads  in  the 
United  States  from  June  1  to  December 
31,  1911,  would  be  over  37,000,000  bushels. 


Apples  Shipped  from  Points  on  Interstate  Railroads  in  the  United  States, 
June  1  to  December  31,  1911 

(Original  shipments  only  ;  excluding  receipts  from  other  carriers.     Excluding,  in  the  case  of  many 
roads,  shipments  in  less  than  carload  lots.) 


Miles  operated  by  ra 
June  30.  1909 

Iroads, 

Apples  originating  on 
railroads 

Group' 

Total 

Reporting 
Miles 

as  to  apples 

Per  cent 
of  total 

As  reported 

Total,  as 
computed 
on  basis  of 

mileage^ 

I 

II 

8,152 
24,510 
26,483 
15,106 
29.282 
52,209 
12,995 
33,981 
18,707 
22,659 

4,569 

9,743 
12,557 

9,391 
15,788 
26,541 

8,017 
22.447 

6,264 
12.434 

56.0 
39.8 
47.4 
62.2 
53.9 
50.8 
61.7 
66.1 
33.5 
54.9 

Bushels       1           Bushels 
1,917,931     1         3.424,877 
3,294.601              8.277.892 
2,431,813     1         5.130.407 

Ill 

IV 

1  346  839              2  165.336 

V 

119,261      '             221,263 

VI 

2,933,812     1         5,775.220 
284,037                 460.352 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

2,628,969     j         3,977,260 

30,415     1               90.791 

4,112,573     t         7,491,026 

United  States 

244,084 

127,751 

52.3 

19,100,251     1      »37,014.424 

(1)  Group  I  comprises  the  railroads  of  the  New  England  States;  Group  II.  New  York  (east  of 
Buffalo),  Pennsylvania  (east  of  Pittsburgh),  New  Jersey.  Delaware.  Maryland,  and  northern  part 
of  West  Virginia:  Group  III.  New  York  (west  of  Buffalo).  Pennsylvania  (west  of  Pittsburgh). 
Ohio,  Indiana,  and  the  southern  peninsula  of  Michigan  ;  Group  IV.  Virginia.  Central  and  Southern 
West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  South  Carolina  ;  Group  V.  Kentucky.  Tennessee.  Georgia. 
Florida.  Alabama.  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana  (east  of  the  Mississippi  river)  :  Group  VI.  northern 
peninsula  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin.  Illinois.  Minnesota,  Iowa.  Missouri  (north  of  the  Missouri 
river).  North  Dakota  (east  of  the  Missouri  river),  and  South  Dakota  (east  of  the  Missouri 
river)  :  Group  VII.  North  Dakota  (west  of  the  Missouri  river).  South  Dakota  (west  of  the 
Missouri  river),  Nebraska.  Montana.  Wyoming  and  Northern  Colorado;  Group  VIII.  Missouri 
(south  of  Missouri  river).  Arkansas.  Kansas.  Oklahoma.  Central  and  Southern  Culorado.  North- 
eastern New  Mexico,  and  the  "panhandle"  cf  Texas;  Group  IX.  Texas  (except  the  "panhandle") 
and  Southeastern  New  Mexico ;  Group  X.  Idaho,  Utah.  Nevada.  Western  New  Mexico.  .Arizona. 
Oregon.   Washington,  and  California. 

("1  Figures  in  this  column  are  based  upon  the  two  preceding  columns  and  are  subject  to 
more  or  less  error,  depending  upon  how  well  the  apple  tralEc  of  reporting  railroads  represents 
proportionally  that  of  the  non-reporting  railroads. 

(3)   Obtained  by  addition. 


APPLES 


75 


Snmiiiary  of  Exports  of  Domestic  Apples,  Greeu  or  Bipe,  Tears  Ending 
June  30,  1906—1910 


Exported  to 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

Barrels 

1,135,997 

48,438 

5.816 

3,454 

15,230 

54 

Barrels 

1,399,276 

95,190 

9,356 

7,235 

27,928 

282 

Barrels 

941,366 

78,351 

7.923 

5.164 

16,738 

3 

Barrels 

730.794 

110.956 

9.131 

8,871 

36,526 

Barrels 
765,686 

North  America 

119,282 
12,937 

Asia 

6,300 
17,873 

Exported 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

Dollars 

3,503,506 

182,619 

20,106 

10,649 

34,235 

260 

Dollars 

4.234.104 

307.S31 

28,222 

26.144 

55,863 

802 

Dollars 

3.275,445 

300,309 

25,353 

20,022 

39,715 

10 

Dollars 

2,300,054 

349,280 

27,616 

23,283 

81,774 

Dollars 
2,601,023 

465,794 

46,310 

18,367 

43,937 

Snmmary  of  Exports  of  Domestic  Dried  Apples,  Years  Ending  June  30,  1906 — 1910 


Exported  to 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

Pounds 
26,974,352 
163.862 
51,550 
166,855 
107.788 
388.424 

Pounds 
44,189,854 
644.638 
68.698 
199,562 
356.801 
238,395 

Pounds 
23,483,768 
164,153 
78.003 
121.299 
200,650 
190,000 

Poxmds 
32,686.171 
159,052 
77,370 
160,744 
159,338 
231,959 

Pounds 
23,337,389 

North  America 

211,559 
98,260 

90,910 

152,780 

185,720 

Exported  to 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

Europe 

Dollars 
1,961.479 
14,224 
5,221 
14,730 
10,538 
38,628 

Dollars 
3,048.223 
45.415 
6.559 
16.129 
25,470 
25,150 

Dollars 

1,878,080 

14,157 

7,713 

9.815 

17,385 

19.660 

Dollars 
2,277,400 
11,263 
6,920 
12,211 
11,019 
21,123 

Dollars 

1,991,339 

17,376 

9,012 

Asia 

Oceania 

Africa 

8,346 
12,276 
18,343 

76 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL,  HORTICULTURE 


Exports  of  Boxed  Apples  for  Season  1911-12  from  Jfew  York  * 


Date 

Liver- 
pool 

London 

Glasgow 

Hamburg 

Bremen 

Man- 
chester 

Various 

Total 

September 

1911 

2 

9 

16 

23 

30 

Boxes 

656 

60 

1,896 

1,537 

Boxes 
776 
1,104 
1,319 
2,972 
6,584 
2,326 
7,109 
9,446 
2,920 
4,450 
6,941 
4,281 
5,225 
3,666 

13,186 
3.869 
7,593 

10,195 

5,.391 
4,640 
5,964 
3.878 
1,553 
2.184 
6,096 
7,506 
10,821 
4,474 
3,680 
2,460 

Boxes 

Boxes 

Boxes 

Boxes 

Boxes 

Boxes 
1,432 

300 

1,464 

u 

698 
1,130 

781 

■  636" 
680 

1,890 
780 
371 
303 

"  2,409  ■■ 

3,913 

u 

5,639 

u 

7,365 

7.. 

725 
2,855 
4,145 

5,886 

6,014 

7,708 

4,384 

2,096 

1,290 

692 

637 

707 

1,875 

2,294 
4,112 

3,051 

14 

21 

28 

4 

640 
4,884 
7,999 
5,903 
6,417 
2,624 
9,004 
7,989 
6,689 
4,074 
2,771 
7,516 

4,690 
2,379 
6,776 
5,617 
7,849 
6,202 
8,824 
7,751 
8,875 
8,110 
11,367 
3,709 
5,410 
1.294 

11,234 

u 

19,155 

11 

1,904 

20,599 

17,147 

11 

18 

25 

2.. 

200 

1,920 
3,240 
177 
2,536 
3,729 

23,557 

u 

14,832 

u 

1.478 

17,980 

17.S90 

9 

300 

24,596 

u 

16 

23 

30 

1912 

6 

13 

20 

27 

3 

10 

17 

24 

2 

9 

16 

23 

30 

6 

13 

915 
640 

9,495 

u 

1,242 
1,270 

12,953 

u 

20,856 

3,601 

15,976 

2.484 

100 

13,715 

u 

640 
1,768 
1,218 

150 

13,380 

u 

3,238 
4,922 
2,608 

632 
760 

15,133 

Pebruary 

16,302 

1,534 

1,838 

629 

12,678 

u 

16,758 

u 

2,616 
2.769 

509 
4.670 

604 
3,278 

2,000 

20,502 

March 

1.300 

23,765 

5,008 
7,849 
6,240 

1,268 
■ '  ■  75i  '  ■ 

19.369 

" 

530 

1,100 

29.196 
13,764 

u 

600 

9,288 

April 

680 

1,974 

« 

20 

1,320 

1,320 

Totals   . 

160,832 

153,289 

37,701 

70,634 

10,482 

2,530 

20,810 

456,278 

28,502 

72,805 

6,541 

22,909 

130.757 

(•  Compiled  by  Mahlon  Terhune  Produce  Exchange,  New   York,  by  permission.) 


Comparisons  TVith  Otiier  Seasons 


Date 

Liver- 
pool 

London 

Glasgow 

Hamburg 

Bremen 

Hull 

Various 

Total 

is<)Q  no 

58,992 

61,602 

109  715 

70,724 
107,752 
153,653 
126,730 
188.643 

32,254 
196.516 
128.024 
151..363 
243,969 
249,990 
501,964 
226,094 

13,118 
22.415 
20,449 
11,722 
24,302 
24,484 
24,067 
10,.307 
11,958 
41.708 
48.054 
94.465 
44.242 

1.925 

1,325 

2,929 

488 

23,486 

4,826 
7,000 
9,681 
4,629 
19,814 

149,515 

200,094 

lt)(ll-02 

296,427 

1902-03 . 
1903-04 

IM,n20 
107  •r't\f\ 

"25,476' 
13.420 
15.371 
22,735 
21.068 
2,413 
18,152 
52.546 
46,249 

212,587 
388.975 

87,321 

1005-05. 

I'toii-nT 

131,172 
87.067 
98.609 
208.3S3 
170.139 
301.268 
189,334 

14,938 

3,878 

2,208 

3,263 

22,516 

77,981 

70,634 

13,025 

20,657 

415,740 
252,011 

285,206 

1908-09. 

17,858 
21.883 
18,386 
10,482 

3,i98 

520.792 
530.734 

1910-11 

1.106,610 

1911-12. 

587.035 

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APPLES 


79 


THE  PRESEM'  STATUS  OF  THE 
APPLE  IXDUSTRY 

There  is  probably  no  branch  of  agri- 
culture that  has  developed  in  the  past 
20  years  under  such  an  impetus  as  has 
the  fruit  industry.  It  has  developed  in 
a  quarter  of  a  century  from  a  more  or 
less  general  and  relatively  unimportant 
line  of  agriculture  to  a  very  highly  spe- 
cialized line  of  great  importance.  With- 
in this  period  the  operation  of  spraying 
for  insect  pests  and  fungus  diseases  has 
been  developed  without  which,  commer- 
cial fruit  growing,  at  least  commercial 
apple  growing  as  we  know  it  today,  would 
be  an  impossibility.  Without  spraying 
pests  and  fungi  would  reign  supreme  in 
every  orchard. 

During  the  past  20  or  25  years  fruit 
growing  has  been  extended  to  practically 
every  section  of  our  country.  In  some 
sections  where,  25  years  ago,  fruit  cul- 
ture was  not  thought  of  as  a  possibility 
and  where  even  its  suggestion  was  a  mat- 
ter of  ridicule,  men  are  now  finding  fruit 
growing  profitable. 

In  the  case  of  the  peach,  for  instance; 
instead  of  its  production  being  confined 
to  a  narrow  strip  along  the  lake-shore 
of  Michigan  and  to  New  Jersey,  Delaware 
and  the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland,  as 
was  the  case  not  very  many  years  ago, 
the  peach  is  now  produced  commercially 
to  some  extent  in  practically  four-fifths 
of  the  states  in  the  Union.  In  other 
words,  instead  of  being  adapted  only  to 
the  peculiar  conditions  of  a  few  restricted 
areas,  the  experience  of  later  years  has 
demonstrated  that  with  suitable  varieties 
and  proper  cultural  methods  peaches  may 
be  successfully  grown  under  a  very  wide 
range  of  conditions.  And  so  it  is  with 
many  other  fruits. 

We  very  commonly  refer  to  the  "pres- 
ent status  of  fruit  growing."  What  is 
the  "present  status"?  What  is  the  road 
that  has  been  traveled  in  the  present  de- 
velopment of  fruit  culture?  Whither  are 
we   bound   in   its    future   development? 

The  presentation  in  this  connection  of 
a  few  significant  points  of  an  historical 
nature  might  be  of  interest,  showing  as 
they  do  something  of  what  the  "present 


status"    of   fruit   growing    is    in   contrast 
with   past   stages   of  its   development. 

American  pomological  literature  is  only 
about  100  years  old  and  in  the  first  book* 
relative  to  fruit  growing  and  gardening 
that  was  published  In  America,  Bernard 
M'Mahon,  its  author,  makes  these  inter- 
esting statements:  "But  the  misfortune 
is,  that  too  frequently  after  orchards  are 
planted  and  fenced,  they  seldom  have  any 
more  care  bestowed  upon  them.  Boughs 
are  allowed  to  hang  dangling  to  the 
ground;  their  heads  are  so  loaded  with 
wood  as  to  be  almost  impervious  to  sun 
and  air,  and  they  are  left  to  be  exhausted 
with  moss  and  injured  by  cattle,  etc. 
*     *     *  " 

"The  feelings  of  a  lover  of  improvement 
can  scarcely  be  expressed  on  observing 
the  almost  universal  inattention  paid  to 
the  greater  number  of  our  orchards,  and 
that  people  who  go  to  considerable  ex- 
pense in  planting  and  establishing  them 
afterwards  leave  them  to  the  rude  hand 
of  nature;  as  if  the  art  and  ingenuity 
of  man  availed  nothing,  or  that  they 
merited  no  further  care!" 

Is  it  fair  to  say  that  the  average  or- 
chard of  today  is  a  more  or  less  neglected 
orchard?  If  so,  then  perhaps  there  is  a 
grain  of  comfort  in  thus  being  assured 
that  the  average  orchard  of  our  time  is 
at  least  no  worse  in  respect  to  the  gen- 
eral condition  in  which  it  is  maintained 
than  was  "the  greater  number"  of  the 
orchards  100  years  ago. 

Varieties  Propagated 

A  numeral  inventory  of  the  apple  vari- 
eties that  have  entered  into  American 
pomology  shows  some  interesting  facts. 
Such  an  inventory  is  made  possible 
through  a  bulletin  in  the  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry  series  issued  several  years 
ago  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
entitled:  "Nomenclature  of  the  Apple: 
A  Catalogue  of  the  Known  Varieties  Re- 
ferred to  in  American  Publications  from 
1804  to  1904."  This  catalogue,  as  the 
name  implies,  contains  a  list  of  all  the 
variety  names,  both  accredited  names  and 
synonyms,  that  have  been  published  in 
American  works  during  the  century  1804 


»  American   Gardener's  Calendar  by   Bernard 
MMahon.    1806. 


80 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


to  1904.     These  works  include  the  stan-  with  the  figures  above  mentioned.     These 

dard     pomological     books,     horticultural  last    figures    mean,    if    I    interpret    them 

magazines  and  papers,  experiment  station  correctly,  that  but  slightly  more  than  300 

bulletins,  nuserymen's  catalogues,  etc.  varieties  of  apples  include  all  or  nearly 

This  catalogue   shows   that  in   the   100  all  of  those  that  are  of  real   importance 

years    in    question    approximately    14,800  (except  local  sorts  that  are  known  only 

varietal  names  of  apples  have  been  pub-  in  restricted  areas)   in  the  American  ap- 

lished.     Of  this   number  about  6,700  are  P'e  industry  of  today.     In  fact,  it  is  prob- 

accredited    names    and    refer    to    distinct  able   that  many   of  these  varieties  could 

varieties.    The  remaining  8,100  names  are  '^e   eliminated    to    the   benefit   of   the    in- 

synonyms;      that     is,     of     the     published  dustry.      If   we  should    include   the   crabs 

names,  there  is  an  average  of  more  than  that  are  in  the  last  "recommended  list" 

two  names  for  every  distinct  variety.    But  of  the  American  Pomological  Society,  we 

as  there  are  a  number  of  varieties  that  should  need  to  add  32  names  to  the  319 

have    about    40     different    synonyms,    it  varieties  above  mentioned, 

follows  that  the  distribution  of  synonyms  Another  comparison  of  varieties  made 

is  not  on  a  very  equitable  basis.  on  quite  a  different  basis  is  also  instruc- 

The    number    of    varietal    names    men-  "ve  in  showing  the  trend  in  recent  years. 

tioned,  14,800,  does  not  include  the  crab  ^°  ^^^"'  Professor  L.  H.  Bailey  made  an 

apples.     If  these  are  added,  the  number  '"^entory  of  the  apple  varieties  that  were 

will   be   increased   by   about  600,   making  "ff^""^^    ^°^   ^=^'«   ^^''^  >'«^^   ^^   ^^   '^'^^^■ 

15,400.    Of  these  600  names  of  crabs  about  «°^   American   nurserymen.     This    inven- 

375  are  accredited  names,  representing  dis-  ^<""y*  ''^°^'^  ^^^^^  *°  ^hese  catalogues  there 

tinct  varieties,  while  225  names  are  syn-  ^"^  >''*^"^  ^^^  ^^"^*^'  "'*"«^'  '"eluding 

«Tivm=  crab    apples.     The   nurseries   represented 

Of  course  a  very   considerable   propor-  ^^'^  '°^='^^^'  '°  '*^°"*  ^^  different  states 

tion    of    the    6,700    distinct    varieties    of  ^"'^  '°  ""'^  °''  """"^  °^  *'^^  Canadian  prov- 

apples    (not   including   crabs)    that   have  '".''^^-     '^^^^   ^^-"^   therefore   widely    dis- 

entered    in    American    pomology    during  ^        ®  " 

this     100-year    period     have     long    since  ^    '^^^^    ^^"^""^^^    examined    the    apple 

dropped   out  of  cultivation  and   are  now  ''"'"  '"^  ^^^  catalogues  of  nurserymen  in 

entirely  unknown  except  by  name.  ^^^  ^^'^^^  ^^^*-^^  ^^^^  '^^^^  ^°  "^^  '"^'^^ 

_,  in  1910.     These  catalogues  were  from  32 

The  number  of  important  varieties  now  different  states.     They  are  therefore  rep- 

commonly  grown  is  suggested  by  the  last  .-esentative  as  to  distribution;  I  think  they 

revision  of  the  American  Pomological  So-  ^^^   ^,g^   representative   in   every   respect 

ciety  s     recommended   lists"   of   varieties  ..,        ..    .»..              u        •     i    j                   ji 

^                                                            vciiiciico  though    the    number    includes    a    goodly 

for  cultivation,  in   the  various  pomologi-  proportion   of   the   largest   and   most   im- 

cal  regions  of  the  United  States  and  Can-  ^^^^^^^    catalogues    that    are    issued.      I 

ada.     This    revision    was   first   published  ^^^  ^j^^^  .^  ^^^^^  ^00  catalogues  there  are 

as    Bulletin    No.    151    of    the    Bureau    of  4^,   ^^^i^^ies   of   apples   offered    for    sale 

Plant  Industry  and  later  included  in  the  ^„^,  59  ^^^5^^;^^  „,  ^r^^,^    ^,^^i^g  ^  ^^t^, 

Proceedings  of  the  American  Pomological  ,   ro^          •  *■         «         1         i*       »i, 

„                                                            »v^iuoiv.u,i  qj  ggj   varieties  of  apples  altogether. 

Society  for  1909.    The  "recommended  list"      

of    apples    comprises    only    319    names — a  *  t-^   i-evision   of  this   list   for  elimination   of 

„„,„..  ,  ,              ,,             ,            u                          ,  synon.vms    reduces    it    to    about    735    varietal 

relatively   small    number   when   compared  names  and  about  40  names  of  crab  apples.— Ed. t 

Statistical  Summary  of  Apple  Varieties 

Approximate  number  varietal  names  of  apples  in  American  publications  1804- 

1904    6,700 

Approximate  number  synonyms,  same  sources 8,100 

Approximate  number  crab  apple  names,  same  sources 375 

Approximate  number  crab  apple  synonyms,  same  sources 225 

I  

Total  number  apple  and  crab  apple  varietal  names 15,400 


APPLES 


81 


Number  of  varietal  names  of  apples  in  last  revision  of  American  Pomological 

Society's    "recommended    list"* 319 

Number  of  crab  apple  names,  same  source 32 

Total  number  in  American  Pomological  Society  lists 351 

Number  of  varietal  names  of  apples  and  crabs  published  in  1892  in  95  catalogues  878 

Approximate  number  of  distinct  varieties  of  apples  included  in  same  catalogues  735 

Approximate  number  crab  varieties  offered  in  same  catalogues 40 

Total  775 

Number  of  varieties  of  apples  offered  for  sale  in  1910  in  100  catalogues 472 

Number  of  crab  apple  varieties  in  same  catalogues 59 

Total  531 


It  is  interesting  to  note  here,  contrast- 
ing the  results  secured  from  an  examina- 
tion of  95  catalogues  in  1892  and  100 
catalogues  in  1910,  that  there  was  a 
smaller  number  of  varieties  offered  for 
Bale  in  the  1910  collection  than  there  was 
In  the  collection  of  1892  by  about  263.  In- 
cluding the  crabs  the  difference  was  244 
as  more  crabs  were  offered  in  1891  than 
there  were  in  1892. 

We  can  name  about  ten  varieties  of  ap- 
ples which  comprise  probably  75  to  90 
per  cent  of  the  apples  that  enter  into 
commerce.  Such  a  variety  list  might 
comprise  the  Baldwin,  Ben  Davis,  Jona- 
than, Northern  Spy,  Rhode  Island  Green- 
ing, Roxbury,  Tompkins  King,  Yellow 
Newtown  and  York  Imperial.  These  vari- 
eties are  at  least  among  the  more  im- 
portant commercial  sorts.  And  what  of 
their  history?  Baldwin  has  been  fruiting 
since  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury; Ben  Davis  doubtless  began  to  be 
propagated  a  hundred  years  ago;  Jonathan 
was  shown  on  an  exhibit  table  in  1829. 
Northern  Spy  has  tickled  the  palate  of 
the  consumer  for  more  than  a  hundred 
years;  Rhode  Island  Greening  was  rec- 
ommended for  its  long  keeping  qualities 
in  1806;  scions  of  Roxbury  were  being 
grafted  as  long  ago  as  1650;  Tompkins 
King  had  made  something  of  a  history 
for  itself  as  far  back  as  1806.  No  one 
knows  whence  came  the  Winesap  but  it 
was  described  in  1817.  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin received  specimens  of  Yellow  New- 
town (Albemarle  Pippin)  in  London  in 
1759.  while  York  Imperial  has  been  prop- 


•  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.  Bulletin  1.51.  T'. 
R.  Department  of  .\?riculture  :  also  Proceedings 
American  Pomological  Society.  1909. 


agated  commercially  for  about  80  years. 
What  a  history!  There  are  comparatively 
few  men  who  are  growing  apples  in  the 
United  States  today  who  haven't  been 
born  since  the  most  recent  of  this  galaxy 
of  varieties  originated.  And  yet  these  are 
the  sorts  which  are  very  largely  making 
commercial  apple  growing  what  it  is  at 
the  present  time. 

Of  course  there  are  other  important 
sorts  that  are  recent  candidates  for  fa- 
vor, such  as  Stayman  Winesap,  but  it  is 
now  45  years  since  Dr.  Stayman  planted 
the  seed  from  which  it  came;  and  Arkan- 
sas, better  known  as  Mammoth  Black 
Twig,  but  the  original  tree  of  this  vari- 
ety is  probably  75  or  80  years  old:  and 
a  Virginia  variety  now  bidding  for  favor 
— Lowry.  or  Mosby's  Best  or  Dixie,  as  it 
is  variously  called;  but  the  original  of  this 
variety  first  attracted  attention  many 
years  ago;  and  Delicious — this  at  first 
thought  impresses  us  as  a  distinctly 
"new"  apple  as  it  was  commercialy  intro- 
duced only  about  six  years  ago.  Yet  as 
a  young  tree  probably  five  or  six  years 
old,  it  began  to  attract  attention  locally 
about  30  years  ago. 

These  varieties  forever  link  the  past 
with  the  present  in  fruit  growing,  even 
reaching  over  in  prospect,  far  into  the 
future.  They  forcibly  illustrate  how  an 
apple  variety  must  be  old  in  point  of  years 
before  it  can  have  an  important  place  in 
the  apple   industry. 

Development  of  Spraying 

Turning  now  to  another  phase  of  the 
question,  a  few  statements  will  point  out 
the  course  of  development  in  the  spraying 
of  orchards   for  insect  pests  and   fungus 


82 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


diseases.  This  operation  has  developed 
within  memory  of  the  present  generation, 
yet  I  doubt  if  the  full  significance  of  the 
rapidity  with  which  spraying  has  come 
to  be  a  universal  practice,  and  an  abso- 
lutely essential  one,  occurs  to  very  many 
minds. 

What  is  probably  the  first  reference  to 
the  spraying  of  an  apple  orchard  made 
in  a  horticultural  meeting  is  recorded 
in  the  proceedings  of  the  Western  New 
York  Horticultural  Society  for  1879.  The 
account  refers  to  a  fruit  grower  in  West- 
ern New  York  having  been  troubled  the 
season  before  with  canker  worms.  The 
report  reads:  "He  procured  a  force  pump 
and  sprinkled  the  trees  with  water  con- 
taining paris  green.  This  not  only  en- 
tirely rid  them  of  the  canker  worms,  but 
to  his  surprise  those  apples  which  grew 
in  that  part  of  his  orchard  (the  part 
that  was  'sprinkled')  were  entirely  free 
from  codling  moth  worms.  *  *  *  " 
The  one  who  gave  this  account,  writing 
later  of  his  experience  in  presenting  the 
facts  before  the  horticultural  society 
meeting,  says:  "j  *  *  *  shall  never 
forget  this  (the  presentation  of  the  mat- 
ter) because  of  the  way  in  which  I  was 
jumped  upon  as  a  crank."* 

Prom  this  beginning  the  practice  of 
spraying  fruit  trees  for  insects,  especially 
codling  moth,  began  to  receive  some  slight 
attention    from    experimenters. 

Slightly  earlier  recommendations  than 
those  of  1879  above  mentioned  were  ap- 
parently made  by  the  entomologist  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, but  the  New  York  State  Experiment 
Station  was  the  first  station  to  publish 
a  report  on  the  use  of  poisons  (paris 
green  in  this  case)  for  the  control  of  the 
codling  moth.  This  occurred  in  the  An- 
nual Report  for  1885  of  the  station  men- 
tioned above. 

Spraying  to  control  fungus  diseases  has 
developed  apace  with  the  control  of  in- 
sect pests,  though  in  this  country  it  did 
not  receive  serious  attention  until  some 
time  after  spraying  for  insects  had  be- 
come more  or  less  common. 

Spraying   for   fungus    diseases  may   be 


*  Spraying  of  Plants  by  E.  G.  Lodeman,  p.  63. 


said  to  have  begun  with  the  accidental 
discovery  in  1882  of  the  preparation  which 
later  came  to  be  known  as  Bordeaux 
mixture.  This  occurred  in  connection 
with  the  control  of  grape  diseases  in  a 
vineyard  in  France. 

It  was  apparently  not  till  1885  that 
Bordeaux  mixture  was  used  for  the  con- 
trol of  other  diseases  than  those  of  grapes. 
It  was  about  this  time,  or  perhaps  in 
1884,  that  the  control  of  diseases  by  liquid 
sprays  first  began  to  receive  attention  in 
this  country.  It  was  in  the  same  year 
(1885)  that  the  first  formula  for  making 
Bordeaux  was  published  in  this  country. 
This  appeared  in  a  report  from  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  In  this 
same  report  appeared  what  is  probably  the 
first  published  suggestion  that  apple  scab 
might  possibly  be  controlled  or  at  least 
checked  by  the  application  of  some  fun- 
gicide. 

The  formula  for  making  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture was  widely  copied  by  the  agricul- 
tural press  and  in  other  publications, 
though  spraying  did  not  appear  to  "take" 
with  anything  like  the  favor  that  might 
naturally  be  supposed  in  view  of  its  prom- 
ising possibilities.  The  "experimental 
age"  in  American  agriculture  had  not  then 
arrived!  The  annual  report  of  the  then 
Section  of  Vegetable  Pathology  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
for  18S7  appears  to  contain  the  first  def- 
inite recommendation  for  the  control  of 
apple  scab  by  the  use  of  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture. It  was  this  same  year,  I  believe, 
that  Congress  authorized  federal  aid  in 
the  establishment  of  an  agricultural  ex- 
periment station  in  each  state  in  the 
Union.  Spraying  for  the  control  of  in- 
sects and  fungus  diseases  at  once  became 
a  subject  of  much  experimentation  at 
many  of  these  stations  which  were  located 
in  important  fruit  producing  states. 

The  rest  of  the  story  about  spraying 
is  quickly  told.  There  was  much  to  learn 
about  this  operation,  however,  and  its 
acceptance  as  an  essential  factor  in  fruit 
growing  was  very  gradual.  The  decade 
from  1890  to  1900  may  be  referred  to  as 
the  "test  period"  of  the  operation  and  the 
period  during  which  the  fact  of  spraying 
as  an  important  orchard  practice  was  be- 


APPLES 


83 


Ing  accepted  among  fruit  growers.  This 
decade,  too.  was  one  in  which  fruit  grow- 
ing was  greatly  extended  as  the  following 


figures  taken  from  the  Eleventh  and 
Twelfth  United  States  Census  Reports  will 
show. 


Xnniber  of  Apple  and  Peach  Trees  of  Bearing  Age  in  United  States 


Year 

Apple 

Increase 

Decrease 

Peach 

Increase 

Decrease 

....    120.152.795 

....1  201.794.764 

1.^1  S'?ji  nnn 

53,885,597 
99,919.428 
94.507,000 

•1900 

68% 

85.4% 

••1910 

33.4% 

5.7% 

*  Since  this  article  was  written  returns  from  the  Thirteenth  Census  have  been  published 
showing  a  falling  off  in  the  number  of  trees  of  bearing  age  during  the  decade  from  1000  to  1910 
registering  a  loss'  in  apples  of  33.4  per  cent  and  of  peaches  of  5.7  per  cent  from  the  figures  of  1900. 

*•  The  number  of  bearing  apple  trees  reported  in  1910  is  151.323.000  and  of  peaches 
94,507,000.  When  the  20-year  period  is  taken  into  consideration  there  was  an  increase  in  1910 
of  7S.9  per  cent  in  apples  oVer  ISOO  and  an  increase  of  57  per  cent  in  peaches  for  the  same  period. 


It  will  thus  be  seen  that  during  the 
decade  from  1890  to  1900  there  was  an 
increase  of  68  per  cent  in  the  number  of 
bearing  apple  trees  and  85.4  per  cent  in 
the  number  of  bearing  peach  trees  in  the 
country. 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  refer  to  such  a 
large  increase  in  the  producing  capacity 
of  orchard  trees  without  at  the  same  time 
suggesting  that  perennial  question:  "Is 
there  danger  of  over-production?" 

There  is  no  denying  on  theoretical 
grounds  that  such  a  danger  does  exist,  but 
the  probability  is  very  remote. 

This  fear  of  over-production  is  not  mod- 
ern though  it  Is  very  up-to-date  in  the 
matter  of  its  recurrence.  It  was  said  a 
half  century  ago  that  in  10  years'  time 
apples  would  not  be  worth  picking  and 
there  is  said  to  be  a  record  of  a  man  in 
Western  New  York  who  cut  down  his 
orchard  because  of  his  fears  in  this  re- 
spect. Todaj-,  so  far  as  any  actual  experi- 
ence goes,  we  are  apparently  no  nearer 
the  point  of  over-production  in  apples 
than  was  the  case  25  and  50  years  ago. 

I  have  recently  had  before  me  the  an- 
nual commercial  estimates  of  apple  pro- 
duction for  a  consecutive  period  of  17 
years.  The  annual  average  of  the  esti- 
mates for  this  period  is  41,134.000  barrels. 
The  average  for  the  past  10  years,  includ- 
ing the  crop  of  1910,  is  32,572,000  barrels 
and  for  the  past  five  years  the  average  Is 
only  27,966,000  barrels. 

It  is  evident  that  for  one  cause  or  an- 
other the  production  has  been  falling  off 
on  the  basis  of  the  several  periods  men- 


tioned, even  in  spite  of  the  great  extension 
in   the   planting   of  apple   orchards. 

No  doubt  this  drop  in  production  la 
largely  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  for 
quite  a  long  period  of  years  conditions  have 
been  unfavorable  for  the  production  of 
fruit  in  large  and  import  fruit  growing 
regions.  And  when  we  think  of  it.  Is  It 
not  a  fact  that  the  year  is  a  very  excep- 
tional one  in  which  all  fruit  regions  pro- 
duce a  full  or  normal  crop  of  fruit? 

Such  a  year  so  far  as  apple  production 
was  concerned  apparently  prevailed  In 
1896,  when  the  largest  estimated  apple 
crop  in  the  history  of  the  country  was 
produced,  amounting  to  more  than  69,- 
000,000  barrels,  according  to  the  commer- 
cial estimates. 

Another  very  interesting  feature  follows 
in  natural  sequence.  The  development  of 
mechanical  cold  storage  of  fruits  has  been 
almost  contemporaneous  with  the  develop- 
ment of  spraying  and  the  great  expansion 
of  orchard  planting.  In  fact,  cold  stor- 
age would  amount  to  but  little  so  far  as 
apples  are  concerned  if  it  were  not  for 
spraying,  because  there  would  be  but 
very  few  apples  worth  storing  if  it  were 
not  for  the  use  of  insecticides  and  fun- 
gicides. 

It  was  about  the  year  1890  that  the 
first  mechanical  cold  storage  plant  was 
used  for  storing  apples.  The  development 
was  rapid,  once  its  importance  was  real- 
ized, but  by  1896,  the  year  of  the  big 
crop,  the  capacity  of  all  such  plants  com- 
bined was  relatively  insignificant  com- 
pared  with   the   capacity   at   the   present 


84 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


APPLE  TREES  IX  THE  YAKIMA  VALLEY 

jPlaiitiiigs   of  Meiiiliers   of   Yakima   Vallej  Fruit  Growers'  Association 

n/z 


All   Varieties 


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Winesap 


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Rome   Bea 


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Spitz 


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)licions  I 


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Stayman  I 


Ben  DaviN 


Wagener  | 


Ark.  Black 


Mo.  Pip 


W.  W.   Pearmain 


B.  Twig 


Red   Ck 


York    Imp 


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.Old, 

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.Obi 

.007 

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.003 
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Zf2 


33S 


Light  lines  indicate  No. 
trees  S  years  old  in  1912. 
Heavy    lines    same    in    1919. 

Figures  at  end  of  line  in- 
dicate percentages  of  all 
varieties  S  years  of  age  at 
dates    named. 


(Courtesy      Yakima      Valley 
Fruit     Growers'      Assn.) 


APPLES 


85 


time.  The  significance  of  this  fact  is 
of  the  greatest  importance.  A  69,000,000- 
barrel  crop  of  apples  now,  with  the  pres- 
ent storage  capacity,  would  be  a  very 
different  matter  from  the  "over-produc- 
tion standpoint"  that  it  was  when  told 
storage  was  in  its  infancy. 

Then,  too,  transportation  facilities  are 
constantly  being  extended  and  improved. 
This  makes  it  possible  to  reach  new  mar- 
kets. And  as  a  matter  of  fact,  very  many 
domestic  markets  are  now  well  supplied 
with  native-grown  fruit  which  ten  or  fif- 
teen years  ago  had  never  had  a  consign- 
ment of  fruit  shipped  to  them.  Con- 
sumers in  vast  numbers  have  been  form- 
ing the  fruit-eating  habit,  and  habit  once 
formed  is  hard  to  break  if  the  means  of 
continuing  it  can  be  made  available. 

In  addition  to  an  increasing  fruit-con- 
suming people  at  home,  the  export  mar- 
kets are  an  important  factor  in  this  mat- 
ter of  over-production,  though  their  im- 
portance is  because  they  serve  as  sort 
of  a  "safety  valve"  for  market  conditions. 
The  quantity  of  apples  exported  in  any 
one  season  in  relation  to  the  quantity 
produced  in  any  ordinary  year  is  so  small 
that  the  influence  of  the  export  trade  can 
hardly  be  due  to  the  number  of  barrels 
shipped  abroad. 

Up  to  and  including  the  year  1908,  the 
million-barrel  export  trade  was  reached 
only  twice  prior  to  1903.  The  first  time 
was  in  1881.  when  1,117,000  barrels  were 
Bent  abroad.  The  second  time  was  in 
1897,  when  1,500,000  barrels  were  ex- 
ported. From  1903  to  1908,  inclusive, 
more  than  a  million  barrels  were  exported 
each  year,  the  maximum  quantity  on  rec- 
ord being  in  1904,  when  the  export  trade 
exceeded  2,000,000  barrels.  A  million  bar- 
rels of  apples  shipped  abroad  in  any  sea- 
son out  of  a  crop  of  30,000,000  to  40,- 
000,000  produced  is  only  a  very  small  part 
of  the  crop.  Yet  with  the  export  mar- 
kets open  even  for  quantities  that  are 
small  in  comparison  with  the  totals,  the 
pressure  at  home  may  be  greatly  relieved. 
In  this  same  line  of  argument  we 
should  not  forget  our  constantly  and  rap- 
idly increasing  population.  A  million  and 
a  quarter  of  immigrants  coming  to  Amer- 
ica every  year  will  consume  some  of  our 


siuplus  apples  if  we  only  get  them  to  the 
markets  and  within  their  reach.  This  in- 
crease amounted  to  21  per  cent  during 
the  decade  1900  to  1910.  The  people  who 
make  up  this  increase  are  helping  to  make 
a  market  for  some  of  the  fruit  produced 
on  the  68  per  cent  increase  in  the  number 
of  bearing  apple  trees  from  1890  to  1900. 

H.   P.   Gk)ULD 

Fifteenth  Annual  Session  Vermont  Horticultiiral 
Society. 

APPLE   ORCHARD 

Selection  of  the  Site 

In  selecting  the  site  on  which  to  plant 
an  apple  orchard,  several  things  should 
be  kept  in  mind.  These  various  requi- 
sites may  be  discussed  under  the  gen- 
eral heads  of  Soil,  Climate  and  Market 
conditions.  By  soil  conditions  we  mean 
all  those  factors  which  affect  balance  of 
ration,  physical  condition,  drainage,  fer- 
tility, etc..  By  climatic  conditions  is 
meant  those  factors  which  have  to  do  with 
temperature,  such  as  elevation;  proximity 
to  large  bodies  of  water,  air  drainage; 
exposure  to  sun;  prevailing  winds;  soil 
erosion;    frost   conditions,   etc. 

Soil  Depth 

The  first  and  most  important  soil  con- 
dition is  depth.  Apple  and  pear  trees  live 
longer  and  grow  to  be  larger  than  peach, 
plum  and  most  other  classes  of  fruit 
trees.  They  will,  therefore,  need  a  root 
system  large  enough  to  support  the  large 
trunks  and  tops  which  they  will  have 
when   they  come  to  be  old. 

In  Southern  New  Mexico  there  are  ap- 
ple trees  large  and  healthy,  but  the  fruit 
is  not  of  good  quality,  which  were  planted 
by  the  Spanish  missionaries  300  years 
ago.  There  is  an  apple  tree  at  Vancou- 
ver, Wash,  (see  Fig.  1,  History  of  Apple), 
which  is  said  to  be  87  years  old,  having 
been  grown  from  seed  planted  about  the 
year  1825  or  '26.  There  is  a  pear  tree 
near  Bloomlngton,  III.,  of  the  variety 
called  the  Suddith,  which  is  more  than 
100  years  old,  and  has  been  used  within 
the  last  few  years  largely  for  grafting 
purposes  because  of  its  tendency  to  long 
life. 

These  facts  prove  to  us  the  importance 
of   selecting   a   deep   soil   for   apples   and 


86 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


'fj^:- 


^_..-f^ 


Fig.    1      A   Native  Apple   Tree  and  a    Pioneer   in    the   Early    Days   in   CunueoLicut. 

Years  of  Age.     Conn.  Sta. 


At   Least   150 


pears,  a  soil  which  will  furnish  sufficient 
nutriment  to  the  tree  for  two  or  three 
generations.  It  suggests  the  importance, 
also,  of  sufficient  moisture,  for  soil  depth 
is  of  little  value  unless  the  sub-soil  or 
under  stratum  contains  sufficient  water 
to  hold  plant  food  in  solution.  Many  or- 
chards are  being  planted  in  places  where 
they  will  grow  fruit  successfully  for  20, 
25  or  30  years,  but  not  for  a  longer  period, 
because  a  few  feet  below  the  surface  there 
Is  a  stratum  of  rock  or  of  hardpan,  or 
perhaps  there  is  not  sufficient  seepage  to 
moisten  the  soil  a  very  great  depth  and 
the  food  substances  in  the  soil  are  not 
available.  Especially  is  this  so  in  the 
arid  and  semi-arid  regions  where  it  is 
necessary  to  resort  to  irrigation  to  grow 
fruit    successfully.      Then,    too,    in    these 


irrigated  sections  there  are  many  places 
where  there  is  sub-irrigation  and  the  soil 
is  wet  to  a  very  great  depth.  This  may 
be  considered  desirable  if  there  is  not 
too  much  water  to  injure  the  tender  roots 
of  the  trees. 

In  West  Virginia  I  have  observed 
that  in  every  case  where  the  orchards 
were  from  50  to  75  years  old  they  have 
been  situated  where  the  soil  was  deep 
and  where  there  was  seepage  enough  to 
supply  the  root  system  with  more  mois- 
ture than  generally  falls  on  the  surface; 
that  when  the  orchards  were  planted  on 
situations  where  there  was  no  seepage, 
and  where  the  rock  came  near  the  sur- 
face, the  orchards  were  dead.  In  1905  I 
visited  a  number  of  farms  where  40  years 
before  there  were  flourishing  orchards,  yet 


APPLES 


87 


Fig.  2.  Trees  Like  Tliis  With  a  Constricted 
Trunls,  Were  I'rohably  Top-gralted  Atjout 
1850.     Conn.   Sta. 

at  the  time  of  this  visit  there  was  not  a 
fruit  tree  living  which  was  there  at  the 
earlier  date.  Some  attribute  this  to  a 
cold  freeze  that  occurred  in  1890,  some  to 
lack  of  rain.  The  fact  remains,  however, 
that  the  orchards  that  were  planted  where 
there  was  sufficient  seepage  from  the  hill- 
sides and  sufficient  depth  of  soil,  are  still 
living  and  the  trees  are  in  a  healthy  con- 
dition. 

On  account  of  the  importance  of  this 
subject  the  opinions  of  many  observers 
are  given,  covering  the  conditions  of  vari- 
ous localities. 

Granville  Lowther 

Soils  for  Apples 

Apples  will  grow  on  a  great  variety  of 
soils,  but  most  kinds  do  best  on  deep, 
rich  clays  or  loams.  Soils  very  rich  in 
nitrogen  should  be  avoided  as  they  will 
produce  too  much  wood  growth  at  the 
expense  of  fruit.  Very  few  soils  are  too 
rich  for  apples,  however.  Many  farmers 
plant  their  fruit  trees  on  the  poorest  and 
roughest  pieces  of  land  on  the  farm,  be- 
cause such  soil  will  not  produce  any  other 


crop  profitably.  If  the  trees  do  not  pro- 
duce good  fruit  in  a  few  years,  without  any 
attention,  the  orchard  is  abandoned  and 
the  farmer  says  fruit  growing  is  a  fail- 
ure. Does  he  expect  this  of  other  crops 
and  has  he  a  right  to  expect  it  of  apples? 
Give  apple  trees  the  care  and  attention 
that  other  crops  get  and  they  will  re- 
spond by  producing  profitable  crops  of 
fruit.  It  is  a  mistake  to  expect  trees  to 
grow  well  on  poor  soil,  for  food  is  just  as 
essential  to  tree  growth  as  to  the  growth 
of  cotton  or  corn.  It  requires  a  large 
quantity  of  food  to  produce  a  crop  of  trees 
and  even  a  greater  quantity  to  produce 
the  fruit. 

H.  G.  Thompson, 
Agricultural   College.   Miss. 

SOIL  ADAPTATIONS  TO  TAErETIES 
OF  APPLES 

It  is  believed  that  different  varieties 
have  adaptations  to  different  soils,  which 
adaptations,  if  known,  would  guide  the 
orchardist  in  the  selection  of  a  site  for 
an  orchard,  or  the  selection  of  varieties 
suited  to  any  particular  soil,  which  he 
may  possess. 

*  H.  J.  Wilder  has  treated  this  subject 
extensively,  and  a  summary  of  his  con- 
clusions is  given. 

Baldwin  Soils 

If  soils  are  thought  of  as  grading  from 
heavy  to  light,  corresponding  to  the  range 
from  clay  to  sand,  then  soils  grading  from 
medium  to  semi-light  fulfil  best  the  re- 
quirements of  the  Baldwin.  The  ideal 
is  to  be  sought  in  a  fine  sandy  loam,  or 
light  mellow  loam,  underlaid  by  plastic 
light  clay  loam  or  heavy  silt  loam.  The 
surface  soil  should  be  of  a  dark  brown 
color,  due  to  the  presence  of  decaying  or- 
ganic matter.  There  is  much  of  this  soil 
in  the  Appalachian  region,  which  from 
Canada  to  Southern  Pennsylvania  is 
adapted  to  the  growing  of  Baldwins. 

Rhode  Island  Greenine:  Soils 

For  the  Rhode  Island  Greening,  a  sur- 
face soil  of  heavj-  silty  loam  or  light  silty 
clay  loam,  underlaid  by  silty  clay  loam, 
excels.     Such  a  soil  will  retain  sufficient 


*  H.    J.    Wilder.    Pennsylvania    State   College, 
1911  Report. 


88 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTIClLTrRE 


moisture  to  be  classed  as  a  moist  soil,  yet 
it  is  not  so  heavy  as  to  be  ill-drained  if 
surface  drainage  is  not  sufficient.  The 
soil  should  be  moderately  rich  in  organic 
matter,  decidedly  more  so  than  for  the 
Baldwin.  Such  soil  conditions  maintain 
a  long  seasonal  growth  under  uniform 
conditions  of  moisture,  and  yet  produce 
a  firm,  crisp  texture,  the  remarkable 
juiciness  and  high  flavor  for  which  this 
variety  is  noted  when  at  its  best. 

Hubbardston  Soils 

The  Hubbardston  requires  a  light  sandy 
soil.  The  lighest  soil  on  which  the  Bald- 
win will  succeed  is  about  the  heaviest  re- 
quired for  the  Hubbardston.  Perhaps  no 
apple  will  utilize  a  more  sandy  soil  than 
this  variety.  This  does  not  mean  that  it 
will  succeed  on  poor  light  sands;  for  In 
such  a  soil,  the  apple  will  not  attain  suf- 
ficient size  to  be  of  value,  nor  is  the  tree 
vigorous  enough.  But  the  soil  should  al- 
.  ways  be  very  mellow.  A  rich  fine  sandy 
loam  to  at  least  the  depth  of  a  foot  is 
preferable  and  the  subsoil  may  well  be  of 
the  same  texture. 

Northern  Spy  Soils 
This  variety  is  one  of  the  most  exact- 
ing in  soil  requirements.  To  obtain  a 
good  quality  of  fruit,  fine  texture,  juici- 
ness, and  high  flavor,  the  soil  must  be 
moderately  heavy  and  for  the  first  two 
qualities  alone,  the  Rhode  Island  Green- 
ing soils  would  be  admirably  adapted. 
However,  the  fact  that  the  Northern  Spy 
is  a  red  apple  makes  it  imperative  that 
the  color  be  well  developed  and  the  skin 
free  from  the  greasy  tendency.  This  ne- 
cessitates a  fine  adjustment  of  soil  con- 
ditions. The  habit  of  tree  growth  also 
is  such  as  to  require  attention.  Its  ten- 
dency to  groV  upright  seems  to  be  accen- 
tuated on  too  clayey  soils,  if  well  en- 
riched, and  such  soils  tend  to  produce 
wood  growth  faster  than  the  tree  Is  able 
to  mature.  On  the  other  hand,  sandy 
soils,  while  producing  good  color  and 
clear  skins  fail  to  bring  fruit  satisfactory 
in  quality  in  respect  to  texture  and  flavor. 
The  keeping  quality  too  is  inferior  to 
that  of  the  Spy  grown  on  heavier  soils 
in  the  same  district.  Hence  the  soil  re- 
quirements of  this  variety  are  very  exact- 


ing, and  are  best  supplied  apparently  by 
a  medium  loam,  underlaid  by  a  heavy 
loam,   or  light  clay  loam. 

Tompkins  King  Soils 

This  tree  with  its  straggling  tendency 
of  growth  does  not  develop  well  on  sandy 
soils.  Light  mellow  loam,  the  sand  con- 
tent thereof  being  medium  rather  than 
fine,  thus  constituting  an  open  textured 
loam,  rather  than  a  fine  loam,  is  better. 
The  subsoil  should  be  either  the  same 
texture  or  heavier,  in  no  case  heavier 
than  the  light  plastic  clay  loam.  Subsoils 
inclining  to  stiffness  in  character  should 
be  carefully  avoided. 

Fall  Pippin   Soils 

This  variety  will  succeed  on  a  wider 
range  of  soils  than  either  the  Northern 
Spy  or  the  Tompkins  King  and  soils 
adapted  to  these  varieties  are  ideal  for 
the    Fall    Pippin. 

York  Imperial  Soils 

The  York  Imperial  is  a  leading  com- 
mercial apple  in  Central  Pennsylvania. 
Western  Maryland,  Northern  Virginia  and 
West  Virginia.  It  is  adapted  to  the  lime 
stone  soils  of  this  region,  the  Piedmont 
Plateau,  and  the  ridges.  The  "Apple  Pie 
Ridge"  soils  of  West  Virginia  are  also 
well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  this  vari- 
ety. This  soil  is  a  shale  or  soap  stone 
base,  formed  of  disintegrated  lime  stone 
and  other  mixtures.  The  Porter  loam  is 
also  good  soil  for  this  fruit. 

Grimes   Golden 

The  Grimes  is  so  similar  to  the  Rhode 
Island  Greening  in  soil  adaptation  that 
a  separate  description  of  soil  best  adapted 
to  this  variety  will  not  be  given.  Yet  it 
is  not  adapted  to  the  same  latitudes  as 
the  Greening.  It  will  succeed  best  on  a 
Greening  soil  too  far  south  for  the  Green- 
ing to  be  a  good  winter  apple.  Plant  the 
Grimes  where  the  Greening  tends  to  be- 
come a  fall  apple. 

Rome  Beanty   Soils 

In  West  Virginia  where  it  is  the  lead- 
ing commercial  variety  it  gives  excellent 
results  on  fine  sandy  loams  and  mellow 
loams  of  the  Westmoreland  and  DeKalb 
series.  In  Southern  Pennsylvania  it  does 
well  and  as  far  south  as  Alabama. 


APPLES 


89 


Sfayniaii  Wiiipsap  Soils 

This  variety  seems  to  succeed  well  on 
loams  and  heavj',  fine  sandy  loams  with 
subsoils  of  loam  or  light  clay  loam.  It 
does  well  in  parts  of  Pennsylvania,  but 
does  not  do  well  on  the  Porter's  clay 
loam  of  Porter's  clay  of  Virginia,  where 
the  Albemarl  Pippin  succeeds  so  admir- 
ably. 

Wa'/ener   Soils 

The  tree  is  weak  in  growth,  hence  a 
soil  that  is  deep,  strong,  mellow  and 
loamy,  should  be  selected.  Stiff  subsoils 
are  especially  objectionable. 

Jonathan  Soils 

The  tree  is  weak  in  growth  and  should 
be  planted  on  a  rich  deep,  mellow  soil. 

Ben  Davis  and  Gano  Soils 

These  varieties  show  less  effect  from 
variation  in  the  soils  upon  which  they 
grow  than  any  other  varieties  observed. 
There  are  differences  to  be  noted  in  the 
quality  of  the  fruit  on  account  of  the 
soil  and  climate,  yet  it  will  stand  more 
neglect  than  any  other  variety  and  still 
bear  fruit.  From  Canada  to  Alabama 
these  apples  have  numerous  advocates.  It 
seems  to  be  especially  adapted  to  the 
Ozark  region,  although  in  the  Appalachian 
region  growers  believe  they  grow  a  finer 
quality  of  Ben  Davis  than  in  the  Ozarks. 

Yellow  >'ewfown  Albemarle  Pippin  Soils 

The  Yellow  Newtown  has  always  been 
regarded  as  exacting  in  soil  requirements 
and  climatic  environments.  Great  stress 
has  been  laid  on  this  point  in  Virginia, 
where  it  has  received  the  local  name  of 
Albemarle  Pionin.  An  ideal  soil  for  this 
variety  in  Virginia  consists  of  dark 
brown,  heavy,  mellow  loam,  to  a  depth  of 
twelve  inches,  which  grows  gradually 
heavier  to  twenty-four  inches,  where  it 
becomes  a  clay  loam.  This  clay  loam, 
however,  is  not  stiff.  Heavier  soils  are 
also  adapted  to  this  variety,  if  there  is 
sufficient  vegetable  matter  to  render 
them  friable.  This  is  very  noticeable  with 
Porter's  clay.  Such  soils,  rich  in  plant 
food  and  retentive  of  moisture,  furnish 
ideal  conditions  for  this  variety,  which 
requires  a  luxuriant  growth  of  tree  to 
produce  the  crisp  grain,  and  delicate 
flavor  of  fruit,  as  well  as  profitable  yield. 


So  well  did  the  Yellow  Newtown  thrive 
in  the  protected  coves  of  the  Porter's 
series  in  Virginia,  where  the  leaves  and 
vegetable  debris  had  collected  for  so  long 
that  the  surface  material  was  black  to  a 
general  depth  of  several  inches  and  to 
a  depth  of  several  feet  in  particular  cases, 
that  it  was  only  natural  in  the  course  of 
time  for  the  idea  to  prevail  that  a  great 
accumulation  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil 
was  a  preliminary  essential  for  the  suc- 
cess of  this  variety.  But  later  investiga- 
tions have  shown  that  areas  of  Porter's 
loam  and  Porter's  clay,  not  rich  in  veg- 
etable matter  have  produced  good  re- 
sults, and  the  habit  of  growing  legumi- 
nous crops  and  the  application  of  stable 
manure,  has  proven"  to  be  as  effective  as 
the  original  black  soil.  A  good  Rhode 
Island  Greening  soil  is  also  well  adapted 
to  Newtowns. 

Wiiesap  Soils 

The  Winesap  is  a  standard  variety  in 
Virginia  and  the  Southern  Appalachians — 
an  apple  of  good  quality  that  responds 
readily  to  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and 
treatment  and  also  brings  surprisingly 
good  returns  under  neglect.  The  soil 
need  not  be  as  rich  as  for  the  Yellow 
Newtown  because  the  presence  of  too 
much  organic  matter  detracts  from  the 
color,  yet  the  tendency  of  this  variety  to 
produce  fruit  under  size  makes  desirable 
a  soil  as  rich  as  may  be  without  affecting 
the  color.  The  Porter's  loam  produces 
apples  of  this  variety  of  very  fine  quality. 
In  the  Valley  of  Virginia  the  Haggers- 
town  loam,  on  the  Peidmont  Plain  the 
Cecil  loam,  and  the  limestone  soils,  are 
now  producing  good  Winesaps.  In  the 
southern  end  of  the  Appalachians  in 
Northern  Alabama,  the  Clarksville  loam 
is  well  adapted  to  this  variety. 

SELECTIXG  THE  LAND 

In  buying  land  the  fruit  grower  should 
remember  that  he  is  buying  its  fertility, 
or  its  power  to  produce  crops.  He  is 
buying  not  only  crude  earth,  but  all  the 
forces  above  the  soil  as  well  as  in  it,  that 
are  needed  to  transform  the  crude  ele- 
ments into  fruit.  He  should  consider, 
therefore:  First,  the  atmospheric  condi- 
tions (elevation,  exposure,  etc.);  and,  sec- 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


ond,  the  conditions  pertaining  to  the  soil 
(its  supply  of  available  plant  food,  its  phys- 
ical condition,  its  depth,  its  drainage  fa- 
cilities and  its  general  adaptability  to 
apple  growing).  These  matters  should  be 
considered,  also,  in  respect  to  the  adapta- 
bility of  any  particular  field  to  the  purpose 
intended. 

In  Connecticut  the  fruit  grower  or 
prospective  fruit  grower  may  choose  be- 
tween the  improved  land  that  may  often 
be  purchased  for  from  $40  to  $60  per 
acre,  and  the  rough  unimproved  land  at 
from  $5  to  $40  per  acre.  The  higher  priced 
land  is  often  cheaper  in  the  end,  for  the 
work  of  clearing  in  most  cases  is  an  ex- 
pensive and  uncertain  undertaking.  The 
rough  "sprout"  land  that  is  being  used  by 
some  of  the  prominent  fruit  growers  of  the 
state  has  proved  to  be  not  only  very  dif- 
ficult to  subdue,  but  very  costly  to  man- 
age for  a  number  of  years.  The  extra 
expense  in  clearing  and  in  subsequent 
tillage  of  such  land  may  often  greatly 
exceed  the  original  saving  in  buying  the 
lower-priced  land.  Inquiry  from  those 
who  have  had  most  experience  reveals 
the  fact  that  it  is  impossible  to  set  any 
definite  figure  as  to  the  probable  cost  of 
preparing  rough  land  for  fruit  growing.  * 

Subsoil 

The  ideal  soil  for  an  apple  orchard  is 
probably  a  heavy  sandy  or  gravelly  loam 
with  a  gravelly  subsoil.  The  character 
of  the  subsoil  is  probably  of  greater  im- 
portance than  the  surface  soil.  A  grav- 
elly subsoil  insures  better  drainage  and 
this  is  of  the  first  importance,  for  an 
apple  tree  must  have  air  around  its  roots 
as  well  as  among  its  branches.  The  ap- 
ple will  thrive  well  on  the  lighter  soils, 
but  such  soils  require  more  careful  treat- 
ment to  maintain  the  necessary  supply 
of  humus  and  plant  food.  Some  careful 
growers  prefer  a  sandy  loam  for  apples, 
for  they  believe  that  it  produces  fruit  of 
better  color.  While  some  soils  are  more 
suitable  than  others,  almost  any  soil,  if 
properly  treated,  will  produce  apples  suc- 
cessfully. 

C.  D.  Jarvis, 
Storrs,  Conn. 


•  See  Storrs'  Bulletin  61.  p.  73,  1910.     "Cost 
of  Clearing  Rough  Land." 


Clay  Loam 

Three  chief  factors  enter  into  the  se- 
lection of  the  site  for  an  orchard:  Soil, 
elevation  and  exposure.  Of  these  the  soil 
is  most  important  for  even  though  the 
elevation  and  exposure  be  perfect,  it  the 
soil  is  unfavorable,  the  orchard  will  be  a 
failure. 

Clay  loam  soil  is  best  for  apple  grow- 
ing. In  the  past  the  tendency  has  been 
to  select  rather  heavy  clay  loam  or  clay 
soils  for  apple  culture.  Less  heavy  clay 
loams  and  even  soils  tending  towards  a 
gravelly  nature  seem  to  give  better  re- 
sults in  Wisconsin.  Heavj'  clays  are 
much  more  difiicult  to  handle,  have  a  tend- 
ency to  carry  the  wood  growth  too  late 
into  the  summer,  and  do  not  give  as  good 
color  to  the  fruit  as  do  the  somewhat 
lighter  soils.  Both  late  growth  and  low 
color  are  objectionable,  and  for  these  rea- 
sons heavy  clays  should  be  avoided  where 
more  suitable  soils  are  available.  It  is 
not  to  be  understood  that  light  or  sandy 
soils  are  preferred  for  apple  growing. 

Depth  and  Snbsoil 

The  depth  of  soil  best  suited  for  apple 
culture  depends  very  largely  upon  the 
character  of  the  subsoil.  With  a  suitable 
subsoil  very  little  surface  soil  is  necessary 
for  success.  Good  results  are  being  ob- 
tained where  there  are  but  two  or  three 
feet  of  surface  soil  underlaid  by  a  suitable 
subsoil. 

Limestone  Snbsoil 

Pervious  limestone  subsoil  is  preferred. 
This  type  of  subsoil  permits  the  roots  to 
work  deeply  into  it,  producing  trees  with 
extensive  root  systems.  The  limestone 
also  aids  in  the  production  of  high  color 
which  is  so  essential  in  a  good  market 
fruit.  It  is  at  least  partially  due  to  this 
fact  that  the  apples  produced  in  the  Door 
peninsula  are  so  highly  colored.  A  grav- 
elly subsoil  would  be  second  choice  in  se- 
lecting an  orchard  site.  Impervious  sub- 
soils are  to  be  avoided,  especially  it  they 
come  close  to  the  surface.  Such  a  sub- 
soil hinders  deep  rooting  and  not  infre- 
quently brings  the  water  table  so  close  to 
the  surface  that  the  root  system  is  con- 
fined to  a  shallow  layer  just  under  the 
surface.     An   orchard  planted   on  such  a 


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91 


soil  is  sure  to  be  a  failure  unless  the 
subsoil  be  broken  up  and  the  water  table 
lowered  by   drainage. 

J.  G.  Moore, 
Madison.  Wis. 

Apples  Thrire  on  Many   Soils 

Apple  trees  will  thrive  and  do  well  on 
almost  any  soil  which  is  well  prepared, 
but  the  different  kinds  of  soil  may  require 
different  treatment  and  after  care. 

Loamy  Soil 

A  loamy  soil  is  naturally  rich  in  plant 
food;  hence  it  will  need  little,  if  any,  ma- 
nuring in  its  preparation.  But  it  should 
be  deeply  stirred  and  thoroughly  broken 
up  by  subsoiling.  This  loamy  soil  is  what 
may  be  termed  free  soil,  as  it  seldom  be- 
comes compacted,  even  by  abusive  treat- 
ment 

Clay  Soil 

A  clay  soil  is  the  most  difficult  to  pre- 
pare, and  often  requires  manuring,  as  well 
as  thorough  i)lowing.  replowing.  and  sub- 
soiling.  It  should  also  be  frequently 
stirred  during  the  summer  months,  and  es- 
pecially as  soon  after  each  rainfall  as  is 
practicable,  to  prevent  it  from  baking  and 
becoming  compacted.  This  becomes  even 
more  important  in  seasons  of  long 
droughts. 

Sandy  Soil 

Sandy  soils  are  generally  lacking  in 
the  necessary  plant  food.  They  also  have 
the  objection  of  losing  such  fertilizers  as 
may  be  added  by  the  leaching  effect  of  the 
rainfall. 

Effects  of  SeTeral  Soils 

The  wood  growth  on  loamy  soils  will 
be  strong  and  vigorous,  but  may  not  be 
sufficiently  mature  to  withstand  the  freez- 
ing of  the  more  rigorous  winters.  Clay 
lands  are  not  apt  to  produce  such  vigorous 
growth,  and  orchard  trees  on  such  lands 
will  be  hardier  as  to  winterkilling  than 
on  most  other  soils.  With  a  free  subsoil 
underlying  it,  a  loamy  clay  soil  will  prob- 
ably yield  the  best  results,  especially  if  it 
be  well  prepared  by  thorough  culture  and 
subsoiling  before  planting  the  trees.  Tim- 
ber lands,  or  lands  on  which  forests  have 
formerly  grown,  if  having  the  proper  ex- 
posure and   drainage,   are  preferable   for 


orchard  sites.  Such  lands  contain  all  the 
elements  of  plant  food  necessary  to  insure 
a  good  and  sufficient  wood  growth  and 
fruitfulness.  Fruit  grown  on  such  lands 
will  rank  first  class  in  size,  quantity,  and 
appearance.  q.  b.  Brackett, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Loam 

If  the  extremely  light  sandy  soils  and 
the  very  stiff  clay  and  adobe  soils  are 
eliminated,  apples  will  grow  well  upon 
the  soils  intermediate  between  the  two, 
providing,  of  course,  that  such  soils  are 
free  from  excess  of  alkali  and  are  put  in 
good  physical  condition. 

The  best  soils  for  commercial  apple 
production  are  moist,  well  drained,  deep 
rich  loam,  derived  from  limestone  or 
granite  or  volcanic  ash,  in  which  is  found 
a  considerable  quantity  of  decayed  veg- 
etable matter  or  humus.  There  is  a  dif- 
ference in  the  adaptability  of  apples  to 
different  soils,  as,  for  instance,  the  Yel- 
low Bellflower  thrives  best  upon  a  rather 
light  soil,  while  the  Yellow  Newtown 
Pippin  seems  to  grow  best  in  heavier 
ground.  The  adaptability  of  apples  to 
particular  soils  can  be  determined  only 
by   experiment  and   observation. 

R.   W.   Fisher, 
Bozeman,    Mont. 

Ohio   Soils 

Admitting  the  truth  that  apples  are 
being  successfully  grown,  in  some  parts 
of  Ohio,  on  soil  so  poor  that  it  would 
not  produce  ten  bushels  of  corn  per  acre, 
it  is  at  the  same  time  true  that  in  order 
to  secure  healthy,  vigorous,  well-grown 
trees,  which  will  devote  a  long  life  to  gen- 
erous fruit-bearing,  there  must  be  in  the 
soil  those  elements  which  constitute  fer- 
tility and  good  physical  character.  These 
elements,  of  which  there  are  three  more 
important,  are  both  mineral  and  vege- 
table. Potassium  and  phosphorus  are  of 
mineral  origin,  while  nitrogen  is  derived 
from  the  growth,  breaking  down  and  de- 
cay of  vegetation  especially  that  class  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  family  of  legumes 
— the  clovers,  peas,  vetches,  etc. 

Abundant  decayed  and  decaying  veg- 
etable matter,  within  or  upon  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  is  very  desirable  aside  from 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICL-LTURE 


the  direct  bearing  it  will  have  upon  the 
nitrogen  supply.  A  soil  filled  or  covered 
with  humus  or  vegetable  fiber  readily 
absorbs  and  retains  a  vastly  greater 
amount  of  water  than  a  soil  depleted  of 
its  humus  by  frequent  and  injudicious 
cropping  or  cultivation.  The  humus  also 
acts  as  an  effective  medium  of  insulation 
against  extremes  of  cold  and  heat. 
F.  H.  Ballou, 
Wooster.   Ohio. 

Forest  Soil  in  Idaho 

Soils  from  which  native  forests  have 
been  cleared  are  best  adapted  to  growing 
the  apple.  These  are  in  good  physical 
condition  so  that  ample  surface  drainage 
and  subdrainage  are  supplied;  besides 
they  have  a  plentiful  supply  of  plant  food 
which  is  essential  to  a  healthy  wood 
growth  and  a  finely  developed,  well  ma- 
tured crop  of  fruit.  It  has  been  repeatedly 
noted  that  fruit  from  such  soils  reach 
the  highest  degree  of  perfection  both  from 
point  of  quality  and  color.  However,  soils 
which  may  be  brought  to  a  state  similar 
to  that  found  on  old  forest  sites,  may  be 
regarded  as  being  well  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  the  apple. 

Medium  clay  loams  adapt  themselves 
admirably  to  the  apple,  and  if  these  pos- 
sess, or  are  made  to  possess,  the  follow- 
ing requisites,  orchards  may  be  planted 
upon  them  successfully.  These  impor- 
tant requisites  are:  Good  water  drainage, 
good  texture  and  sufficient  richness  in 
plant  food. 

Where  good  natural  drainage  is  not 
found,  tile  drainage  should  be  provided, 
because  apple  trees  will  not  endure  'wet 
feet.'  The  phrase,  'good  texture,'  means 
that  a  soil  possessing  this  characteristic 
will  work  up  loose  and  mellow  without 
being  hard  and  lumpy.  Such  soils  are 
easily  worked  and  hold  plenty  of  moist- 
ure. Most  of  the  good  orchard  sites  in 
Idaho  are  sufficiently  rich  in  plant  food, 
60  there  is  no  direct  need  of  applying 
plant  food  at  the  time  of  planting. 

J.  R.  Shinn, 
Moscow,    Idaho. 

Jforth   Carolina  Soils 

WTiere  virgin  soil  from  the  forest 
cannot  be  obtained  for  orchard  planting. 


only  rich  land  should  be  used.  As  an 
orchard  will  occupy  the  ground  for  many 
years,  very  thorough  preparation  should 
be  given  the  soil  before  planting  the 
trees.  Never  set  trees  on  poor  or  dry 
land,  for  if  they  do  start  they  are  so 
stunted  that  it  is  next  to  impossible  to 
ever  get  them  to  make  a  satisfactory 
orchard.  Land  kept  in  good  tilth  and 
used  for  cultivated  crops  can  be  expected 
to  give  reasonably  good  results  in  start- 
ing and  growing  orchard  trees.  Lands 
used  for  grain  crops  should  be  shunned 
for  orchard  work,  as  they  are  almost  cer- 
tain to  be  of  the  dryest  and  poorest  char- 
acter. Old  pasture  lands  are  very  poor 
for  tree  culture.  They  may  be  fairly  rich 
from  the  droppings  of  the  stock,  but  the 
humus  in  them  is  ruined  by  trampling 
and  their  mechanical  texture  is  at  its 
very  worst.  A  good  previous  crop  is  a 
heavy  growth  of  some  kind  of  leguminous 
plant.  This  crop  should  be  plowed  down 
to  furnish  humus  for  the  trees.  It  is 
more  or  less  difficult  and  expensive  to 
improve  land  after  trees  are  planted;  so 
It  is  best  to  spare  no  pains  on  previous 
preparation.  Preparatory  to  setting  the 
trees  the  soil  should  be  deeply  plowed. 
Clean  surface  cultivation  should  be  given 
to  conserve  moisture.  A  liberal  dressing 
of  manure  is  always  beneficial.  The  man- 
ure should  never  be  put  in  the  holes  in 
which  the  trees  are  planted,  but  it  should 
be  incorporated  in  the  soil  by  general 
cultivation. 

Stnmpy  Land 

It  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  a 
virgin  soil  should  be  cleared  of  stumps 
and  stones  before  planting  the  orchard 
trees.  Unless  a  stump  is  actually  in  the 
place  where  a  tree  should  be  set,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  go  to  the  trouble  and  ex- 
pense of  having  it  removed.  It  is  much 
cheaper  to  let  stumps  rot  out  gradually, 
and  while  they  are  doing  so  they  are 
supplying  humus  to  the  growing  fruit 
trees. 

Stony  Land 

Stony  land  is  not  at  all  objectionable 
for  commercial  orcharding.  On  steep  lo- 
cations they  help  very  greatly  to  hold  the 
rich  soil  from  being  washed  away.  It  is 
probably    for    this    very    reason    that    in 


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many  mountain  orchards  the  stony  soils 
produce  the  best  trees.  Loose  stones  may 
be  placed  to  form  shelf  terraces  between 
each  two  rows  of  trees.  Unless  the  soil 
is  very  thin,  stones  may  be  considered  as 
a  benefit  rather  than  otherwise,  because 
of  the  value  they  have  to  the  land  in 
assisting  drainage  and  in  protecting  soil 
moisture.  It  is  noticeable  that  fruit  trees 
near  rock  piles  or  stone  fences  suffer 
little  from  drought. 

Clay  Land 

Apple  trees  will  grow  on  a  great  va- 
riety of  soils,  but  they  feel  most  at  home 
and  give  their  best  results  on  deep,  rich 
clays  and  loams.  Why  they  prefer  these 
soils  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  apple 
trees  seem  to  be  suited  to  clays  just  as 
cacti  are  to  desert  sands.  The  early  or 
summer  apples  do  well  on  light  or  sandy 
soils  because  they  ripen  their  crop  before 
the  hot  season,  when  moisture  is  scarc- 
est. Late  fall  or  winter  varieties,  which 
have  to  develop  their  fruit  in  the  hot 
summer,  when  moisture  is  hardest  to 
get,  must  have  a  soil  that  is  retentive 
of  moisture.  Muck  soils  are  rich  and 
contain  abundant  moisture,  but  they  pro- 
duce large,  rank-growing  trees  with  ten- 
der terminals  that  produce  poor  fruit. 

Kich    Soil 

Apple  soils  should  be  rich  and  they 
should  not  be  called  upon  to  produce  any- 
thing but  apples.  It  takes  a  great  deal 
of  fertility  in  the  land  to  produce  the 
wood  of  the  trees  on  an  acre  of  orchard. 
The  fertility  that  produces  the  fruit  Is 
over  and  above  that  required  to  grow  the 
trees.  There  are  few  crops  so  exhaustive 
on  land  as  a  crop  of  nursery  stock,  and 
no  tillers  of  the  soil  know  so  well  how  to 
fertilize  the  soil  as  do  nurserymen.  If 
trees  continued  to  grow  in  the  orchard 
with  the  vigor  they  are  made  to  do  in 
the  nursery  there  would  be  a  thousand- 
fold greater  returns  from  the  orchard 
than  there  are  today.  From  my  experi- 
ence and  observation  in  horticulture,  I 
think  it  safe  to  say  that  75  per  cent  of 
all  the  trees  that  leave  nurseries  die  of 
starvation  before  they  come  to  usefulness. 
Soil  poverty  destroys  more  trees  than 
all     the     pests     and     plagues     put     to- 


gether. A  soil  cropped  to  death  with 
corn  or  cotton  or  tramped  hard  by  the 
feet  of  stock  is  a  certain  burying  ground 
for  the  tender  and  well-favored  tree  from 
the  fertile  soil  of  a  nursery.  The  reason 
timber  trees  grow  so  well  in  their  native 
forests  is  that  the  fertile,  spongy  mould 
of  the  forest  floor  affords  an  ideal  home 
for  the  little  seedlings  till  they  get  big 
enough  to  fend  for  themselves.  Soil  for 
orchards  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible 
like  nature's  model  forest  soil.  Indeed, 
the  best  soils  for  fruit  trees  are  those 
just  vacated  by  the  forest  primeval  and 
occupied  by  the  orchard  before  they  can 
be  pre-empted  by  any  other  agricultural 
tenant.  Mountain  coves  are  ideal  for 
orchards. 

W.   N.    HUTT, 
Raleigh,    N.    C. 

New  York  Soils 

The  apple  will  grow  in  a  variety  of 
soils.  Even  on  a  poor  soil  it  will  struggle 
to  maintain  its  life  and  to  reproduce 
through  its  fruit,  as  reproduction  is  the 
real  object  of  all  life,  animal  and  vege- 
table. There  are,  however,  certain  kinds 
of  soils  that  are  much  better  adapted  to 
the  development  of  apple  trees  than  oth- 
ers. A  soil  that  contains  a  certain  amount 
of  clay  in  its  composition  is  excellent. 
Trees  will  grow  in  a  stiff  clay,  but  such 
soil  is  often  over-saturated  with  water 
and  trees  will  not  do  their  best  with 
too  much  water  about  their  roots.  Air, 
which  is  necessary  for  the  roots  of  trees 
and  for  all  plants,  is  frequently  shut  out 
by  the  water  in  clay  soil.  Such  soil 
snould  be  well  underdrained  before  trees 
are  planted  in  it. 

Clay  and  Sand 

A  soil  that  is  made  up  of  a  mixture 
of  clay  and  sand,  and  is  known  as  a  clay 
loam,  is  excellent  for  apple  trees. 

Trees  will  grow  in  a  sandy  soil,  but 
they  will  not  grow  so  large,  neither  will 
they  produce  so  much  fruit.  The  trees 
and  the  fruit  on  sandy  soil  are  more 
subject  to  insect  attack,  for  insects 
thrive  better  in  a  dry  soil  than  in  one 
that  holds  water  for  a  long  time. 

There  are,  however,  variations  in 
sandy   soils   that   produce   not   only   good 


94 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


trees  but  an  abundance  of  excellent  and 
beautiful   fruit. 

The  subsoil  is  an  important  factor  in 
the  planting  of  trees,  and  its  quality  and 
character  should  be  understood.  It  is 
closer  and  more  firm  than  the  top  soil, 
and  retains  moisture  longer,  but  it  may 
be  made  up  of  such  fine  particles  of  clay 
and  with  so  little  vegetable  matter  in  it 
as  to  be  impervious  to  water,  and  this 
constitutes  what  is  known  as  hard  pan, 
and  if  this  lies  up  to  within  a  foot  of  the 
top  soil,  trees  will  not  thrive  in  it.  neither 
will  they  produce  much  or  good  fruit. 

Such  formation  near  the  surface  pre- 
vents the  water  in  the  soil  below  from 
rising  to  supply  the  needs  of  vegetation, 
through  long  periods  of  drought.  Where 
a  hard  pan  formation  may  exist  from 
six  to  ten  feet  below  the  surface,  it  is  of 
great  value,  for  there  a  certain  moisture 
supply  is  assured  through  dry  seasons, 
especially  where  frequent  cultivation  is 
given  to  the  surface  soil. 

Hox.   Geo.  T.  Powell, 

President      Agricultural     Experts      Association, 
New    York. 

New  Mexico  Soils 

In  many  of  the  old  treatises  on  apple 
culture  we  find  it  stated  that  the  apple 
prefers  a  heavy  soil.  The  more  recent  au- 
thorities on  the  subject  modify  this  state- 
ment by  saying  that  it  is  quite  cosmopoli- 
tan in  its  adaptability  to  soil.  In  New 
Mexico  a  heavy  or  an  adobe  soil,  as  found 
in  some  of  the  valley  lands,  is  not  so 
suitable  for  apple  trees  as  a  good,  strong 
and  deep  loamy  soil  with  a  stratum  of 
heavy  clay  underlying  it.  A  heavy  soil 
of  one  or  two  feet  in  depth  underlaid  by 
sand  or  gravel  is  not  good  for  apple  trees. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  soil  ranging  from 
five  to  seven  or  more  feet  in  depth  of  a 
good,  strong,  loamy  character  and  under- 
laid by  a  heavy  adobe  stratum  is  an 
ideal  location, 

Fabian   Gaecia, 
Santa   Fe,   N.   M. 

Upland  Soil 

Upland  timber  soil,  particularly  that 
known  .  as  "White  Oak  Soil,"  Is  well 
adapted  for  orcharding.  Loess  soil  is  good 
also,  as  the  roots  can  penetrate  it  readily. 


Black  prairie  soils  are  often  very  rich  in 
nitrogen,  which  causes  an  excess  of  leaf 
and  wood  growth  late  in  the  season.  This 
lessens  the  production  of  fruit  buds  and 
makes  the  tree  more  liable  to  winter  in- 
jury. 

A.  T.  Ervvin, 
G.  R.  Bliss, 

Ames.    Iowa. 

Oregon  Soils 

Upon  this  very  important  phase  of  or- 
chard-making, all  authorities  are  practi- 
cally agreed.  From  the  old  orchards,  and 
especially  the  old  trees  of  both  Europe 
and  America,  the  West  and  East,  the 
same  lessons  are  learned.  With  one  ac- 
cord these  trees,  though  separated  by 
leagues  of  land  and  water,  proclaim  the 
creed  of  the  apple  tree — complete  air  and 
water  drainage,  and  a  deep,  loamy  soil. 

Speaking  upon  this  topic  about  200 
years  ago.  Miller,  an  English  authority, 
said: 

A  gentle  hazel  loam,  which  is  easy  to 
work  and  does  not  retain  the  wet,  is  the 
best.  Although  these  trees  will  grow 
on  very  strong  land  they  are  seldom  so 
thriving,  nor  is  the  fruit  so  well  flavored 
as  upon  trees  grown  on  a  gentle  soil.  Dry, 
sandy,  or  gravelly  soils  are  wholly  unfit 
for  the  apple  tree. 

Delaville,*  writing  upon  the  subject  of 
soils  suitable  to  fruit  culture  in  France, 
says: 

A  good  soil  for  all  fruit  trees  is  com- 
posed of  equal  parts  of  sand,  clay,  and 
lime. 

Baltet,**  a  popular  French  horticultural 
writer,  in  discussing  the  subject  of  soils 
desirable  for  the  apple,  remarks  that: 

A  wheat  soil  is  the  soil  for  the  apple 
tree  when  grown  as  a  standard. 

The  importance  of  thorough  drainage 
in  connection  with  a  good  soil  is  em- 
phasized by  the  same  author  in  these 
words: 

The  fruit  of  the  apple  is  largest  in  the 
humid  valleys,  but  best  flavored  on  the 
hills  and  dry  table  lands,  the  excess  of 
humidity,  as  the  need  of  free  air,  inducing 
canker  and  favoring  the  aphis. 

*  Cours  Practique  D'Arboriculture  Fruitiere, 
1897. 

••  Tiaite  de  la  Culture  Fruitiere.   1900. 


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95 


Nanot,***  in  his  treatise  upon  tlie  cider 
apple,  thus  speaks  of  the  soil  as  bearing 
upon  this  fruit: 

The  apple  is  not  very  particular  as  to 
the  nature  of  the  soil;  it  neither  dislikes 
very  clayey,  very  limey,  nor  very  sandy 
soils,  but  the  best  flavored  and  longest 
keeping  fruits  come  from  trees  grown  on 
clay  loam. 

Dr.  L.  H.  Bailey,***  speaking  of  apple 
growing  in  the  Eastern  United  States, 
says: 

As  a  rule,  rather  light  or  loamy  soils, 
with  deep  and  porous  subsoils,  are  best 
adapted  to  apple  growing.  Natural  drain- 
age is  imperative.  Apple  trees  are  Im- 
patient of  wet  feet. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Oregon  State  Hor- 
ticultural Society,  held  in  Newberg  in 
1901,  E.  L.  Smith  made  the  following 
statements  while  speaking  briefly  of  the 
apple: 

Apples  grown  on  sandy  soil  will  weigh 
much  less  per  bushel  than  those  grown  on 
clay  or  clayey  soils,  other  conditions  be- 
ing equal.  Apples  to  be  long  keepers 
must  be  grown  on  soil  having  some  clay. 

In  reply  to  a  question  relative  to  this 
point.  Col.  G.  B.  Brackett,  the  pomologist 
of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
writes  (1904):  "I  know  of  no  experiments 
along  this  line,  but  I  am  inclined  to  think 
that  apples  grown  upon  clay  loam,  other 
conditions  being  equal,  would  be  some- 
what heavier  than  those  grown  upon 
light,  sandy  soil.  I  know  that  apples  that 
are  grown  on  heavy  clay  soil  are  apt  to 
keep  better  than  those  grown  upon  light, 
sandy,  porous  soil.  Of  course,  keeping 
qualities  depend  somewhat  upon  latitude, 
and  also  upon  the  elevation  at  which  they 
are  grown." 

From  somewhat  extended  general  ob- 
servations in  the  apple  orchards  of  West- 
ern Oregon  during  the  past  decade  or 
more,  I  am  convinced  that  much  of  our 
soil  is  admirably  suited  to  the  apple  tree. 
The  land  upon  which  the  Douglas  fir 
thrives,  when  not  too  steep  and  rocky,  is 
usually  well  adapted  to  the  culture  of 
this  fruit.    The  alluvial  soils  of  the  minor 

••*  Le  Culture  du  Pomme  a  Cidre,  1895. 
•  •••  Field   Notes    on    Apple   Culture,    1893. 


valleys  \vhen  of  a  depth  of  eight  to  twelve 
feet  or  more  produce  thrifty,  vigorous, 
long-lived  trees.  Some  of  the  best  old 
orchards  in  the  state  are  located  upon 
the  gentle  rolling  lower  hill  lands  of  Yam- 
hill county,  while  some  of  the  cleanest 
and  thriftiest  of  the  younger  generation 
orchards  are  to  be  found  on  the  red  hill 
lands  of  Polk  and  Marion  counties.  In 
the  selection  of  a  site  on  the  higher  ele- 
vations, or  even  upon  the  lower  hill  lands, 
care  must  be  exercised  to  the  end  that 
shallow  soils  may  be  avoided.  Streaks, 
patches,  or  larger  areas  of  these  lands 
are  occasionally  underlaid  at  a  depth  of 
a  few  feet  by  strata  of  impervious  rock. 
Such  sites  are  wholly  unfit  for  orchards. 
Only  a  close  and  thoughtful  inspection  of 
hill  land  tracts  will  enable  one  to  avoid 
setting  trees  on  soil  too  shallow  for  the 
successful  growth  of  long-lived  and  fruit- 
ful trees. 

Many  excellent  small  orchards  are  to 
be  found  upon  the  river  bottom  lands  in 
all  parts  of  the  Willamette  valley.  While 
these  latter  sites  are  well  suited  to  the 
growth  of  the  apple  tree,  it  is  probable 
that  better  returns  horticulturally  may 
be  obtained  by  the  cultivation  upon  such 
sites  of  the  smaller  fruits  and  the  choicer 
vegetables,  especially  when  nearby  mar- 
kets are  reasonably  good.  The  latter 
crops  cannot  be  grown  upon  the  higher 
lands  with  the  same  degree  of  success  as 
attend  their  culture  upon  the  river  bot- 
toms, while  with  the  apple  there  is  no 
apparent  difference  save,  perhaps,  in  the 
degree  of  earliness  with  which  the  trees 
begin  to  bear  profitable  crops. 

Generally  speaking,  orchards  upon  bot- 
tom lands  will  begin  to  bear  from  one  to 
three  years  later  than  those  upon  the 
higher  lands.  There  are  well  known  in- 
stances in  which  trees  planted  upon  river 
bottom  land,  as  a  result  of  an  abundance 
of  water,  have  extended  their  vegetative 
period  three  to  four  years  beyond  the 
normal  period  of  the  same  varieties  when 
grown  upon  correspondingly  good  upland 
sites.  The  economics  of  horticulture 
would  appear  to  point  toward  the  uplands 
as  affording  the  more  promising  sites  for 
the  apple  orchard,  since  the  value  of  such 
lands  will  not  increase  as  fast  as  that  of 


96 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the  more  restricted  tracts  of  suitable  river 
bottom  soils. 

E.  R.  Lake, 

Oi-egcn    State    Board    Horticulture,    1911. 

See  also  article  on  "Adaptation  of  Va- 

METIKS    TO    E.WIRON'JIENTS." 

Volcanic  Ash  and  Apple  Culture 

The  question  is  often  asked,  "Why  is 
the  Pacific  Northwest  becoming  so  famous 
for  the  production  of  apples?"  There  are 
three  general  answers  to  that  question. 
The  first  is  that  the  latitude  is  in  the 
great  apple  producing  belt  of  the  world. 
Even  where  the  latitude  would  seem  not 
to  be  far  enough  north  the  altitude  of 
the  hills  and  mountain  ranges  often  com- 
pensates for  the  distance  south,  and  gives 
cool  nights,  and  a  temperature  favorable 
for  the  growing  of  the  best  fruits. 

Second,  in  a  large  part  of  this  country 
there  is  during  the  day  a  bright  sunshine 
and  at  night  a  cool  air,  both  of  which  tend 
to  give  color  and  flavor  to  the  apple. 

Third,  the  character  of  the  volcanic 
ash  soil,  of  which  a  large  portion  of  this 
region  is  built,  is  favorable  for  the  growth 
of  the  apple  tree  and  its  fruits. 

The  following  are  the  principal  soil 
elements  necessary  to  the  growth  of  the 
apple  tree: 

1.  Nitrogen.  2.  Salts  of  lime.  3.  Salts 
of  potash.  4.  Salts  of  phosphorus.  5. 
Salts  of  iron. 

In  the  arid  regions  the  soil  is  rich  in 
mineral  substances,  because  the  volcanic 
ash,  rich  in  these  elements,  has  never 
been  leached  by  heavy  rains.  This  soil 
may  be  improved  by  the  addition  of  barn- 
yard manure  or  the  growing  of  cover 
crops  like  clover,  alfalfa,  or  vetch,  to 
supply  humus  and  nitrogen.  In  the  hu- 
mid regions  where  the  rains  of  centuries 
have  leached  the  soil  and  where  there  is 
a  large  vegetable  growth  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  supply  mineral  fertilizers. 
However,  the  general  character  of  the 
soil  in  the  inland  region  is  volcanic  ash. 
rich  in  lime,  potash,  phosphorus  and  iron. 

Further,  there  are  numerous  valleys, 
with  good  drainage  systems  that  are  pro- 
tected from  heavy  winds  by  hills  or  moun- 
tain ranges,  and  in  these  valleys  orchards 
can  be  successfully   grown  without  dam- 


age to  the  fruit  from  storms.  In  these 
valleys  irrigation  is  successfully  carried 
on  and  the  melting  snows  in  the  moun- 
tains furnish  abundant  water  . 

In  the  bottoms  the  soil  is  sometimes  a 
deposit  of  sand,  gravel,  and  wash  from 
the  hill  sides,  favorable  for  the  deep  root- 
ing of  trees.  On  the  uplands  it  is  gener- 
ally a  fine  ashy  substance,  into  which 
the  roots  may  penetrate  to  considerable 
depth.  In  places  the  wind  has  carried 
it  tor  ages,  and  deposited  it  in  coves,  shel- 
tered places,  and  behind  the  hills,  so  that 
it  may  be  under  such  conditions,  50  to  100 
feet  deep.  However,  in  such  deposits  the 
tendency  is,  under  irrigation,  for  the  soil 
to  puddle  and  become  impervious  to  the 
water,  which  prevents  aeration,  and  the 
percolation  of  water  to  a  depth  sufficient 
for  the  root  development  of  the  large 
trees.  In  such  a  case  the  best  remedy 
is  the  growing  of  alfalfa,  with  its  strong 
root  system,  which  penetrates  below  the 
puddled  stratum,  lets  the  water  down, 
aerates  and  nitrogenizes  the  soil  and 
opens  up  a  new  world  of  food  for  the 
roots  of  the  trees.  In  some  places  there 
are  strata  of  hard  pan,  which  must  be 
broken  up  with  dynamite;  but  in  general 
a  volcanic  ash  region  is  a  region  most 
favorable  for  the  growing  of  apples. 

Granville  Lowther 

WEATHER  CONDITIONS 

The  liability  to  frost  is  one  of  the 
things  that  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  se- 
lecting the  most  favorable  site  for  an 
orchard.  Reference  is  made  in  the  article 
on  frosts  to  the  Thermal  Belt  where  there 
is  not  likely  to  be  injurious  frosts  during 
the  seasons  of  blooming  and  fruiting.  (See 
Frost.)  In  this  connection  we  would  say 
that  there  are  three  natural  conditions 
that  protect  from  frost.  The  first  is  ele- 
vation; the  second,  air  currents;  and  the 
third  is  the  modification  of  temperature 
by  the  warmer  atmosphere  from  large 
bodies  of  water. 

Elevation 

By  elevation,  we  do  not  mean  the  dis- 
tance above  the  level  of  the  sea,  but  rel- 
ative distance  above  the  surrounding 
country.  For  instance,  if  the  general 
level  of  a  particular  portion  of  the  country 


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Mosier  Hills.      Rolling  Country  Like  This  Is  Excellent  for  Orchards. 


is  1,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  just  above 
that  is  a  level  100  feet  higher,  the  1,100 
foot  elevation  would  be  a  situation  that 
would  furnish  air  drainage,  because  of 
the  lower  levels  that  surround  it,  and  into 
which  the  cold  air  tends  to  settle.  How- 
ever, if  a  certain  portion  of  the  same 
country  rose  to  an  altitude  of  1,200  feet 
and  stretched  out  as  a  broad  plateau  in 
which  there  was  a  basin  100  feet  deep, 
the  land  in  the  basin,  though  on  the  same 
level  as  the  land  at  1,100  foot  elevation 
and  100  feet  higher  than  the  general 
level  adjacent  to  it,  would  be  in  danger 
of  frost  because  it  was  surrounded  by 
higher  lands  which  prevented  air  drain- 
age. 

Valleys 

Valleys  are  not  objectionable  if  they  are 
so  situated  that  the  air  currents  are  not 
obstructed.  However,  if  there  are  sud- 
den changes  of  direction  so  that  the  drift 
of  the  current  would  strike  a  hillside  in- 
stead of  continuing  its  course  down  the 
valley,  the  land  in  the  valley  would  be 
considered   to   be   located   in   a   basin. 

Water 

It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that 


the  temperature  in  cold  weather,  unless 
modified  by  breezes  from  large  bodies  of 
water,  is  cooler  on  the  lower  elevation 
than  on  the  higher  and  therefore  more 
likely  to  freeze.  If  a  site  is  chosen  with 
a  view  to  protection  from  frost  by  the 
warmer  temperature  from  large  bodies 
of  water,  the  direction  of  the  prevailing 
winds  should  be  considered,  so  that  the 
warmer  atmosphere  will  be  carried  across 
the  site  of  the  orchard.  If  the  winds  are 
strong,  windbreaks  may  be  necessary. 

Slope 

The  question  of  a  north  or  south  slope 
is  often  discussed.  This,  like  many  other 
questions,  must  be  determined  by  local 
conditions.  If  there  is  no  danger  of  frost 
on  either  slope  from  that  viewpoint  the 
south  slope  is  preferable  because  it  gets 
more  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  the 
soil  is  warmer,  the  trees  bloom  and  fruit 
a  little  earlier,  and  the  fruit  is  more 
highly  colored.  In  some  sections,  how- 
ever, the  early  fruiting  and  the  warm 
sunshine  are  objectionable.  If  there  is 
danger  of  frost  then  the  north  slope  is 
preferable,  from  that  viewpoint,  because 
the  orchard  will  be  a  few  days  later  In 


9S 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


blooming,  and  therefore  less  likely  to  be 
injured  by  frost.  In  regions  where  there 
is  much  freezing  and  thawing  in  winter, 
the  soil  of  the  southern  slope  is  not  gen- 
erally so  deep,  because  the  melting  snows 
of  winter  have  washed  much  of  it  away, 
whereas  on  the  northern  slope  the  snows 
have  not  melted  until  the  spring  time  and 
the  soil  is  not  disturbed.  This  process 
in  one  year  may  seem  to  be  of  little  con- 
sequence, may  not  even  be  visible  in  any 
considerable  degree:  but  in  a  thousand 
years  it  makes  a  good  deal  of  difference, 
even  in  some  cases  the  difference  of  bare 
hillsides  on  the  south  and  a  deep  soil  on 
the  north.  However,  it  must  be  observed, 
that,  other  things  being  equal— that  is, 
provided  there  is  sufficient  depth  of  soli 
on  the  south  side— the  farmers  univers- 
ally grow  larger  crops  on  that  side  of 
the  hill   than   on   the  north. 

Varieties  .Vdapted 

The  larger  varieties  of  apples  may  be 
grown  on  the  higher  levels  as  they  tend 
to  grow  smaller  in  the  rarer,  cooler  air. 
Those  that  tend  to  be  rather  too  small 
for  the  best  market  conditions  may  be 
grown  on  the  lower  levels,  as  they  will 
grow  to  be  larger  in  the  valleys. 

Apples  that  ripen  too  early  for  the 
best  markets  would  better  be  grown  on 
a  clay  soil  on  the  north  slope  of  the 
higher  elevations.  Apples  that  do  not 
ripen  early  enough  may  be  grown  in  the 
warmer  sandy  soils  or  on  the  south  slope 
of  the  lower  levels. 

GR,\Nvn,i.K  LowriiEH 

Exposures 
Exposure  of  Orchard 

This  much  discussed  question  is  not 
worthy  the  importance  given  it  in  many 
horticultural  writings,  as  questions  of 
soil  drainage,  irrigation  facilities,  tillage, 
spraying,  pruning  and  fertilizing  are 
much  more  potent  factors  in  successful 
fruit   growing. 

North   or   \ortlnvesterii   Slope 

All  other  things  being  equal,  a  northein 
or  northwestern  slope  may  prove  the  best 
for  commercial  orchards.  However,  this 
is  a  question  influenced  largely  by  local 
conditions.     The  earliest   fruits  and   veg- 


etables are  likely  to  be  secured  on  a 
southern  exposure  because  the  rays  of 
the  sun  strike  such  an  exposure  more 
directl.v.  During  very  warm  weather 
there  is  more  danger  on  such  slopes  of 
injury  from  sun-scald.  There  is  less  dan- 
ger on  a  northern  exposure  from  frosts 
because  on  such  slopes  growth  is  often 
retarded  a  week  or  ten  days  in  the 
spring  until  the  frost  period  has  passed. 
Sweet  cherries  and  other  fruit  crops  that 
are  subject  to  injury  from  spring  frosts 
are  likely  to  produce  the  best  results  on 
a  northern  slope. 

R.   W.   Fisher. 
Bozeman.   Monr. 

The  most  intelligent  and  experienced 
orchardists  differ  as  to  the  best  location 
and  exposure  of  an  orchard,  some  prefer- 
ring a  northern  slope,  others  an  eastern, 
and  yet  others  recommend  a  southern  or 
even  a  western  slope  as  best.  It  is  be- 
lived  that  the  advantages  preponderate  in 
favor  of  a  gentle  eastern  or  northeastern 
slope,  as  orchards  located  on  such  sites 
suffer  less  in  both  soil  and  tree  from  the 
effects  of  heat  and  drought.  An  orchard 
with  such  an  exposure  will  maintain  its 
vigor  and  longevity  better  than  if  inclined 
to  the  west  or  southwest.  This  is  espec- 
ially true  in  states  south  of  the  New 
England  group,  where  the  summers  are 
long,  hot,  and  dry,  and  where  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  greatest  injury  to  trees 
results  from  these  causes.  But,  as  before 
stated,  all  farms  do  not  afford  these  fa- 
vorable sites,  especially  near  the  home, 
which  is  the  most  desirable  location  for 
the  family  orchard.  Thus  the  planter 
will  often  be  forced  to  forego  such  a 
location  and  take  his  chances  where  the 
natural  conditions  are  not  so  favorable. 
If  possible,  the  site  should  be  elevated 
above  its  immediate  surroundings,  thus 
giving  a  free  circulation  of  air,  while  such 
an  elevation  will  also  be  of  great  aid  in 
guarding  against  late  spring  frosts,  so 
fatal  to  young  fruit  at  the  blooming  sea- 
son. 

G.  B.  Brac'kett. 

W.ishinsrtnn.   r>.   ("'. 

Xew  Eniiiaiid 

A  northeastern  or  eastern  exposure, 
which  is  commonly  suggested,  is  less  es- 


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99 


sential  with  the  apple  than  with  less 
hardy  fruit.  Almost  any  exposure  other 
than  a  northern  or  western  one  on  a 
steep  slope  will  serve  admirably.  More 
attention  should  be  paid  to  good  air  drain- 
age than  to  slope:  hence  an  apple  or- 
chard should  be  raised  somewhat  above 
the  adjoining  land,  at  least  on  one  side. 
Due  regard  should  be  given  to  expos 
ure  to  strong  winds.  Wind-swept  hill- 
sides or  knolls  should  be  avoided,  or.  if 
such  are  chosen,  windbreaks  should  be 
planted  at  once  on  the  sides  from  which 
blow  the  strongest  winds.  White  cedar, 
Norway  spruce,  hemlock  or  white  pine 
make  the  most  effective  hedges.  The  tree 
rows  should  be  set  far  enough  away  from 
the  hedge  to  insure  them  against  injury 
from  shading  or  from  robbery  of  plant 
food. 

William  Stuart. 

Biirlinffton.    Vt. 

Exposure  is  the  direction  of  slope  of 
the  site.  By  a  northern  exposure  is 
meant  a  site  in  which  the  general  slope 
of  the  land  is  towards  the  north.  On 
rolling  sites  it  is  impossible  to  have  all 
the  land  slope  in  the  same  direction,  but 
in  such  cases  it  is  the  general  slope 
which  is  considered.  A'o  07ie  exposure  is 
best  under  all  conditions.  As  a  rule,  in 
this  state  a  northern  or  northeastern  ex- 
posure is  preferable.  The  trees  are  slow- 
er in  coming  into  blossom  in  the  spring 
than  when  the  orchard  has  a  southerly 
exposure,  and  therefore  there  is  less  dan- 
ger from  late  spring  frosts.  Near  large 
bodies  of  water  best  results  are  secured 
by  having  the  exposure  toward  the  water. 
In  regions  of  high  winds,  much  damage 
often  results  from  fruit  being  blown  off 
and  from  rapid  evaporation  of  moisture. 
These  injuries  are  reduced  by  choosing  a 
site  which  has  an  exposure  away  from 
prevailing  winds.  Fortunately  in  most 
locations  in  Wisconsin  this  direction  will 
be  north  or  northeast,  and  thus  coincides 
w-ith  the  general  exposure. 

J.  G.  Moore. 
Madison.   Wis. 

Altitude 

The  proper  location  of  a  commercial 
apple  orchard  within  the  limits  of  Idaho 
is  no  small  task  as  there  are  many  prob- 


lems involved.  Above  all  things  in  se- 
lecting a  location  for  a  commercial  or- 
chard it  is  essential  that  a  locality  be 
chosen  where  the  elevation  permits  i)rop- 
er  maturing  of  the  apple.  In  favored 
sections  apples  are  now  grown  at  an 
elevation  of  6,000  feet,  but  it  is  rarely 
advisable  to  plant  an  orchard  above  5,000 
feet.  The  greater  percentage  of  the  profit- 
able commercial  orchards  at  the  present 
time  are  in  sections  where  the  eleva- 
tions are  below  3,000  feet.  Local  markets 
and  the  family  needs  may  be  supplied 
with  apples  grown  near  the  upper  limits 
of  elevation,  out  the  general  markets  de- 
mand such  varieties  as  are  adapted  to  re- 
gions of  lower  altitudes. 

J.  R.  Siiixx. 
Moscow.    Idalio. 

An  apple  tree,  in  its  soil  and  fertilizer 
requirements,  differs  little  from  a  forest 
tree.  The  conditions  of  soil  that  will  pro- 
due  heavy  timber  will  produce  productive 
fruit  trees.  Forest  trees  grow  naturally  on 
mountain  slopes  because  they  find  there 
a  rich  soil,  abundant  drainage  and  clear 
sunlight.  The  same  conditions  will  pro- 
duce large,  productive,  long-lived  fruit 
trees.  Where  the  natural  forest  is  taken 
off  the  mountain  .slopes  by  the  lumber- 
man a  forest  of  fruit  trees  can  profitably 
succeed  it.  Indeed,  no  cultivated  crop  so 
well  holds  sloping  lands  from  washing 
as  do  the  strong  roots  of  fruit  trees.  The 
common  agricultural  trouble  known  in 
the  South  as  "washing  of  land"  is  only 
another  name  for  uncontrolled  drainage. 
Trees,  since  they  are  perennial  in  growth 
and  have  their  roots  in  the  soil  at  all 
seasons,  are  more  useful  than  any  other 
crop  in  protecting  mountain  lands  from 
destructive  erosion.  Sloping  soils  which 
will  wash  must  necessarily  be  well 
drained.  This  is  the  foremost  reason 
why  trees  like  sloping  land  and  why 
mountain  orchards  give  better  results 
than  those  in  similarly  cool  locations,  but 
on    fiat   lands    with    the    water   table   too 

close  to  the  surface. 

W.  N.  HUTT, 

RaleiKli.  N.  C. 

Thermal  Fruit  Belts 

In  mountain  regions,  where  elevations 
are  greatest,  the  maximum  of  exemption 


100 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


from  frosts  is  experienced.  There  are 
many  places  in  our  mountains  known  as 
thermal  belts,  which  are  said  to  be  en- 
tirely free  from  frost.  Whether  or  not 
this  is  claiming  too  much,  it  is  certain 
that  distinct  lines  can  often  be  seen  sep- 
arating bright,  fresh  verdure  above  and 
blackened,  frost-bitten  foliage  below. 
Similar  lines  of  demarcation  can  be  seen 
in  spring  between  the  early  growth  on 
the  hillsides  and  the  dormant  buds  of  the 
valley  below.  In  summer  over  the  same 
area  can  be  seen  a  distinct  cloud  line 
marking  the  height  of  the  fog  in  the 
valley  below,  while  above  it  on  the  hill- 
side will  be  cloudless  air  bathed  in  sun- 
light. In  the  fall,  when  frosts  have 
claimed  all  the  tender  vegetation  of  the 
valley,  there  will  be  seen  longitudinal 
bands  skirting  the  hillsides,  showing  for 
a  month  or  six  weeks  all  the  freshness 
of  summer.  Though  the  exact  borders  of 
these  thermal  zones  cannot  be  located 
with  precision,  their  general  position  is 
fairly  constant.  Orchards  planted  on 
thermal  belts  are  remarkably  regular  in 
fruit  bearing.  There  are  many  orchards 
in  the  mountains  where  old  settlers  claim 
they  have  never  seen  a  failure  in  a  crop 
from  frost.  The  reason  for  these  peculiar 
phenomena  is  undoubtedly  the  draining 
of  cold  air  from  the  hillsides  and  its 
stratification  in  the  valleys  below.  There 
are  other  circumstances  connected  with 
thermal  belts  that  have  not  yet  been  fully 
worked  out.  However,  there  is  at  pres- 
ent suflScient  practical  evidence  of  the 
value  of  thermal  belts  in  frost  protection. 
Fruit  growers  should  not  fail,  where  pos- 
sible, to  take  advantage  of  them  in  or- 
chard  planting. 

W.  N.  HUTT, 

Raleigh.    N.    C. 

Rolling  Land  Xortli  Slope 

The  Dest  site  for  an  orchard  is  gently 
rolling  land  with  a  north  or  northeast 
slope.  Always  avoid  flat  land  or  valleys 
for  cold  air,  being  heavier  than  warm 
air,  settles  to  the  lower  places  and  frost 
is  more  likely  to  kill  the  blossoms  in 
such  locations.  If  planted  on  the  south 
side  of  a  hill  the  trees  will  be  warmed 
by  the  sun  in  spring,  and.  being  pro- 
tected   from   the   cold   north    winds,   will 


blossom  early  and  may  be  killed  by  frosts. 
On  the  north  slope  the  cold  winds  will 
keep  them  in  a  dormant  condition  longer 
or  until  danger  of  frost  is  past.  Much  of 
the  land  that  is  too  hilly  for  profitable 
production  of  other  crops  will  produce 
good  crops  of  apples  if  given  the  proper 
care  and  attention. 

H.  C.  Thompson, 
Agiicultui-al  College,   Miss. 

.4jr  Drainage  and  Frost 

In  mountain  regions,  besides  the 
draining  of  water  from  higher  to  lower 
levels,  there  is  a  similar  drainage  of  air. 
This  latter  might  seem  to  be  of  trifling 
importance  in  fruit  growing,  but  it  is  in 
fact  one  of  the  most  important  considera- 
tions, for  it  tends  greatly  to  avert  frost. 
Freezes  and  frosts  are  undoubtedly  the 
greatest  hazard  of  the  business  of  fruit 
growing.  No  disease  or  depredator  de- 
stroys half  so  many  hopes  and  dollars 
for  the  fruit  grower  as  a  few  hours  of 
frost.  We  are  told  that  "the  frost  falleth 
alike  on  the  just  and  on  the  unjust,"  but 
in  seasons  when  the  daily  papers  are  her- 
alding reports  that  an  untimely  frost  has 
taken  the  entire  fruit  crop  of  the  state 
some  lucky  fellow  high  up  in  his  moun- 
tain coves,  with  not  too  many  good  works 
to  his  credit,  has  his  entire  crop  saved  as 
if  by  miracle.  Frosts  appear  to  strike  in 
a  very  erratic  manner;  they  are,  however, 
like  other  phenomena  of  nature,  subject  to 
very  definite  laws.  It  is  well  known  that 
as  air  becomes  heated  it  ascends,  and  as 
it  cools  it  becomes  heavier  and  falls.  On 
sloping  ground  air  as  it  cools  passes 
down  from  higher  to  lower  levels.  Other 
things  being  equal,  low  lands  are  more 
frosty  than  higher  lands,  because  the 
cold  and  frosty  air  drains  from  the  higher 
and  settles  into  the  lower  levels.  A  corn 
field  in  the  fall  gives  one  of  the  best  il- 
lustrations of  the  places  most  subject  to 
frost  and  those  also  which  are  exempt. 
On  the  bottom  lands  the  blades  and  stalks 
will  almost  invariably  show  where  frost 
has  bitten  first.  Up  on  the  hillsides  and 
higher  elevations  the  corn  will  often  be 
found  growing  fresh  and  green,  while  in 
the  bottoms  below  not  a  green  stalk  can 
be  seen.     Where  knolls  occur  in  bottoms 


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101 


they  will  often  be  seen  to  lift  their  green- 
clad  sides  out  of  the  blighting  frost-laden 
atmosphere  of  the  surrounding  valley. 
Air  drainage  is  just  as  natural  as  water 
drainage,  and  for  orchard  locations  is  just 
as  important  a  consideration. 

The  frostiest  locations,  and  those  there- 
fore to  be  most  avoided  are  valleys  shut 
in  on  all  sides.  To  the  uninitiated  these 
places  would  appear  to  be  most  admirably 
protected,  but  they  are  veritable  frost 
pockets.  On  cold  nights  they  receive  the 
cold  air  from  higher  regions,  and  frosts 
and  freezes  in  them  are  inevitable. 

Once  while  traveling  in  the  Rocky 
mountains  I  saw  one  of  these  small  val- 
leys shut  in  by  hills,  in  which  all  the  veg- 
etation was  nipped  by  frost.  The  sur- 
rounding hills  on  one  side  were  somewhat 
lower  than  on  the  other  sides.  When  the 
valley  became  full  of  cold  air  it  flowed 
over  the  lowest  side,  just  as  water  would 
have  done.  All  around  on  the  other  sides 
of  the  valley  the  high  frost  mark  could 
be  seen,  and  it  formed  a  line  on  a  level 
with  the  top  of  the  lowest  hill  where  the 
frosty  air  had  flowed  over.  Above  this 
line  the  tenderest  vegetation  showed  not 
the  slightest  injury.  A  valley  with  a 
large  outlet  will  usually  be  reasonably 
safe  from  frost.  The  land  about  rivers 
which  have  a  considerable  fall  will  be 
drained  of  water  and  also  of  cold  air. 
Lands  contiguous  to  such  streams  can 
be  counted  on  as  being  reasonably  safe 
from  frost.  Experience  with  frost  shows 
that  mountain  regions  are  much  safer  for 
fruit  growing  than  the  lands  below  them. 
A  carefully  planned  and  conducted  experi- 
ment which  I  made  two  years  ago  in  a 
hillside  peach  orchard  confirms  the  results 
of  general  experience  on  this  point.  This 
orchard  was  carefully  surveyed  with  a 
leveling  instrument  and  the  ground  map- 
ped out  in  contours.  Contour  lines  con- 
nected all  the  trees  at  the  same  elevation. 
There  was  two  feet  difference  in  elevation 
between  each  two  contour  lines.  Self- 
registering  thermometers  were  placed  on 
each  contour  line  and  readings  were  made 
on  them  three  times  a  day  throughout 
the  entire  winter  and  spring.  The  lower 
contour  lines  almost  invariably  registered 
lower  temperatures  than  the  higher  ones. 


There  was  usually  from  one-half  to  one 
degree  of  difference  between  each  line 
and  the  one  above  it.  Instruments  placed 
along  one  contour  line,  thus  all  being 
at  the  same  elevation,  showed  practically 
no  difference  in  temperature.  During  the 
winter  zero  temperatures  were  recorded  in 
this  orchard.  At  pruning  time  in  the 
spring  it  was  found  that  the  wood  of 
the  trees  on  the  lowest  contour  had  been 
badly  frozen  and  was  "black-hearted." 
The  effect  of  the  "black-hearting"  lessen- 
ed with  higher  contours,  and  on  the  high- 
est one  not  a  single  affected  tree  could  be 
found.  The  only  fruit  produced  in  the 
orchard  was  on  the  two  highest  contours. 
Higher  land  above  this,  which  was  not 
planted  to  orchard,  would  undoubtedly 
have  been  a  safer  location  for  peaches. 
The  same  season  an  estimate  was  made 
on  the  effect  of  winter  freezing  of  peach 
buds  on  trees  grown  on  comparatively 
level  land.  A  measuring  pole  was  placed 
in  the  trees  and  by  means  of  a  step- 
ladder  the  buds  were  examined  and 
counted  at  different  heights  from  the 
ground.  An  examination  of  1,300  buds  gave 
the  following  percentage  of  buds  killed 
by  frost: 

Two  feet  from  the  ground 50% 

Four  feet  from  the  ground 30% 

Eight  feet  from   the  ground 16% 

These  are  only  a  few  of  hundreds  of 
such  examples  that  could  be  given  to  show 
the  advantages  of  elevated  locations  for 
fruit  growing. 

W.     N.     HUTT, 

Raleigh.   N.  C. 

Elevation  and  Exposure 

The  best  site  for  an  orchard  is  one 
that  is  somewhat  elevated  above  adjoin- 
ing lands.  Such  a  site  not  only  gives  bet- 
ter soil  drainage,  but  what  is  more  im- 
portant, better  air  drainage.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  colder  air  being  heavier 
settles  to  the  lower  levels.  A  difference 
of  several  degrees  due  to  this  fact  is 
often  observed  in  different  sections  of  an 
orchard.  This  is,  therefore,  an  important 
consideration  in  sections  where  hard  win- 
ter freezes  and  late  spring  frosts  are 
common.  Moreover,  on  account  of  the 
clearer   atmosphere     and     the    relatively 


102 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


longer  periods  of  sunshine,  fruit  that  has 
been  grown  on  the  higher  elevations  is 
liliely  to  be  of  better  quality  and  appear- 
ance. A  southern  slope  offers  relatively 
more  sunlight,  but  there  is  a  common  no- 
tion that  with  such  an  exposure  an 
orchard  is  more  susceptible  to  injury 
from  late  spring  frosts.  While  it  is  true 
that  the  buds  of  trees  on  a  southern  slope 
will  start  earlier  than  those  on  a  north- 
ern slope,  there  is  little  danger  from  this 
source  if  proper  attention  is  given  to  ele- 
vation. The  most  experienced  apple  grow- 
ers favor  an  eastern  or  northeastern 
slope,  but  in  most  sections  of  New  Eng- 
land the  apple  may  be  depended  upon  to 
do  well  on  any  slope.  A  western  slope, 
however,  is  objectionable,  unless  the  trees 
are  protected  from  the  strong  prevailing 
winds.  The  use  of  a  windbreak  in  such 
cases  will  prove  valuable  in  the  way  of 
checking  the  evaporation  from  the  soil 
and  trees  and  of  preventing  the  breaking 
of  the  branches  and  the  falling  of  the 
fruit.  A  forest  on  the  windward  side  of 
an  orchard  is  often  worth  more  as  a 
windbreak  than  for  any  other  purpose. 
C.  D.  J.\RVis. 
Storrs.    Conn. 

.Vir  Draiiiagre 

If  possible,  by  all  means  select  a  site 
that  is  naturally  well  drained.  It  should 
be  so  drained  that  both  an  excess  of  water 
and  cold  air  can  readily  escape  to  a  lower 
level.  While  the  apple  very  much  dis- 
likes a  wet,  soggy  soil,  it  equally  dislikes 
a  site  upon  which  cold  air  may  stagnate. 
Cold  air  seeks  the  lowest  levels.  It  fre- 
quently carries  with  it  the  frost  waves 
that  kill  blossoms  in  the  spring,  or  imma- 
ture wood  in  the  autumn.  The  force  of 
this  point  is  readily  impressed  upon  the 
minds  of  all  those  who  drive  over  the 
gently  undulating  sections  of  our  valley 
after  nightfall  in  the  spring  or  early  au- 
tumn months.  Every  hollow,  especially 
if  it  be  one  without  pronounced  outlet  to 
lower  levels,  fills  up  with  cold  air,  and  as 
one  passes  from  the  crest  to  the  bottom 
and  up  the  opposite  side,  the  change  from 
the  cold  air  of  the  bottom  to  the  warmer 
strata  above  is  as  distinctly  marked  as 
the  passing  from  a  warm  room  to  the 
open  air  on  a  frosty  morning.   Such  places. 


hollows,  or  pockets,  into  which  cold  air 
may  settle  and  remain  with  little  or  no 
motion,  are  death  traps,  not  alone  for  the 
api)le,  but  for  fruit  trees  in  general. 
Though  the  soils  in  such  places  may  be 
good  and  deep  and  water  drainage  of  the 
best,  yet  is  the  site  deficient  in  one  of  the 
most  important  elemental  features  of  a 
site — air  drainage.  It  is  as  imperative  to 
keep  still  cold  air  away  from  the  tree's 
head  as  it  is  to  keep  stagnant  water  away 
from    its   feet. 

The  diversity  of  geological  formation 
and  exposure  in  the  apple  growing  dis- 
tricts of  Oregon  render  this  topic  of  as- 
pect a  peculiarly  interesting  one.  In  some 
sections  little  attention  aside  from  that 
given  to  heavy  winds  is  necessary;  in 
other  sections  the  southern  exposures, 
while  desirable  in  many  respects,  are  li- 
able to  have  a  thin  soil  underlaid  by 
impervious  rock;  in  still  other  sections 
the  northern  slopes,  ideal  in  several  fea- 
tures, have  a  soil  rich,  deep,  full  of  hu- 
mus, very  moist,  and  thus  prone  to  keep 
the  tree  growing  too  late  in  the  season, 
and  unduly  retarding  the  bursting  of  the 
buds  in  the  spring;  and  in  yet  other  sec- 
tions the  aspect  is  quite  a  matter  of  in- 
difference, as  in  the  Rogue  and  Grande 
Ronde  river  valleys  proper.  But  upon 
the  bench  lands  of  these  sections,  when 
more  attention  is  given  to  the  planting  of 
orchards  upon  them,  due  attention  to  as- 
pect will  be  of  no  little  importance,  and 
may  be  a  deciding  factor  between  success 
and  failure  with  particular  varieties. 
Especially  in  Rogue  river  valley  would  it 
appear  that  the  later  keeping  varieties 
will  demand  the  cooler  northern  expos- 
ures, while  the  earlier  varieties  will  do 
best  ujion  the  southern  and  eastern 
slopes. 

In  the  Willamette  valley,  except  in  the 
districts  tributary  to  the  "gaps"  in  the 
Coast  mountains,  through  which  strong 
sea  breezes  issue,  a  southern  asjiect  would 
seem  generally  desirable,  providing  it  is 
not  a  hillside  with  thin  soil.  The  general 
low  altitude  of  the  valley,  together  with 
the  average  high  humidity,  makes  an 
open  or  southern  aspect  desirable,  since 
under  such  conditions  fruit  will  tend  to 
take  on  a  higher  color,  an   item  of  con- 


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103 


sideiable  importance  in  the  commercial 
part  of  the  crop.  For  early  or  mid-season 
varieties,  however,  and  particularly  those 
for  home  use,  where  one  attaches  more 
importance  to  fine  specimens  with  clear 
skins,  mellow  flesh,  and  juiciness,  and 
where  several  days  or  a  week's  time  in 
the  date  of  ripening  does  not  detract  from 
the  value  of  the  product,  a  northern,  west- 
ern or  sheltered  aspect  may  be  of  first 
choice. 

While  high  color  is  usually  a  feature  of 
much  commercial  value  in  the  apple,  those 
who  have  formed  a  discriminating  taste 
and  grow  fruit  for  their  own  use,  give  it 
but  passing  notice.  Thus  it  is  that  the 
aspect  most  desirable  for  the  commercial 
orchard  may  be  of  but  secondary  impor- 
tance to  the  home  orchardist. 

As  much  of  the  autumn  weather  in 
Western  Oregon  is  of  low.  light  value, 
owing  to  the  humidity,  it  is  necessary  to 
use  considerable  discretion  when  selecting 
a  site  for  the  growing  of  a  commercial 
apple  crop  of  the  late  keeping  varieties,  if 
one  would  have  a  high  colored  product 
one  year  with  another.  .Judicious  wood 
pruning  and  thinning  of  fruit  will  mate- 
rially aid  in  enabling  the  fruit  to  get  the 
most  advantage  from  the  light  available. 

E.  R.  Lake. 
Oregon    State   Biiard   Horticulture.   ISIll. 

Practically  all  orchardists  recommend 
selecting  a  sloping  site  because  of  the 
advantage  of  good  air  drainage.  Air 
drainage,  while  not  generally  considered 
an  important  factor  in  apple  growing  by 
the  amateur  orchardist,  is  nevertheless 
one  which  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
success  of  profitable  fruit  growing.  In 
the  large  irrigated  valleys  in  New  Mexico 
it  is  frequently  impossible  to  consider 
very  strongly  the  factor  of  site  for  the 
reason  that  apple  orchards  are  planted  as 
a  rule  on  level  ground.  In  sections,  es- 
pecially in  the  mountain  districts,  where 
a  site  having  good  air  drainage  can  be 
selected  this  possibility  should  not  be 
overlooked,  since  much  loss  due  to  frost 
injury  may  in  this  way  be  avoided.  Cold 
air  is  heavier  than  warm  air  and  for  this 
reason    it   will    settle    in    the    low   places 


which    are    thus    most    likely    to    be    the 
frosty  ones.  „  _ 

Santa  Fe.  N.  .M. 
The  best  orchard  sites  are  usually 
found  on  rolling  lands  or  hillsides.  In 
such  places  better  soil  drainage  is  afforded 
and  the  likelihood  of  frosts  in  the  early 
fall  or  late  spring  is  lessened.  The  or- 
chard site  should  be  located  far  enough 
above  adjacent  lands  so  that  the  cold  air 
at  night  can  settle  below  the  orchard 
tract.  A  few  feet  in  elevation  often 
results  in  the  prevention  of  frosts  in  the 
late  spring.  Fruit  trees  should  not,  under 
ordinary  conditions,  be  planted  on  flat 
bottom  land  or  in  low  pockets  where 
cold  air  settles,  as  such  locations  are  very 
likely  to  be  frosty. 

R.   W.    Fisher. 
Bozeman.   Mont. 

Elevation 

Have  the  orchard  site  elevated  above 
the  surrounding  country.  This  does  not 
mean  that  it  must  be  the  highest  piece 
of  land  in  the  vicinity,  but  that  it  should 
have  lower  levels  in  proximity  to  it.  Ele- 
vation is  an  important  factor  in  fruit 
growing  in  Wisconsin.  There  is  always 
a  possibility  of  damage  from  late  spring 
frosts  during  the  flowering  period  and 
orchards  on  low  or  level  land  suffer 
first.  A  rolling  site  which  provides  good 
air  drainage  and  which  is  somewhat  ele- 
vated is  most  likely  to  escai)e  injury  from 
frosts. 

Avoid  Pockets 

Avoid  "pockets."  It  is  not  only  neces- 
sary to  select  elevated  sites,  but  when 
these  sites  are  in  small  valleys  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  valley  be  open  at  its 
lower  end.  If  it  is  not,  such  a  valley 
becomes  a  "pocket,"  and  because  of  lack 
of  air  drainage  is  very  susceptible  to 
frosts,  and  unsuitable  for  apple  growing. 
"Pot-holes,"  especially  if  of  considerable 
extent,  are  best  left  unplanted  as  the 
trees  seldom  give  good   results. 

.1.  G.  Moore. 

Mailison,    Wis. 

aiississiiipi    Valley   t'ouditions 

In  locating  an  orchard  a  suitable  site 
rather  than  a  convenient  one  should  be 
the    first    consideration.      Whenever    pos- 


104 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


sible  the  orchard  should  be  planted  on 
rolling  ground  or  on  a  gentle  slope.  Un- 
der these  conditions  both  air  and  soil 
drainage  are  provided. 

The  orchards  of  the  Upper  Mississippi 
valley  are  particularly  subject  to  damage 
from  late  spring  frosts.  These  frosts  are 
always  most  severe  on  the  bottoms  and 
lower  levels.  In  many  instances  dam- 
age occurs  here  when  the  trees  on  the 
uplands  escape  entirely.  This  is  because 
the  cold  air,  being  heavier,  naturally  set- 
tles to  the  valleys.  Parasitic  diseases  are 
also  much  less  troublesome  on  the  up- 
lands, since  the  drier  air  discourages  their 
growth.  The  north  slope  has  been  often 
advocated  as  the  ideal  orchard  site,  al- 
though any  slope  is  good.  The  funda- 
mental requisite  is  to  secure  a  slope  of 
some  kind.  In  many  parts  of  Iowa  the 
land  is  so  level  that  there  is  little  choice 
in  this  regard.  Reasonable  success  may 
be  attained  on  level  ground  in  the  case 
of  the  home  orchard.  It  is  doubtful,  how- 
ever, if  it  is  wise  to  engage  in  commercial 
orcharding  where  the  proper  slope  and 
type  of  soil  are  not  available. 

A.  T.  Erwin, 
G.  R.  Bliss. 

Ames,   Iowa. 

Ohio  Conditions 

While  apples  may  be  grown  with  some 
success  in  level  sections  of  the  state,  it 
Is  a  very  great  advantage  if  the  site  cho- 
sen for  the  orchard  be  comewhat  higher 
than  the  land  adjacent.  An  elevation  of 
even  a  few  feet  above  the  channels  or 
beds  of  local  streams  of  water  will  provide 
not  only  the  necessary  water  drainage,  but 
also  favor  frost  or  cold  air  drainage  which 
Is  of  almost  equal  importance.  It  is  a 
generally  well  known  fact  that,  under 
weather  conditions  which  favor  frost,  the 
colder  atmosphere  being  the  heavier  seeks 
the  lower  levels  of  the  valleys,  ravines 
and  depressions,  while  the  warmer,  lighter 
air  envelopes  the  slopes  and  summits  of 
the  higher  ground,  often  entirely  pre- 
venting injury  by  frost  in  late  spring  to 
the  blossoms  or  young  fruit.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  of  those  areas  of  our  state 
remote  from  the  larger  bodies  or  streams 
of  water.  The  modifying  and  retarding 
influences    of    Lake    Erie    upon    tempera- 


ture, as  affecting  vegetation,  renders  a 
large  area  of  adjacent  level  land  well 
protected  from  extremes  of  temperature. 
In  the  valleys  of  our  larger  rivers  such 
as  the  Ohio,  Muskingum  and  others  flow- 
ing through  the  rougher  parts  of  the 
state  and  bordered  along  their  courses 
by  high  hills  on  either  side,  it  some- 
times occurs  during  extremely  frosty 
weather  that  the  dense  river  fogs  protect 
the  lower  levels  from  frost  while  vegeta- 
tion on  the  higher  altitudes  suffers  se- 
verely. For  this  reason  there  may  be  ex- 
ceptions made  in  favor  of  orchard  sites 
on  the  more  elevated  portions  of  'second 
bottom'  land  of  some  of  the  greater  river 
valleys,  as  that  of  Ohio:  but  this  will 
not  generally  apply  to  the  much  smaller 
valleys   of  the   lesser  tributaries. 

Hnmiditj'  and  Disease 

Excessive  humidity  in  the  valleys  of 
the  great  streams  of  water  favors  the 
development  of  certain  forms  of  fungi  af- 
fecting the  apple  —  such  as  the  "sooty 
blotch"  or  fungus  —  which  are  rarely 
troublesome  on  the  more  elevated  sites. 
AS  a  rule  the  preference  of  location  for 
an  apple  orchard  would  wisely  be  given 
to  the  elevated  hill-slope  or  summit. 
F.  H.  B.4I.L0U, 
Wooster.    Ohio. 

North  Carolina  Conditions 

There  is  considerable  difference  of 
opinion  among  fruit  men  as  to  what  is 
the  best  direction  for  the  slope  of  an 
orchard.  The  preferences  of  different 
men  of  experience  are  so  variable  as 
to  include  every  point  of  the  compass. 
Each  slope  has  its  advantages  and  its 
disadvantages.  A  northern  slope  is  a  lit- 
tle later  in  forcing  growth  in  spring, 
and  on  that  account  the  bloom  is  less  apt 
to  be  nipped  by  late  spring  frosts.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  fruit  on  northern 
slopes,  when  developing,  gets  less  sunlight 
and  does  not  have  the  high  colors  of  that 
grown  on  southern  slopes.  As  it  is  the 
sunlight  that  paints  the  bright  colors, 
the  southern  slopes  always  produce  the 
richest-tinted  fruit.  Southern  slopes,  too. 
are  the  ones  from  which  the  sun  drinks 
the  moisture  most  rapidly.  They  are  apt, 
tnerefore,  to  be  droughty,  and  unless  the 


APPLES 


105 


trees  are  well  cultivated  or  mulched  they 
will  produce  small  fruit.  On  account  of 
the  continuous  loss  of  moisture  from 
southern  slopes  it  is  found  that  the  soils 
on  them  are  almost  invariably  thinner 
and  poorer  than  on  northern  slopes.  Com- 
parisons in  the  growth  of  natural  forests 
on  northern  and  southern  slopes  bear  out 
the  same  idea.  Western  slopes  give 
brighter  colors  of  fruit  than  eastern  ones, 
but  they  get  the  hottest  rays  of  the  sun, 
and  trees  on  them  are  much  more  subject 
to  sunscald.  By  care  in  cultivation  and 
pruning  many  of  the  drawbacks  due  to 
slope  can  be  overcome,  but  in  any  case 
the  sloping  lands  are  to  be  preferred  to 
level  ones  for  commercial  orcharding. 

The  steepness  of  the  slope  on  which 
it  is  practicable  to  plant  orchards  will  de- 
pend on  circumstances.  One  often  finds 
apple  trees  in  mountain  regions  that  are 
producing  large  quantities  of  beautiful 
fruit  in  places  that  to  a  plainsman  would 
scarcely  seem  to  be  accessible  with  a  fly- 
ing machine.  There  is  little  doubt  about 
the  trees  doing  well  on  very  steep  and 
even  rocky  locations,  but  it  is  often  next 
to  impossible  to  harvest  the  fruit  there 
economically.  Mountain  coves,  even  when 
high  up  in  the  mountain  sides,  offer  the 
best  possibilities  for  apple  growing  be- 
cause they  have  natural  irrigation  and 
excellent  drainage,  and  their  soils  are 
usually  rich  from  the  washing  of  the 
enclosing  slopes.  Often,  while  steep,  high 
ridges  may  be  entirely  unsuited  for  apple 
trees,  the  coves  which  they  contain  may 
be  almost  ideal  for  the  same  crop.  Na- 
ture never  intended  the  greater  part  of 
mountain  lands  should  bear  anything  but 
forest  Man  in  mountain  regions  too  often 
invades  nature's  realm,  and  thus  we  see 
washed  and  gullied  fields  on  which  culti- 
vation is  impracticable.  Orchards  can 
profitably  go  higher  up  the  slope  than  any 
other  agricultural  crop,  but  our  better 
judgment  should  not  allow  them  to  tres- 
pass on  Nature's  domain. 

W.   N.   HUTT, 
Raleigh,   N.   C. 
Market   Conditions 
Another  all-essential  element  in  locat- 
ing a  commercial  orchard   is  to  select  a 
region  where  there  will   be  ready  trans- 


portation facilities.  Many  sections  of  Idaho 
grow  excellent  apples,  but  in  some  of 
these  there  have  been  no  transportation 
accommodations  developed  to  handle  com- 
mercial quantities  of  this  fruit.  Undoubt- 
edly it  would  be  unwise  to  locate  large 
orchards  in  such  sections.  Locate  the 
markets  and  the  ways  of  reaching  them 
first  and  then  the  question  of  the  proper 
location  for  the  orchard  can  be  rationally 
considered. 

In  connection  with  the  selection  of  a 
section  where  market  communication  is 
guaranteed,  advantage  should  be  taken  of 
locating  where  there  are  two  or  more 
ways  by  which  the  fruit  may  be  taken  to 
market.  Either  two  different  lines  of  rail- 
roads or  a  railroad  and  water-way  are 
decidedly  advantageous.  These  competing 
lines  tend  to  reduce  the  freight  rates 
much  below  that  usually  maintained 
when  one  public  carrier  has  complete 
monopoly  on  the  entire  shipping  facilities. 

The  finished  product  of  an  Idaho  apple 
orchard  will  not  endure  rough  handling  if 
it  is  to  be  highly  remunerative,  hence  it 
is  desirable  that  an  orchard  should  not 
be  in  a  locality  where  long  rough  hauls 
by  wagons  are  necessary  to  reach  the  ship- 
ping points.  Moreover,  transportation  by 
horses  is  exceedingly  expensive  even  if 
the  roads  are  not  rough  and  should  be 
minimized  as  much  as  possible.  *  *  * 
J.  R.  Shinn, 
Moscow,    Idaho. 

For  a  commercial  orchard  it  is  impor- 
tant to  be  near  a  market  if  a  home  mar- 
ket is  to  be  supplied,  or  near  a  good  trans- 
portation line  if  a  distant  market  is  to 
be  supplied.  It  is  not  essential  to  be 
near  a  market,  for  many  of  the  large 
apple  orchards  are  hundreds  of  miles  from 
the  market  they  supply.  It  is  important, 
however,  to  be  near  a  good  road  and  near 
a  railroad,  for  hauling  over  a  bad  road 
bruises  the  fruit  and  thus  injures  its 
appearance  and  keeping  qualities.  Cost 
of  hauling  is  considerable  if  the  shipping 
point  is  many  miles  from  the  orchard. 
For  a  home  orchard  we  select  a  location 
near  the  home  because  convenience  is  one 
of  the  many  points  to  be  considered. 
H.  C.  Thompson, 
Agricultural  College,  Miss. 


106 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Snniniary 

A  summary  of  this  subject  may  be  given 
to  aid  the  reader  in  reaching  a  final  con- 
clusion in  the  selection  of  a  site  for  a 
home  or  commercial  orchard. 

Soil  Conditions 

Professor  William  Stuart,  of  Vermont, 
recommends  for  that  section  a  gravelly 
loam  or  limestone  soil  well  drained,  on 
an   eastern   or  northeastern   exposure. 

Professor  C.  D.  Jarvis,  Storrs,  Conn.: 
"The  ideal  soil  in  Connecticut  is  a  sandy 
or  gravelly   loam   with   gravelly   subsoil." 

G.  F.  Powell,  New  York:  "Clay-sand- 
loam  is  excellent.  Subsoil  should  not  be 
hai'd  pan." 

Professor  W.  N.  Hutt,  Raleigh,  N.  C: 
"Mountain  coves  are  ideal  for  orchards 
because  they  have  plenty  of  humus  and 
nitrogen." 

Professor  J.  D.  Moore,  Madison,  Wis.: 
"Clay  loam  is  excellent  if  not  too  heavy. 
The  top  soil  is  not  so  important  if  under- 
laid with  pervious  limestone  subsoil.  Grav- 
elly subsoil  would  be  second  choice."' 

Professor  G.  R.  Bliss,  Ames,  Iowa,  says: 
"In  this  state  the  white  oak  soil  is  well 
adapted  for  orchards.  Loose  prairie  soil 
is  also  good  as  the  roots  permeate  it  read- 
ily. Black  prairie  soils  rich  in  nitrogen 
cause  an  excess  of  wood  and  leaf  growth 
and  lessen  the  production  of  fruit  buds, 
making  the  tree  liable  also  to  winter  in- 
jury." 

Professor  F.  H.  Ballou,  Wooster,  Ohio: 
"Potassium,  phosphorous  and  nitrogen  in 
the  quantities  furnished  by  decaying  veg- 
etation, especially  the  legumes,  give  the 
best  ration." 

G.  B.  Brackett,  Washington,  D.  C: 
"Wood  growth  is  strong  on  loamy  soils 
and  liable  to  winterkill.  Clay  produces 
hardy  trees.  Clay  top  and  free  subsoil 
give  excellent  results.  Cleared  forest 
lands  preferable." 

Professor  Ernest  Walker,  Fayetteville, 
Ark.:  "The  orchard  should  have  good 
drainage,  deep  soil,  and  plenty  of  lime  or 
limestone." 

Bulletin  No.  112,  Baton  Rouge,  La.: 
"The  diflfioulty  in  Louisiana  is  that  there 
is  so  much  moisture  and  fertility  that  or- 
chards  tend   to   iiroduce   too   much   wood 


growth.  The  higher  elevations  and 
heavier  soils  are  better  than  the  lower 
elevations    and    lighter    orchard    soils." 

Professor  H.  C.  Thompson,  Agricultural 
College,  Mississippi:  "A  deep  rich  clay 
with  but  little  nitrogen  should  be  se- 
lected. Soils  very  rich  in  nitrogen  pro- 
duce too  much  wood  growth." 

Professor  Fabian  Garcia,  Santa  Fe,  N. 
M.  says  that  the  adobe  soil  in  that  coun- 
try is  not  good,  but  that  a  good  strong 
loam  to  a  depth  of  six  or  seven  feet  un- 
derlaid with  adobe  is  an  ideal  situation. 

Professor  R.  W.  Fisher,  Bozeman, 
Mont.:  "Loam,  moist  but  well  di'ained, 
deep  and  composed  of  limestone,  granite, 
or  volcanic  ash  with  plenty  of  humus  is 
best." 

Professor  .1.  R.  Shinn,  Moscow,  Idaho: 
"The  soil  best  adapted  is  one  from  which 
native  forests  have  been  cleared.  It 
should  have  good  water  drainage,  good 
texture  and  be  rich  in  plant  food.  Tile 
should  supply  drainage  if  natural  drain- 
age is  wanting." 

M'eather  Conditions 

Professor  C.  D.  Jarvis,  Storrs,  Conn., 
says  that  on  account  of  the  purer  air  and 
brighter  sunshine  fruit  that  is  grown  on 
the  higher  elevations  is  better.  A  south- 
ern slope  offers  relatively  more  sunlight 
than  any  other.  There  is  little  danger 
from  frosts  on  a  southern  exposure  if 
proper  attention  is  given  to  elevation. 

Professor  W.  N.  Hutt,  Raleigh,  N.  C: 
"Southern  slopes  always  produce  the  rich- 
est tinted  fruits,  but  are  more  subject  to 
drought,  and  the  soils  are  generally  thin- 
ner. Western  slopes  are  hotter  than  east- 
ern and  the  trees  are  more  likely  to  sun- 
scald.  The  conditions  that  produce  heavy 
timber  will   produce  good   fruit  trees." 

Professor  G.  B.  Brackett,  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  thinks 
that  an  eastern  or  northeastern  exposure 
is  better  than  any  other. 

Professor  J.  G.  Moore.  Madison,  Wis.: 
"Avoid  pockets  and  small  valle.vs  not 
open  to  air  drainage  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  valley.  Near  large  bodies  of  water 
the  best  results  are  obtained  by  having 
the  orchard  exposure  in  the  direction  of 
the  water." 


APPLES 


107 


Professor  F.  H.  Ballou.  Wooster.  Ohio: 
•Should  be  located  on  elevated  lands  ad- 
jacent to  large  bodies  of  water  if  pos- 
sible. " 

Professor  H.  C.  Thompson.  Agricultural 
College,  Mississippi:  "A  northern  slope 
in  Mississippi  is  best." 

Professor  J.  R.  Shinn,  Moscow.  Idaho: 
"Apples  have  been  grown  at  elevations  of 
6.000  feet,  but  the  profitable  commercial 
orchards  are  below  3.000  feet.  A  loca- 
tion near  to  markets   is  very   desirable." 

Professor  R.  W.  Fisher.  Bozeman.  Mont., 
thinks  that  the  best  soils  are  rolling  lands 
on  hillsides  because  soil  drainage  and  air 
drainage  are  better  on  these  rolling  situa- 
tions, and  there  is  less  danger  of  frosts. 
Market  Conditions 

Professor  F.  H.  Ballou,  Wooster.  Ohio: 
"The  orchard  should  be  near  a  good  ship- 
ping point,  a  large  town  is  better  than  a 
small  one." 

Professor  H.  C.  Thompson,  Agricultural 
College,  Mississippi:  "Locate  the  orchard 
near  a  good  road  and  near  a  railroad, 
for  the  danger  of  bruising  fruit  and  the 
cost  of   hauling  are   considerable." 

PREPAR.VTI()>    OF   L.i>DS   FOK   OH- 

CHAKDS 

Timbered  or  Rocky  Land 

In  the  case  of  land  that  has  been  cov- 
ered with  timber  or  of  rocky  land,  it  is 
better  before  planting  the  trees  to  remove 
all  the  stumps  and  large  rocks,  because  if 
the  trees  are  to  be  properly  lined  in 
straight  rows,  stumps  or  rocks  may  inter- 
fere w'ith  the  setting.  I  saw  an  orchard 
of  several  hundred  acres  in  the  Ozark 
mountains  that  was  set  on  land  where  the 
underbrush  had  been  grubbed  and  the 
large  timber  cut  down  and  allowed  to  lie 
on  the  ground  to  rot  while  the  apple 
trees  were  growing.  This  was  not  a  sat- 
isfactory arrangement,  because  there 
could  not  be  a  proper  alignment  of  trees, 
and  the  land  could  not  be  cultivated  and 
kept  free  from  weeds  and  wood  growth 
that  sprang  up  from  the  roots  of  trees. 
At  the  same  time  there  was  more  or  less 
danger  from  injurj'  by  forest  fires  that 
might  catch  in  the  dry  brush.  The  theory 
of  the  owner  was  that  the  decaying  tim- 
ber would  fertilize  the  land,  and  that 
if  he   w'aited   to   clear   the   land   entirely 


the  orchard  would  be  delayed  one  year, 
but  he  discovered  later  that  he  would 
have  gained  time  by  waiting  another  year, 
and  supplying  the  land  with  fertilizers, 
in   the   form   of  cover  crops. 

>'o  General  Rule. 

Many  things  have  to  be  left  to  the 
common  sense  of  the  man  who  grows  an 
orchard.  It  is  not  possible  to  lay  down 
a  set  of  rules  that  are  elaborate  enough 
for  guidance  in  all  places.  Generally, 
however,  the  land  should  be  properly  lev- 
eled. This  is  especially  important  in  irri- 
gated sections  where  water  must  be  con- 
veyed to  every  part  of  the  orchard.  It 
may  cost  $10,  ?15  or  even  $25  per  acre 
to  level  land  for  proper  irrigation,  but  it 
it  must  be  done,  it  pays  to  do  it  before 
planting,  because  if  the  trees  are  set  out 
before  leveling,  and  the  elevations  low- 
ered and  the  depressions  filled  after  the 
setting  of  the  trees,  the  soil  will  be  car- 
ried away  from  the  trees  set  on  the  high 
points  and  given  too  great  a  depth  on  the 
lower  portions:  thus  in  one  part  of  the 
orchard  the  roots  of  the  tre^s  will  be 
too  near  the  surface,  and  in  another  part 
too  far  below  the  surface. 


Fig.    1.      A    Sage    Brush    Grubber.      Baker 
Manufacturing    Co. 

Hard  Pan  Xear  Surface 

Where  there  is  hard  pan  or  a  thin  strat- 
um of  rock  near  the  surface,  it  can  often 
be  broken  up  with  dynamite,  and  the 
lower  stratum  of  soil  reached,  so  that  the 
roots  of  the  trees  will  not  be  obstructed 
but  will  take  hold  of  the  lower  stratum. 


108 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


In  some  cases  this  might  not  be  a  favor- 
able condition,  because  there  may  be 
places  where  the  root  system  would  lack 
aeration,  where  the  air  is  obstructed  by 
a  thin  stratum  of  rock  or  of  hard  pan; 
but  we  have  seen  trees  growing  under 
similar  conditions  where  they  seemed  to 
be  healthy  and  vigorous,  and  apparently 
had   not  suffered   from   lack  of   aeration. 

Surface  Rock 

As  to  small  rocks  on  the  surface  it 
may  be  better  to  remove  them  before 
planting,  but  except  in  so  far  as  they  in- 
terfere with  cultivation  it  seems  to  us  to 
make  little  difference  whether  they  are 
removed  or  not.  It  is  claimed  that  sur- 
face rocks  are  an  advantage,  aside  from 
the  difficulty  of  cultivation,  because  they 
absorb  the  heat  more  readily  during  the 
day  and  during  the  night  radiate  it  more 
rapidly  than  the  soil,  thus  warming  the 
surrounding  atmosphere.  Whatever  may 
be  the  disadvantage  of  rocky  surfaced 
soil,  I  have  seen  some  very  excellent  or- 
chards growing  where  the  surface  was 
well  covered  with  rock. 

GR.4.NVILLE  LOWTHER 

LOOGED-OFF  LAND 
Cost  and  Methods  of  Clearing 

The  following  facts  are  the  result  of 
Investigations  begun  by  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  in  1908  in  Western  Wash- 
ington and  in  co-operation  subsequently 
with  the  states  of  Washington,  Wiscon- 
sin  and   Minnesota. 

Bibliograpliy 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  462 — "Utilization 
of  Logged-off  Land  for  Pasture." 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  137 — "The  An- 
gora Goat." 

Washington  Bulletin  No.  78.— "The 
Goat   Industry   in   Western   Washington." 

Washington   Bulletin  No.   101. — Sparks. 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau 
of   Plant   Industry,    Bulletin   No.   239. 

Usually  logged-off  land  in  Washington 
and  Oregon  is  left  thickly  covered  with 
stumps,  snags,  and  scattering  trees  with- 
out commercial  value,  as  well  as  brush 
and  logs.  The  cost  of  clearing  such  land 
is  dependent  upon  the  number  and  size 
of    stumps    left,    the    quantity    of    debris 


and  the  character  of  the  soil  from  which 
stumps  are  to  be  removed.  The  fir  lands 
of  Western  Washington  and  Oregon  are 
the  most  expensively  cleared  of  all  such 
lands. 


FiR.   ]. 


Typical    Clearing    in    Western 
Washington. 


Slashing 

Logged-off  lands  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
very  quickly  grow  up  to  young  trees  and 
brush  and  the  first  step  in  the  process  of 
clearing  it  is  to  slash  this  young  growth. 
This  should  be  done  in  early  summer  for 
two  reasons,  the  first  being  to  give  time 
for  some  drying  to  occur  before  burning 
and  the  second  that  sprouting  from  the 
stumpage  is  not  so  apt  to  occur. 


Fis 


T.vpical    Stump    To    Be    Removed. 


Windfalls  should  be  brought  down  to 
the  ground  and  large  logs  split  open 
enough  to  allow  them  to  dry  out  some- 
what. 

It  is  an  economy  to  pasture  land  for  a 
few  years  after  the  slashing  has  been 
burned  to  give  time  for  small  stumps 
and  roots  to  decay.  Goats  and  sheep  are 
especially  valuable  for  this  purpose  par- 
ticularly in  the  case  of  maple  and  alder 
bottoms  since  the.v  keep  down  sprouts. 
The  claim   is   made  that   flocks   will   pay 


APPLES 


109 


for  their  first  cost  in  reducing  the  ex- 
pense of  clearing,  the  product  of  the  flock 
thus  becoming  a  clear  profit. 

BeniOTiug  Stumps 

The  following  methods  are  used:  Blast- 
ing, stump  puller,  stump  puller  in  com- 
bination with  blasting,  burning. 

Blasting 

A  word  should  be  said  at  the  outset  rela- 
tive to  the  supposed  injury  to  the  soil  by 
powder.  No  chemical  injury  is  done  to 
soil  by  the  use  of  powder.  It  must  be  re- 
membered, however,  that  in  blasting  out 
a  quantity  of  large  stumps  in  a  soil  closely 
underlaid  with  clay,  sand,  gravel  or  hard 
pan,  much  of  the  poor  subsoil  is  likely  to 
be  thrown  out  upon  the  surface  and  in 
this   way   have   injurious   effect. 

Powder  Used 

Space  cannot  be  here  given  to  methods 
of  handling  the  powder. 

That  most  commonly  employed  is  a  20 
per  cent  nitro-glycerine  powder  for  warm 
weather  and  a  chlorate  powder  for  cold 
weather  as  the  latter  does  not  freeze. 

Placing:  the  Powder 

Tools  employed  are  a  bar  six  to  seven 
feet  long  made  by  welding  a  rounded 
steel  dub  at  one  end  and  a  chisel  at  the 
other  end  of  a  one  and  one-half  inch  gas 
pipe,  the  round  end  being  used  for  thrust- 
ing aside  gravel  in  the  auger  hole  and  the 
chisel  end  for  cutting  roots,  a  three-inch 
auger  with  a  long  shank,  a  long-handled 
spoon  or  shovel,  and  an  ax. 

By  means  of  these  tools  the  operator 
makes  a  hole  large  enough  for  his  charge 


Fig.  .3.      Beginning  tbe   Boring  of   Holes   Under 

Stump   for   Blasting. 

Fig.  4.      Finishing  Boring  of  Holes    Under 

Stump   for  Blasting. 

at  the  point  which,  in  his  judgment,  is 
the  center  of  resistance  of  the  stump,  one 
to  three  feet  below  the  level  of  the  ground. 
The  amount  of  powder  used  will  be  deter- 
mined by  experience  although  there  is  no 
economy  in  tearing  a  stump  all  to  pieces. 

Cost  of  Blasting  Stumps 

By  this  method  the  government  ex- 
perts removed  green  fir  stumps  from 
sandy,  gravelly  loam,  the  stumps  ranging 


Fig.   .-I.        Inc.     >tiimps     \\  licsf     llnot.s;     .\re     !<o        I  ii; 
Grown   Together  That  a    Single  Charge  Can- 
not Be   Placed   to   Blast  Them    Economically. 


The    Uesiilt    of    a    Battery    Shot    Upon 
the  .Stumps  Showii  in  Fig.  5. 


110 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICL'LTURE 


from  18  to  60  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
ground,  for  an  average  of  $1.40  each,  in- 
eluding  labor.  From  three  to  forty  sticks 
of  20  per  cent  nitro-glycerine  powder  were 
used  and  the  holes  dug  varied  from  24 
to  50  inches  in  depth.  The  cost  ranged 
from  35  cents  to  $2.S8  per  stump. 

Old  fir  stumps  are  not  quite  so  costly 
to  remove  as  green  ones.  Stumps  five 
years  old  were  removed  at  an  average 
cost  of  $1.18  each.  Some  of  these  stumps 
were  as  large  as  76  inches  in  diameter 
at  the  ground. 

Five-year-old  cedar  stumps  in  gravelly 
soil  come  out  for  an  average  of  $1.12. 
Some  of  these  stumps  were  120  inches 
across  at  the  ground.  Twenty-four  sticks 
of  20  per  cent  powder  was  the  highest 
charge  used. 

Cottonwood  stumps  cost  $1.90  on  the  av- 
erage, some  stumps  costing  as  much  as 
$3.36  to  remove. 

Old  spruce  stumps  were  removed  for 
$3.39  each  and  alder  stumps  for  40  cents. 
The  spruce  and  alder  stumps  were  in 
silt  soils. 

Charges  may  be  fired  either  by  safety 
fuse  or  electric  battery,  the  latter  method 
being  surer  and  safer  as  well  as  slightly 
more  economical.  The  charge  is  placed, 
fired  and  tamped  the  same  as  when  safety 
fuse  is  used,  a  six-foot  electric  fuse  being 


the  best  for  general  use.  The  connections 
are  made  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  a 
continuous  circuit  of  all  fuses  with  the 
battery,  which  should  be  placed  at  least 
300  feet  distant  behind  a  tree  or  tall 
stump,  for  safety.  Insulated  copper  wires 
are  used  for  making  connections  and  all 
ends  should  be  scraped  bright  before  con- 
nections are  made.  Tape  should  be  used 
for  wrapping  in  damp  weather  or  on  wet 
ground.  The  blasting  machine  may  be 
had  of  any  supply  house  or  is  supplied 
by  the  powder  company. 

Stiim|)   Pullers 

Stump  pullers  in  Western  Washington 
are  unsatisfactory  as  compared  with  dy- 
namite. Two  types  have  been  in  use — 
that  which  is  hitched  to  the  top  of  the 
stump,  pulling  it  over  laterally;  the  other 
hitching  under  the  roots  and  lifting  it  out 
vertically.  The  failure  of  the  latter  is 
largely  due  to  the  great  amount  of  work 
necessary  in  getting  hitched  up  to  the 
stump  and  the  frequent  moves  that  have 
to  be  made;  a  new  "set  up"  being  required 
for  each  stump. 

For  either  of  these  machines  large 
stumps  have  to  be  cracked  with  a  light 
charge  of  dynamite. 

With  stump  pullers  it  costs  on  an  aver- 
age about  $3  per  stump  to  remove  them. 


Fig.  7.     Hercules  Puller. 


APPLES 


111 


Fig.  S.     A  Stump  Puller  That  Lifts  the  Stump 
Vertically    Out    of   the    Ground. 

The  Donkey  Engine 

More  land  has  been  cleared  in  West- 
ern Washington  b.v  means  of  the  donkey 
engine  than  b.v  any  other  agency  since 
this  method  came  into  use.  As  a  rule  in 
Washington  outfits  for  clearing  have  been 
used-up  logging  rigs,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence, results  have  been  less  favorable 
than  they  otherwise  might  have  been. 
Equipment  should  consist  of  a  large  dou- 
ble drum  engine  (10x12  to  12x14  cylin- 
der) with  tackle  consisting  of  1,000  feet 
of  IVs-inch  main  cable.  2,000  of  %-inch 
haul-back  line,  four  1-inch  guy  lines,  two 
10-inch  pole  blocks,  four  8-inch  blocks  for 
haul-back  line  in  the  field,  lead  lines, 
chokers,  extras  and  tools. 

Logs  and  stumps  should  be  piled  as 
high  as  possible  for  burning,  hence  a  gin 
pole  60  to  100  feet  high  is  most  com- 
monly used.     The  crew  is  made  up  of  en- 


li:^^ 


i'iK.  !).     A  Tall  Gin  Pole  and  a  Good  Pile  That 
Will   Burn  Well. 

gineer.  fireman,  pile  man    (except   where 

automatic  self-releasing  choker  is   used), 

hook    tender,    and    assistants.      Tracts    to 

be  cleared  should  be  slashed  and  burned 

and   stumps   previously   blasted   so   as   to 

split  and  loosen  them.     The  gin  pole  can 

be   set  in   the   center  of  a   10-acre   tract, 

or  at   a  center  where   not  over  500  feet 

of  haul  is  made. 

Gin  pole  and  engine  are  guyed  to 
stumps  or  "dead  men"  sunk  four  to  six 
feet  deep.  The  accompanying  diagram 
illustrates  method  of  setting. 

The  following  specifications  and  esti- 
mate for  a  donkey  engine  outfit  are  taken 
from  the  article  by  Harry  Thompson  in 
r.  S.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin 
No.  239. 

A  compound-geared  yarder,  with  two 
speeds  to  the  main  drum,  giving  appro'xi- 
mately  100  and  250  feet  per  minute,  with 
the  haul-back  geared  to  run  at  300  to 
350  feet  per  minute,  Is  required.  The 
cylinders  should  be  9x10  or  10x12  feet. 
The  hauling  drum  should  be  fitted  with  a 
steam  friction.  The  boiler  should  be  ex- 
tra large.  There  should  be  1,000  feet  of 
1  %-inch  main  line  of  six  strands  of  19 
wires  each  and  2.000  feet  of  ''s-inch  haul- 
back  line  of  six  strands  of  19  wires  each. 


Estimate  of  Cost  of  Donkey  Engine  Outtit 

Engine  and  boiler '. .     $3,500 

Main   line   

Haul-back  line  

Bull  block  for  gin  pole 

Six  self-releasing  chokers  (■'4 -inch,  "s-inch  and  1-inch) 

Four  haul-back  blocks,  hooks  and  swivels : 

Four  1-inch  guy  lines,  250  feet  each ■. 

One  lead  block  for  haul-back  line 

Electric-signal   outfit   

Tools,  extra  hooks,   blocks,   etc. 


Total 


200 

150 
75 
60 
70 

150 
35 
10 

150 

14,400 


112 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


tfMaMbrtP' 


PLAN 

Sf^Okving  Position  of  Donkey  Engine 

and  Riqgjng  for  Clearing   a  Ten  Acre  Tract 

Stole  r-50' 


While  Ihis  outfit  is  too  expensive  for 
small  owners,  it  could  be  purchased  by  a 
community,  or  one  or  more  such  outfits 
could  be  operated  by  a  county  or  a  large 
company  for  clearing  land.  It  would  be 
more  satisfactory  than  the  makeshift  out- 
fits usually  found  doing  this  work. 

Cost  of  Clearing'  Land  TTitli  Donkey 
Engine 

The  costs  here  given  are  taken  from 
actual  records  of  18  different  tracts  rang- 
ing in  size  from  Sio  to  19  acres  and  total- 
ing 150  acres.  Various  conditions  of  soil 
from  silt  loam  to  gravel  were  encountered. 
The  average  number  of  stumps  per  acre 


varied  from  14  to  56  which  ranged  in 
average  size  on  the  various  tracts  from 
19  to  52  inches  at  the  ground.  The  cost 
of  explosives  ranged  from  $4.77  to  $86.04 
per  acre  the  average  being  $21.12.  The 
total  cost  including  labor  averaged  per 
acre  on  the  various  tracts  from  $47.40 
to  $222.87,  the  average  of  all  being  $66.44. 
This  represents  the  entire  cost  including 
burning  and  clearing  small  stuff  after  the 
stumps  and  large  logs  were  out  of  the 
way. 

The  whole  cost  of  clearing  if  charged  to 
the  stumps  on  all  the  tracts  would  bring 
the  cost  of  the  stumps  to  $2.54  each.   The 


APPLES 


113 


entire  cost  of  clearing  the  IS  tracts  com- 
prising 150  acres  was  $11,782.50  and  the 
whole  number  of  stimips  removed  4,633. 

Gasoliue  Engines 

Small  gasoline  engines  hitherto  tried 
have  proven  unsatisfactory. 

Burning 

All  ordinary  methods  of  burning  have 
proved  unsatisfactory  for  the  reason  that 
they  burn  off  the  top  of  the  stump  leav- 
ing  the   roots   in   the   ground. 

The  Blowing  Machine 

Outfits  of  this  kinds  cost  from  $350  to 
$500  complete  and  consist  of  gasoline  en- 
gine, blower  and  distributer  with  lines  of 
hose.  They  have  not  proven  efficient  on 
account  of  cost  of  operation  and  the 
fact  that  they  do  not  burn  the  roots  out 
deeply  enough. 

Char  Pitting 

This  method  is  best  employed  late  in 
the    summer    on    at    least    one    year    old 


stumps,  bark  having  been  removed  in  the 
spring.  Fir  stumps  are  more  easily 
treated  than  cedar  on  account  of  the  pitch 
in  the  roots.  A  clay  soil  is  requisite  for 
covering,  as  sand  dries  out  and  sifts  down, 
putting  out  the  fire. 

The  method  of  char  pitting  is  to  pack 
small  sticks  and  chunks  of  wood  about 
the  roots  of  the  stump,  cover  these  with 
ferns  or  grass  to  prevent  the  sifting  of 
loose  earth  on  to  the  fire,  then  cover 
the  whole  with  two  to  three  inches  of 
clay  packed  snugly  about  the  stump  to 
prevent  draft. 

Fire  through  a  small  opening  and  cover 
after  the  fire  is  well  started. 

Stumps  must  be  watched  closely  for  a 
day  or  so,  after  which  they  will  burn  out 
with  attention  given  twice  a  day. 

Another  method  is  to  dig,  in  spring  or 
early  summer,  a  hole  under  the  stump  be- 
tween two  large  roots  large  enough  for 
an  armful  of  kindling.     In  the  fall  or  late 


Fig.  11.  A  Stump.  nUh  the  Bark  Kemoved, 
Ready   for   Char   Pitting. 

Fig.  l.S.  Kindlinpr  fovered  with  Ferns  to  Pre- 
vent the  Fine.  Loose  Earth  from  Sifting 
Into  It. 


FiS.   li:.     Kindling  in  Place  Around  the  Stump. 

Fig.   14.      Earth    Covering    in    Place.      Opening 
Left  at  Which  to  Light  the  Fire. 


114 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.  15.  A  Stump  That  Has  Been  BuiniiiK 
Five  Days.  The  Clav  Covei-ing  Has  Reached 
Half  Way   Round  the  Stump. 

Mg.  16.  A  Stump  Around  Which  the  Banking 
Has  Been  Completed.  The  Stump  Is  Burning 
Neai-  a  Bam  During  the  Dryest  Season  of  the 
Year  with  Very  Little  Danger  to  the  Building. 


summer  fill  this  hole  with  dry  kindling 
and  after  firing  cover  with  clay,  extending 
the  cover  around  the  stump  as  the  fire 
progresses  until  it  is  completely  burned 
out. 

Both  methods  are  efficient  and  cheap. 
The  method  does  not  succeed  in  sandy 
soils  as  the  falling  sand  prevents  the 
burning  to  sufficient  depth  to  permit  plow- 
ing. It  is  useless  to  attempt  the  method 
during  the  wet  season. 

Cost 

The  cost  of  this  method  is  somewhat 
below  that  of  the  others  enumerated,  be- 
ing from  $.50  to  $75  per  acre,  or  if  charged 
to  the  stumps,  running  from  30  cents  to 
$1.00  per  stump.  One  advantage  of  the 
method  is  the  fact  that  no  expensive 
equipment  is  required  and  the  work  can 
be  done  by  the  owner. 

Concliisioii 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  data 
that  a  man  without  capital  can  not  hope 
to  clear  in  a  short  time  a  large  enough 
tract  of  land  upon  which  to  support  a 
family.  Under  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions and  with  the  lightest  clearing 
ground  the  cheapest  rate  at  which  logged- 
off  land  can  be  ])repared  for  the  plow  is 
$50  per  acre.  The  maximum  should  not 
ordinarily  exceed  $150  per  acre,  although 
there  are  exceptional  tracts  that  will  cost 
$200  per  acre  to  clear.  This  shows  that 
it  is  no  small  undertaking  to  make  a  farm 
out  of  this  land  and  that  it  is  not  feasible 
for  the  poor  man  unless  he  has  other  em- 


ployment to  provide  sustenance  for  him- 
self and  family  while  the  clearing  is  in 
progress.  It  is  the  opinion  of  all  who 
have  carefully  studied  this  problem  that 
work  of  this  kind  ought  to  be  done  on  a 
large  scale,  at  a  small  profit,  for  the  public 
good.  Possibly  the  aid  of  the  state  will 
be  required  before  these  wastes  are  made 
into  agricultural  land. 

The  donkey  engine  method  of  clearing 
is  a  very  efficient  and  serviceable  one. 
Where  it  is  well  equipped  and  properly 
managed  the  expense  need  not  be  pro- 
hibitive. Extra  expense  in  most  instances 
is  due  to  poor  equipment,  lack  of  experi- 
ence, and  bad  management.  Most  of  the 
clearing  that  is  being  done  at  this  time 
is  by  the  donkey  engine  method. 

Donkey  engine  outfits  could  be  pur- 
chased by  the  county  or  community.  By 
employing  one  or  two  experienced  men 
the  other  work  could  be  done  by  the 
owners  of  the  land  to  be  cleared.  In  this 
manner  the  expense  could  be  kept  down 
to  a  minimum.  A  donkey  engine  outfit 
could  be  used  to  advantage  in  connection 
with  the  char  pitting  method  to  pile  the 
burned-off  tops  of  the  stumps,  logs,  and 
debris  when  the  work  is  done  on  a  large 
scale. 

Powder  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
clearing  of  logged-off  land,  as  a  powerful 
agent  is  required  to  dislodge  large  stumps. 
All  of  the  devices  for  pulling  large  stumps 
are  dependent  on  powder  to  split  and 
loosen  the  stump  before  it  is  pulled.  A 
cheap  explosive  would  be  an  incentive  to- 
ward clearing  land. 

The  blowing  machine  and  other  devices 
for  the  destruction  of  stumps,  while  yet 
in  the  experimental  stage  and  by  no  means 
perfect,  may  develop  into  cheap  and 
efficient  methods  of  clearing  land. 

Wherever  the  char  pitting  method  can 
be  used  successfully  it  should  be  employed 
as  it  is  the  simplest,  cheapest,  and  most 
efficient  of  all  methods  of  clearing  land 
where  the  conditions  are  favorable.  In 
unfavorable  soil  it  is  liable  to  leave  too 
many  unburned  roots  in  the  ground.  Sur- 
face clearing,  as  the  method  which  leaves 
the  roots  under  the  surface  is  called,  is 
the   worst     form     of     clearing   possible. 


APPLES 


115 


Many  purchasers  of  cleared  land  after 
paying  a  large  price  have  found  that 
only  the  surface  had  been  cleared  and 
that  the  land  could  not  be  cultivated  until 
the  roots  were  removed.  Experienced 
men  would  rather  have  the  stumps  where 
they  can  be  seen  than  have  them  cut  off 
and  covered  up. 


(Arranged  by  Wm.  Wortliingtoa  from  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industiy  Bulletin  i:39  by  Harry 
Thompson.) 


Clearing:  in  Irrieated  Sections 

Since  all  our  apple  orchards  in  New- 
Mexico  must  be  irrigated,  it  is  necessary 
that  before  planting  the  trees  the  land 
be  prepared  as  much  as  possible  in  order 
to  facilitate  irrigation.  As  a  rule  it  is 
best,  if  it  is  new  land,  and  especially  one 
with  sand  hills  all  over  it,  to  break  it  up 
and  plant  it  to  some  hoed  crop  the  first 
year.  In  this  way  one  will  get  the  land 
in  better  shape  for  the  trees  the  following 
season.     In  the  Rio  Grande  vallev  sandv 


spots  which  have  been  leveled  down  are 
usually  very  deficient  in  plant  food,  and 
it  may  take  two  or  three  or  even  more 
years  to  get  the  soil  where  these  sand 
hills  were  to  be  as  fertile  as  the  rest  of 
the  land.  The  land  to  be  used  for  an 
orchard  should  be  deeply  plowed  and 
harrowed  before  planting.  After  the  land 
has  been  properly  plowed  comes  the  ques- 
tion of  how  to  lay  it  off  in  order  to  irri- 
gate the  young  trees  most  economically 
and  to  the  best  advantage.  A  very  good 
method  is  to  plow  out  small  ditches  about 
one  or  two  feet  wide  at  the  bottom.  Plant 
the  trees  in  the  bottom  of  these  ditches. 
These  ditches  will  serve  for  irrigating  the 
trees  the  first  and  even  the  second  year, 
without  having  to  irrigate  the  middle  be- 
tween the  trees.  This  is  a  very  impor- 
tant point  to  consider  and  especially  so 
where  water  is  expensive,  or  where  the 
middles  are  not  to  be  planted  to  crops. 
F.\BIAX  Garcia. 
Santa  Fe.  N.   M. 


Uncleared  Sage  Brush.     Brush  of  This  Size  Usually  Indicates  a  Deep  Fertile  Soil. 


116 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


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APPLES 


117 


Brush  Land 

Much  of  the  orchard  pUinting  is  being 
done  on  rough  brush  land.  Some  growers 
have  planted  the  trees  after  simply  cut- 
ting and  burning  the  brush,  leaving  the 
plowing  and  harrowing  till  later  in  the 
season.  There  is  a  strong  objection  to  this 
method  for  the  subjugating  process  is 
rendered  more  difficult  by  the  presence 
of  the  trees,  and  even  with  the  utmost 
care  some  trees  are  sure  to  be  injured. 
A  more  satisfactory  method  is  to  fit  the 
land  the  first  season  and  set  out  the  trees 
the  following  spring.  There  would  be  no 
loss  of  time  by  this  method  if  the  trees 
are  purchased  the  first  season  and  planted 
in  nursery  rows  for  a  year.  On  account 
of  the  trees  being  limited  to  a  small 
area  in  this  way  they  may  receive  the 
very  best  treatment  and  may  be  properly 
trained.  Any  one  who  is  contemplating 
the  clearing  of  rough  land  is  advised  to 
consult  some  of  those  who  have  had  ex- 
perience in  such  work.  Briefly,  the  oper- 
ation consists  in  cutting  and  burning  the 
brush,  removing  stumps  and  stones  and 
plowing  and  harrowing.  In  some  cases 
where  the  growth  is  small  the  brush  may 
be  cut  with  a  mowing  machine  or  with 
brush  scythes,  and  gathered  up  with  a 
horse  rake.  A  modern  stump-puller  may 
be  used  to  advantage,  but  the  work  is 
more  frequently  done  with  dynamite. 
When  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  lo- 
cating of  the  trees,  the  larger  stumps 
are  sometimes  left  to  decay,  but  in  order 
to  facilitate  cultivation  it  is  usually  best 
to  remove  them  at  the  time  of  clearing. 
The  plowing  will  be  a  rough  job  at  best, 
but  two  or  three  times  over  with  the 
cut-a-way  harrow  will  compensate  for  all 
irregularities.  The  work  should  be  com- 
menced as  early  in  the  season  as  pos- 
sible so  as  to  have  the  ground  ready  for 
a  cover  crop  by  the  first  of  August. 
Where  there  are  many  large  weeds  and 
other  herbage  buckwheat  is  probably  the 
best  kind  of  a  cover  crop  for  the  first 
season.  If  the  ground  is  in  good  condi- 
tion of  tilth  it  may  be  advisable  to  use 
clover,  which  is  more  valuable  from  the 
standpoint  of  fertility,  but  lacks  the 
characteristic     "smothering"     action     of 


buckwheat.  Clover  has  the  advantage  al- 
so in  that  covers  the  ground  and  prevents 
washing  during  the  winter  and  spring. 
In  the  following  spring  the  cover  crop 
should  be  either  ploughed  under  or 
worked  into  the  soil  with  a  cut-away 
harrow.  The  work  should  be  started 
early  enough  to  permit  at  least  two  har- 
rowings  before  planting.  Old  pasture 
land,  and  even  land  that  has  been  under 
cultivation,  should  have  the  same  treat- 
ment with  regard  to  tillage  and  cover 
cropping.  Much  of  the  run  down  land 
of  the  state  is  sadly  in  need  of  humus, 
or  decaying  vegetable  matter,  and  the 
turning  under  of  a  cover  crop  will  go  a 
long  way  toward  restoring  fertility  and 
making  the  land  productive.  Any  land, 
and  more  particularly  pasture  land, 
should  be  very  deeply  ploughed  or  sub- 
soiled  before  being  used  for  orcharding. 
Subsoiling  is  almost  out  of  the  question 
on  stony  land,  but  the  necessity  for  it  on 
such  land  is  not  so  great. 

C.  D.  Jarvis, 
Storrs,  Conn. 

Prepariiigr  the  Land 
Plowing: 

The  principal  requirement  in  prepar- 
ing laud  for  planting  an  orchard  is  deep 
tillage,  and  the  more  thoroughly  this 
work  is  done  the  more  certain  is  success. 
The  preparation  had  best  be  done  late  in 
the  fall,  so  that  the  land  will  be  ready 
for  early  spring  planting  or  for  fall 
lilanting.  if  preferred.  Many  successful 
orchardists,  especially  in  the  western 
states,  plow  the  ground  in  "lands"  so  as 
to  make  an  open  land  furrow  where  each 
row  of  trees  is  to  be  set,  and  then,  after 
the  trees  are  planted,  back  furrow  the 
ground  so  as  to  make  lands  with  tree 
rows  in  the  center. 

This  method  affords  a  deeper  tilth 
under  the  trees,  and  at  the  same  time 
surface  drainage  into  the  open  land  fur- 
rows midway  between  the  rows,  which 
will  receive  and,  if  properly  graded,  carry 
off  any  surplus  water  which  may  accum- 
ulate from  heavy  rainfalls. 

G.  B.  Bbackett, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


118 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Sod  Method  of  Redncing 

It  is  never  advisable  to  plant  orchai'd 
trees  in  fresh  sod.  In  preparing  sod 
land,  it  is  best  to  plow  in  mid-summer 
and  cross-plow  it  again  in  the  tall,  leav- 
ing it  in  the  rough  through  the  winter. 
Fall  plowing  is  advantageous  in  any  case, 
as  it  helps  to  destroy  many  insect  pests 
such  as  cutworms  and  also  insures  a 
thorough  pulverizing  of  the  soil.  Early 
in  the  spring  the  ground  should  be  disked 
and  harrowed  until  it  is  mellow.  It  Is 
also  advisable  to  go  over  it  again  with  the 
harrow  just  before  planting  to  destroy 
any  weeds  that  have  started.  Many  or- 
chardists  follow  the  plan  of  plowing  the 
ground  in  long  narrow  lands,  back-fur- 
rowing just  the  width  desired  for  a  tree 
row  and  leaving  the  dead  furrow  where 
the  line  of  trees  is  to  run.  After  the 
trees  are  set  the  ground  is  again  back- 
furrowed,  this  time  throwing  the  dirt 
towards  the  trees.  The  general  experi- 
ence of  the  older  orchard  sections  is  in 
favor  of  the  level  system. 

A.  T.   Erwix, 
G.    R.   Bliss, 

Ames,  Iowa. 

Deep  preparation  of  orchard  land  a 
year  or  two  previous  to  setting  trees  is 
highly  desirable.  Wet  places  should  be 
drained  and  perhaps  limed.  Poorer  soils 
should  also  be  well  fertilized  and  have 
the  manures  worked  deeply  into  the  soil. 
Special  attention  must  be  given  to  thin 
places.  Such  preparation  favors  a  vigor- 
ous start  and  a  deep  running  root  sys- 
tem. 

Ernest  Walker, 
Fayetteville.  Ark. 

Time  to  Prepare 

The  autumn  months  are  regarded  as 
the  best  time  to  prepare  all  lands  that 
are  to  be  planted  to  apple  orchards.  This 
exposes  the  land  to  the  ameliorating  ef- 
fects of  frosts,  allowing  such  soil  to  catch 
and  hold  the  rainfall  of  winter,  and  per- 
mits the  subsoil  to  become  sufficiently 
settled  to  re-establish  capillary  action  be- 
tween it  and  the  lower  soil  strata  while 
still  keeping  the  soil  in  loose  condition 
for  the  deep  penetration  of  the  roots.  If 
the  autumn     preparation     is  thoroughly 


done,   the   stirring   of   the   surface   is   all 
that  will  be  needed  in  the  spring. 

J.  R.  Shixn, 
Moscow,  Idaho. 

Preparatory  Cropping 

The  thorough  preparation  of  the  land 
should  be  regarded  as  a  very  important 
element  in  planting  an  orchard.  An  ap- 
ple orchard  is  very  different  in  its  re- 
quirements from  an  annual  crop;  yet  how 
frequently  does  it  occur  that  the  land  for 
it  receives  even  less  attention  than  does 
the  land  for  corn  or  wheat?  Many  pros- 
pective orchardists  propound  as  their  first 
question,  "How  are  we  going  to  rid  the 
land  of  sagebrush  or  stumps  for  setting 
our  trees?"  They  think  when  this  mat- 
ter has  received  attention  that  trees  may 
be  set  at  once.  While  it  is  true  that 
some  lands  may  be  turned  over  and  plant- 
ed immediately,  yet  most  experienced 
growers  and  observers  regard  the  prac- 
tice as  of  doubtful  value.  The  wiser 
plan  is  to  anticipate  planting  two  or  three 
years  in  advance  and  devote  this  time  to 
growing  a  rotation  of  crops  which  will 
bring  the  soil  into  the  best  state  of  cul- 
tivation. After  the  roots  of  the  trees 
have  taken  possession  of  the  soil,  deep 
plowing  can  not  be  done;  and  as  this  is 
essential  the  soil  should  be  plowed 
deeply  before  planting.  For  arid  lands 
in  sagebrush  sections  the  need  of  organic 
matter  in  the  soil  is  apparent  to  the  cas- 
ual observer,  and  no  crops  act  so  bene- 
ficially in  increasing  this  organic  matter 
as  alfalfa  or  clover.  After  clearing  new 
lands  alfalfa  or  clover  may  be  sown, 
which  should  be  allowed  to  remain  one  or 
two  seasons,  after  which  it  is  turned 
under.  By  virtue  of  their  extensive  root 
systems,  better  crops  than  these  are  not 
known  for  breaking  up  soils  underlaid 
with  stiff  clay.  Where  soils  are  suffici- 
ently supplied  with  organic  matter  there 
is  less  need  for  the  above  practice.  New 
ground,  however  rich,  needs  to  be  sub- 
dued before  trees  are  set  upon  it.  Such 
lands  are  apt  to  be  full  of  inequalities; 
hence  every  effort  should  be  made  to  dis- 
cover and  remed.v  the  poor  spots  that  need 
manuring  and  the  wet  spots  that  need 
drainage,  so  that  the  trees  when  planted 


APPLES 


119 


may   grow   evenly   and    rapidly    from    the 
very  start. 

Cereal  Crops  as  Iiidiees 
The  cereal  crops  such  as  wheat  and 
oats  serve  admirably  as  indices  for  bring- 
ing out  these  inequalities.  Immediately 
preceding  the  planting  of  the  orchard  a 
crop  that  requires  thorough  cultivation, 
such  as  potatoes,  is  highly  beneficial  in 
putting  the  finishing  touches  upon  this 
preparatory  cropping  system. 

J.  R.  SiiiXN. 
Moscow,    Idaho. 

THE  MIRSERY 

GrowiiifT  Apple  Seedlings 

The  seeds  for  the  growing  of  "apple 
seedlings"  are  generally  taken  from  the 
cider  mill.  Those  who  prepare  them 
commercially,  wash  them  out  of  the  po- 
mace, store  them  in  a  damp  place,  and, 
just  before  shipping,  dry  them  so  that 
they  will  not  mould.  If  they  are  to  be 
planted  in  a  large  way  and  drills  used 
for  the  purpose  then  the  seeds  must 
he  dried  in  order  that  they  may  drop 
evenly.  Very  often  the  seed  is  planted 
with  the  pomace,  and  this,  for  the  ordi- 
nary grower  not  too  far  from  the  cider 
mill,   is   probably   the   best   way. 

Geriiiiiiation 

There  is  one  peculiarity  of  apple  seeds 
that  must  be  met  when  considering  the 
question  of  planting.  It  is  that  they  do 
not  readily  germinate  it  planted  in  the 
spring  without  having  been  soaked  in 
warm  water  or  frozen.  There  is  a  kind 
of  hard  substance  encasing  the  seed  hull 
that  must  be  broken  or  rotted  before 
the  germ  will  grow.  This  may  be  done 
by  soaking  in  water  from  12  to  20  days; 
or  it  may  be  done  by   freezing. 

Method  of  Planting 

A  good  way  to  plant  is  to  sow  in  drills, 
the  rows  about  two  feet  apart,  with  the 
seed  lightly  covered  so  that  they  will 
freeze  during  the  winter.  If  the  seed 
is  frozen  it  will  come  up  with  the  ap- 
proach of  warm  weather  in  the  spring. 
If  It  is  not  frozen  it  will  not  come  up 
until  the  following  spring.  Another 
method  is  to  put  the  seed  out  on  the 
ground  in  a  pile  and  keep  it  damp,  so 
that  when  the  freezes  of  winter  come  it 


will  be  prepared  for  germination.  When 
it  is  ready  for  planting  it  germinates  and 
grows  much  like  other  crops  and  needs 
substantially   the   same   care. 

Soil 

The  soil  should  be  a  deep  rich  loam, 
because  in  such  a  soil  there  will  grow 
good  large  roots  on  which  to  graft.  The 
land  should  be  plowed  deeply  and  well 
pulverized. 

.Vniount  of  Seed 

There  is  considerable  difference  of  opin- 
ion as  to  the  amount  of  seed  required 
with  which  to  plant  an  acre  and  planters 
advise  anywhere  from  one  to  three 
bushels. 

Cultivation 

With  the  rows  two  feet  apart  a  small 
cultivator  can  be  run  between  them,  or  a 
larger  one  can  be  so  arranged  as  to  culti- 
vate two  to  tour  rows  at  one  time.  The 
cultivation  should  be  thoroughly  done; 
for  a  little  delay  will  sometimes  allow 
the  weeds  to  get  the  start  of  the  plants, 
and  that  causes  a  great  amount  of  extra 
work. 

Mow  the  Tops 

In  the  autumn  when  the  plants  are 
gathered  in  they  should  be  cut  off  with 
a  scythe  or  mower  near  the  ground,  or 
at  any  rate  not  more  than  nine  inches 
high,  since  this  lessens  the  weight  and 
bulk  of  the  materials  handled  and  can 
be  done  with  much  less  labor  than  by 
any  other  method  of  cutting. 

Harvesting 

When  this  is  done  the  plants  are  ready 
to  be  removed.  One  of  the  best  methods 
of  doing  this  work  is  to  run  a  furrow 
on  either  side  of  the  row,  a  second  plow, 
made  especially  for  the  purpose,  cutting 
under  the  trees,  and  leaving  them  stand- 
ing in  the  row.  Then  the  plants  can  be 
easily  pulled  and  placed  in  bunches. 
These  bunches  are  tied  and  buried  in 
trenches  or  beds  until  the  leaves  are  loos- 
ened and  will  drop.  From  these  beds 
they  are  taken  to  the  counting  room 
where  they  are  graded  and  counted, 
either  100  or  200  in  a  bunch,  when  they 
are  planted  out  in  the  nursery  rows  from 
which  the  apple  trees  in  the  nursery 
come. 

GR.'iNVILLE    LOWTHER 


120 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Propagation  of  Apples 
Directions  for  Budding  and  Grafting 

*The  apple  is  propagated  either  by  bud- 
ding or  grafting.  Grafting  is  the  more 
common  way,  and  is  the  method  in  most 
general  use.  There  are  two  principal 
forms  of  grafting;  first,  the  whip  or 
tongue  graft,  usually  employed  in  uniting 
a  piece  of  an  apple  twig  to  a  section  of 
an  apple  root;  second,  the  cleft  graft, 
employed  in  top  working  either  young 
or  old  trees  in  the  field. 

Scions 

A  scion  is  a  twig  from  a  tree  which  is 
to  be  used  for  grafting  purposes.  Scions 
for  root  grafting  may  be  taken  from  the 
trees  at  any  time  after  the  leaves  have 
fallen,  but  it  is  much  better  to  cut  them 
before  the  first  hard  freeze.  Never  cut 
scion  wood  from  trees  while  frozen.  If 
cold  weather  comes  on  suddenl.v  before 
the  scions  are  taken,  wait  until  they  are 
thawed  out.  First,  decide  what  varieties 
are  wanted,  then  go  to  healthy  trees  of 
the  desired  kinds  that  are  known  to  pro- 
duce good  crops,  and  cut  from  them  the 
best  twigs  of  last  season's  growth.  Wood 
that  is  two  years  old  is  not  suitable  for 
grafting,  although  it  will  sometimes  grow. 
Where  scion  wood  is  taken  from  a  young 
tree  it  is  often  possible  to  get  twigs  as 
much  as  two  feet  long,  but  they  can  be 
used  quite  as  well  if  the  growth  is  not 
more  than  six  or  eight  inches,  which  may 
be  the  case  with  old  trees.  Well-ma- 
tured water  sprouts  are  sometimes  used. 
If  water  sprouts  are  taken  be  sure  they 
arise  far  enough  above  the  ground  to  be 
certain  that  they  have  not  come  from  the 
roots  of  the  tree,  which  would  make  them 
seedlings.  Never  make  the  scions  of  soft, 
spongj',  immature  wood,  or  from  any 
which  has  refused  to  shed  its  leaves.  If 
the  scions  are  taken  in  fall  or  early  win- 
ter, they  must  be  packed  in  green  saw- 
dust and  stored  in  the  cellar  like  the 
stock    (roots). 

Scions  should  not  be  permitted  to 
either  freeze  or  dry  out  while  in  storage. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  when  fruits 
are  grafted  the  variety  is  determined  by 

•  For  methods  of  growinp  seedlingr  stocks  see 
article  on  Orotcinq  ftrntlino-i.   P.  113. 


the  scion.  As  a  rule,  the  root  has  little 
or  nothing  to  do  with  determining  the 
size,  color,  shape  or  taste  of  the  fruit. 
However,  the  vigor  of  the  root  does  have 
a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  size  and 
longevity  of  the  tree  that  results  from 
the  scion  that  is  grafted  upon  it. 

Where  a  long  scion  and  a  short  piece 
of  root  are  used  the  former  will  very 
likely  take  root  itself  above  the  stock. 
By  many  this  is  considered  to  be  highly 
desirable,  and  in  such  instances  it  is  said 
that  the  trees  are  "upon  their  own  roots." 
Where  a  long  root  is  used  with  a  very 
short  scion,  the  point  of  union  will  be 
so  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  that 
there  will  be  great  danger  that  sprouts 
will  arise  from  the  roots  which,  of  course, 
would  make  seedling  trees. 

Malting  the  Grafts 

The  grafting  is  best  done  in  a  cellar 
or  basement  room  or  may  be  performed 
in  a  moderately  warm  room,  if  precau- 
tions are  taken  to  keep  the  wood  from 
drying  out.  Keep  packed  up  until  ready 
to  use,  and  repack  as  soon  as  the  work 
is  over.  With  the  exception  of  the  few 
pieces  that  are  being  handled,  the  re- 
mainder should  be  kept  covered  with  a 
piece  of  moist  cloth.  Do  not  work  about 
an  open  fire  or  near  a  hot  stove,  as  both 
the  roots  and  twigs  may  be  dried  out 
and  seriously  Injured.  Grafting  may  be 
done  in  January  and  February,  and  even 
as  late  as  March.  But  February  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  best  month. 

Ordinarily  the  scions  for  best  root 
grafting  are  from  six  to  seven  inches 
long,  but  they  may  be  made  shorter  if 
necessary.  On  the  large  end  of  the  scion, 
make  a  sloping  cut  an  inch  or  an  inch 
and  a  half  long,  as  shown  in  Figs.  2  and 
.1.  X^se  a  sharp  knife  and  make  the  cut 
smooth  and  uniform.  On  the  surface  of 
the  sloping  cut.  from  one-fourth  to  one- 
third  of  the  way  from  the  end,  make  a 
slit  or  tongue  by  a  downward  cut.  The 
tongue  should  be  an  inch  or  more  in 
depth,  partially  following  the  grain  of 
the  wood,  and  partially  across  the  grain, 
so  that  the  twig  does  not  split.  Profes- 
sional propagators  form  the  sloping  cuts, 
make   the   tongues   and   then   cut  off   the 


APPLES 


121 


scions  of  the  desired  lengtli.  Next  take 
one  of  the  long  seedling  roots,  and 
follow  the  same  process  of  making 
a     sloping     cut     and     a     tongue.     Begin 


which  was  just  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground),  and  make  the  cut  so  that 
all  of  the  root  and  one-half  inch  or  so 
of  the  top  are  used.    The  operator  should 


at    the    crown     (the    part    of    the    root      learn  to  be  very  economical  of  the  seed- 


Fig.  1.  Long  and  Short  Scion  Wood.  On  the  left  are  twigs  just  long  enough  to  make 
one  scion  each,  as  will  nearly  always  be  the  case  where  wood  is  taken  from  old 
trees  that  make  only  a  slight  growth  each  season.  By  the  side  of  these  is  some 
long  scion  wood.  The  next  figure  shows  how  the  twigs  are  cut  into  scions  proper, 
the  short   ones   making  one  and   the   long  ones   tliree   cuts. 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


ling  roots,  and  make  them  go  as  far  as 
possible.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  not 
do  to  leave  too  much  of  the  part  that 
grew  above  ground  on  the  root  or  stock, 
as  the  buds  would  be  very  likely  to  grow, 
thus  keeping  the  scion  from  forming  a 
tree.  In  this  case,  the  tree  that  was 
formed  would  be  a  seedling.  In  making 
the  sloping  cut  upon  the  root  or  stock, 
care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  it  and 
also  the  tongue  are  as  near  like  the  slope 
and  tongue  on  the  scion  as  it  is  possible 
to  make  them.  Particularly  is  it  neces- 
sary that  the  slit  for  the  tongue  be 
started  at  exactly  the  same  distance  from 
the  end  on  both  scion  and  root.  The  root 
is  now  cut  off  about  three  inches  long 
and  the  process  repeated  until  the  entire 
seedling  root  has  been  used.  If  the  seed- 
lings made  a  good  growth  and  the  soil 
was  porous  enough  to  let  them  go  down 
properly,  each  root  will  usually  make 
about  three  pieces.  Consult  Figs.  2  and  3. 
Join  the  root  and  scion  by  placing  the 
two  sloping  surfaces  together  and  caus- 
ing the  tongues  to  interlock.  Just  here 
the  main  thing  to  be  observed  is  to  watch 
one  side  and  see  that  the  bark  line  of 
the  scion  comes  exactly  into  contact  with 
the  bark  line  of  the  root.  This  is  highly 
important,  for  here  is  where  the  two  are 
to  grow  together.  The  scion  an(J-.root 
may  not  be  of  the  same  thickness,  in'  fact 
seldom  are,  but  this  makes  no  difference 
if  the  above  instructions  are  followed. 
(See  Fig.  2.)  If  the  tongues  of  both 
scion  and  stock  are  of  the  same  length 
and  were  started  at  about  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  end  of  each  piece  they 
will  exactly  fit.  If  one  of  the  slits  has 
been  started  too  low  down  on  the  face 
of  the  sloping  cut,  this  will  be  shown 
when  the  two  pieces  are  fitted  together. 
For  example,  suppose  the  tongue  was 
started  too  low  down  on  the  stock,  but 
at  the  right  point  on  the  scion.  When 
the  two  are  put  together  it  will  be  found 
that  the  sloping  part  of  the  stock  will 
overlap  on  the  scion  far  beyond  the  cut 
surface  where  it  is  intended  it  should  fit 
neatly.  This  is  very  bad,  as  a  wound 
will  result,  and  such  a  wound  cannot  heal. 
To  grow  together,  the  two  cut  surfaces 
must  be  in  intimate  contact  so  that  their 


cambium  layers  on  at  least  one  side  will 
touch.  If  a  cut  surface  is  in  contact 
with  the  outside  of  a  bark  surface,  as 
in  the  example  cited  above,  it  is  easy 
to  see  that  the  parts  cannot  unite.  An 
open  wound  under  ground  is  as  bad  as 
a  wounded  place  above  ground,  for  both 
invite  disease  organisms.  See  right  hand 
side  of  Fig.  2. 


Fiff.  2.  rropa.satins  Apples  b.v  Piece  Root 
Graftinj;.  In  The  first  on  the  left  a  represents 
the  scion  and  b  the  root  or  stock.  Note  how 
tongue  is  cut  in  each.  In  the  next  picture 
c  anu  (/  shows  the  scion  and  stock  properly 
fitted  together,  and  c  illustrates  how  they  are 
tied  with  No.  19  cotton  knitting  thread.  Not 
necessary  to  was  or  even  use  waxed  thread. 

The  remainder  of  the  picture — the  three  figures 
on  the  right,  show  what  happens  when  the 
tongues  on  scion  and  stock  are  not  made 
alike.  In  a  tlie  tongue  is  about  riglit,  but  in 
6  it  is  started  entirely  too  far  from  the  end 
to  match.  When  made  this  wa.v  and  fitted 
together  the  pieces  overlap  and  form  a  very 
bad  union  as  shown  in  c. 

After  uniting  the  scion  and  stock  it 
will  be  necessary  to  wrap  the  point  of 
union  with  No.  18  or  20  cotton  knitting 
thread.  Holding  the  graft  in  the  left 
hand  with  the  root  part  forward,  the 
thread  is  laid  upon  the  wood  near  the 
end  of  the  cut,  wound  two  or  three  times 
around  at  this  place,  at  the  same  time 
pressing  the  parts  together  tightly  with 
thumb  and  fin,ger.  Next  work  the  thread 
up  to  the  other  end  of  the  cut  by  winding 
it  two  or  three  times  around  the  graft 
during  the  distance,    then    two    or    three 


APPLES 


123 


times  around  the  other  end  of  the  cut, 
as  in  the  beginning,  and  fasten  the  end, 
not  by  tying,  but  by  drawing  it  down 
into  the  cut  and  by  a  sharp  jerk,  break- 
ing it  off.  This  completes  the  process. 
The  finished  graft  should  be  from  seven 
to  nine  inches  long.  (Fig.  2.)  Some 
people  prefer  to  dip  the  ball  of  wrapping 
thread  in  hot  grafting  wax  before  using. 
If  this  is  done  it  is  not  necessary  to 
fasten  the  end  of  the  thread  after  wrap- 


Fig.  3.  Apple  Grafts.  At  a  are  shown  a 
good  No.  1  apple  seedling,  whole,  and  the 
same  cut  into  three  pieces  for  piece  root 
grafting.  At  b  is  shown  the  complete  pro- 
cess of  malting  apple  grafts. 

ping,  as  the  wax  will  hold  it  in  place. 
The  old  way  was  to  thoroughly  wax  over 
the  point  of  union  after  being  wrapped 
with  a  string.  Some  also  went  so  far 
as  to  wrap  with  a  piece  of  waxed  cloth. 
But  these  precautions  are  not  considered 
to  be  necessarj\ 

Whole-root  grafts  are  widely  advertised. 
This  is  a  trade  name  for  grafts  that  have 
been    made    by    using    branching    roots 


four  to  six  inches  long,  the  scion  being 
grafted  on  at  the  crown  or  part  of  the 
seedling  root  that  grew  just  at  the  top 
of  the  ground.  Seedlings  that  have  not 
formed  long  tap  roots  may  be  economi- 
cally employed  in  whole-root  grafting.  It 
is  not  practical,  and  also  is  unnecessary 
to  use  entirely  whole  roots,  where  the 
latter  are  very  long,  in  root  grafting. 
In  the  first  place  it  would  scarcely  be 
l)ossible  to  dig  the  seedling  without  de- 
stroying a  portion  of  the  tap  root,  and 
even  if  this  could  be  accomplished,  it 
would  not  be  feasible  to  plant  such  grafts 
after  they  were  made  as  they  would  be 
two  feet  or  more  in  length.  In  many  in- 
stances there  is  no  doubt  but  that  grafts 
u]ion  moderately  long  roots  will  make 
better  trees  than  where  very  short  pieces 
are  used.  However,  very  much  depends 
upon  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the 
season  in  which  grafts  are  grown.  With 
proper  handling  good  trees  may  be  grown 
with  short  pieces  of  root  for  stock. 
Owing  to  cheapness  as  well  as  ease  in 
handling,  the  writer  prefers  a  scion  six 
or  seven  inches  long  and  a  section  of 
root  about  three  inches  long.  (Figs.  2 
and   3.) 

In  wrapping  apple  grafts  only  just 
enough  thread  should  be  used  to  hold 
the  parts  firmly  together  until  planted. 
It  is  a  mistake  to  wrap  with  thread  that 
is  too  strong,  or  to  use  too  much  of  the 
right  kind  of  string,  as  such  binding 
material  will  not  decay  quickly  enough. 
If  the  thread  does  not  decay  when 
growth  begins  after  being  planted,  the 
tree  at  the  point  of  union  will  be  girdled 
or  ligatured,  thus  creating  a  wound  which 
is  a  menace  to  the  health  of  the  tree. 
This  is  the  objection  to  using  waxed 
thread,  as  the  wax  may  prevent  its  decay- 
ing  at   the   proper   time. 

Pack  the  grafts  in  bundles  of  50  to 
100  each  and  store  in  green  sawdust, 
where  they  are  to  be  kept  until  plant- 
ing time.  While  in  storage  the  cut  sur- 
faces which  have  been  joined  together 
will  actually  begin  to  heal  over  and  par- 
tially begin  to  unite,  and  on  this  account 
the  grafts  should  not  be  disturbed  until 
they  are  taken  out  for  planting.  Keep 
the  boxes   of  grafts   in  a  cellar  or  mod- 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


erately  cool  room.  They  should  not  be 
permitted  to  freeze,  and  neither  must  they 
be  allowed  to  dry  out.  Examine  fre- 
quently and  sprinkle  the  sawdust  a  few 
times  if  necessary  to  keep  moist.  If  the 
room  is  warm  and  the  sawdust  is  kept 
moist,  the  grafts  will  certainly  begin  to 
grow  at  least  a  month  before  they  can 
be  planted,  which  will  injure  them  very 
greatly. 

Planting 
As  soon  as  the  ground  will  do  to  work 
in  the  spring  select  a  place  where  the 
soil  is  moderately  rich,  but  not  extremely 
so,  on  which  to  plant  the  grafts.  Plow 
the  land  deeply,  and  otherwise  prepare 
as  for  a  garden  spot.  The  rows  should  be 
perfectly  straight  in  order  to  facilitate 
close  cultivation  with  the  horse  culti- 
vator. Use  a  line  or  wire  for  getting  the 
rows  straight.  The  rows  should  be  four 
feet  apart.  The  planting  may  be  done 
by  either  of  two  methods.  Where  a  large 
number    of    grafts    are    to    be    planted    a 


furrow  is  opened  with  a  turning  plow. 
The  grafts  are  then  stood  up  along  the 
vertical  side  and  the  earth  thrown 
against  them  with  a  plow  or  by  hand. 
Where  only  a  few  grafts  are  to  be  planted 
the  other  method  is  employed.  This  con- 
sists of  making  holes  about  eight  inches 
deep  with  a  wooden  pole  properly  sharp- 
ened for  the  purpose.  A  long,  round  bar 
of  iron  is  sometimes  used,  but  is  rather 
too  heavy  for  convenience.  In  making 
the  holes  the  pole  should  be  carefully 
withdrawn  from  the  ground  with  many 
side  movements,  so  that  the  soil  will  not 
fall   in. 

Plant  the  grafts  deeply.  After  placing 
them  in  the  holes  or  in  the  furrow  there 
should  be  only  one  or  two  of  the  buds 
of  the  scion  left  above  ground.  This 
makes  it  necessary  that  the  ground 
should  have  been  plowed  deeply.  The 
most  important  operation  of  all  in  plant- 
ing is  to  be  certain  to  press  the  soil  up 
closely    against   the    roots    of   the   grafts. 


Fig.  4.  Planting  Apple  Grafts.  The  soil  must  be  pressed  tislitly  against  all  parts 
underground.  Use  a  dibber  for  this  purpose  as  shown  in  the  Illustration.  The 
second  graft  from  the  left  hand  side  is  Improperly  planted,  as  there  is  a  large  air 
space  at  the  bottom.  The  last  one  on  the  right  is  correctly  planted — in  contact 
with  the  soil   throughout. 


APPLES 


125 


Where  grafts  are  planted  in  holes  and  not 
in  a  furrow,  the  soil  is  best  pressed  up 
against  the  lower  part  by  means  of  a 
"dibber."  This  dibber  may  be  made  by 
sharpening  a  piece  of  hoe  handle  to  a  long 
point  and  attaching  to  the  top  of  the 
handle  a  cross  piece  for  convenience  in 
handling.  An  ideal  dibber  is  made  by 
using  the  end  of  an  old  spade  handle 
containing  the  hand  piece,  together  with 
eight  inches  or  so  of  the  handle,  prop- 
erly sharpened  to  a  point.  See  Fig.  4  for 
a  plain  dibber  without  special  hand  piece. 
The  dibber  is  forced  down  in  the  ground 
by  the  side  of  the  graft  and  the  soil 
pressed  up  tightly  against  both  root  and 
scion  from  bottom  to  top.  Fig.  4  shows 
how  planting  is  done. 

The  grafts  cannot  grow  if  air  spaces 
are  left  around  the  roots.  Here  is  where 
more  people  fail  than  at  any  other  point. 
Large  growers  of  young  apple  trees  are 
disposed    to    plant   most    of    their    grafts 


in  furrows  for  the  reason  that  it  is  next 
to  Impossible  to  get  workmen  who  will 
do  the  work  of  planting  properly  by  the 
other  method.  Give  the  little  trees  good 
culture,  including  two  or  three  hoeings 
during  the  summer,  and  with  a  fair  sea- 
son they  will  make  a  vigorous  growth, 
and  attain  a  height  of  from  two  to  three 
feet.  In  rich  soils  they  will  grow  even 
higher.  If  trees  are  to  be  left  until  they 
are  two  years  old  before  transplanting, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  go  through  the 
nursery  early  the  following  spring  be- 
fore growth  begins  and  carefully  trim 
off  all  branches  that  may  have  formed 
up  to  a  height  of  24  inches. 

The  trees  may  be  set  in  the  orchard 
after  one  season's  growth,  particularly  if 
they  have  attained  a  height  of  three  to 
four  feet.  If  the  soil  has  been  fertile 
and  cultivation  good  they  will  occasionally 
grow  five  feet  the  first  season.  A  one- 
year-old  tree,  three  to  four  feet  in  height; 


Fig.  5. 


Young  Apple  Tree  Top   Worked  by  Means  of  the  Whip  Graft.      The  picture  on 
the  right  shows  the  pruning  received  two  months  after  grafting. 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


would  be  ideal  for  planting.  In  the  past, 
particularly  in  the  Middle  West,  it  has 
been  customary  to  allow  the  trees  to  stand 
two  years  in  the  nursery  before  trans- 
planting to  the  orchard.  However,  there 
is  now  a  growing  sentiment  in  favor  of 
planting  one-year  trees,  as  they  can  be 
grown  at  less  cost,  are  more  easily  han- 
dled, and  more  economically  planted. 
Trees  may  be  transplanted  to  the  orchard 
in  the  fall  if  there  has  been  rain  enough 
to  malie  the  ground  moist.  South  of  the 
latitude  of  St.  Louis  or  Kansas  City,  in 
the  Middle  West,  fall  planting  is  very  de- 
sirable if  the  ground  is  in  proper  condi- 
tion. The  majority  of  planting  is  done  in 
the  spring,  which  is  usually  the  most 
satisfactory,  especially  in  the  North.  If 
it  is  known  that  other  work  will  be 
pressing  in  the  spring,  so  that  the  work 
of  planting  apple  trees  is  likely  to  be 
hurried  or  otherwise  improperly  done, 
then   they  should  be  planted   in   the   fall 


when  more  attention  can  be  given  to  the 
work. 

The  whi])  or  tongue  graft  is  sometimes 
employed  for  top  working  very  young 
trees  in  the  orchard,  particularly  those 
that  are  only  one  year  old.  For  trees 
of  this  age  this  method  is  regarded  as 
being  better  than  the  cleft  graft.  Tie 
securely  and  cover  with  wax. 

Cleft  Grafting 

While  the  whip  or  tongue  graft  de- 
scribed above  is  the  method  in  most  gen- 
eral use  among  nurserymen  for  the  prop- 
agation of  apple  trees,  there  is  another 
form  known  as  cleft  grafting  that  is 
used  very  extensively  by  farmers  and 
others  who  have  only  a  few  trees.  A 
knowledge  of  cleft  grafting  is  especially 
useful  where  one  has  an  apple  tree  that 
has  reacheii  bearing  age  and  is  found  to 
be  unsatisfactory,  either  in  the  kind  or 
quantity   of  its   fruit.     The   tree  may  be 


Fig.  6.  The  Cleft  Graft.  The  shoi-t  spion  (about  four  inches  Ions)  whittled  to  a  wedge 
sljape,  is  shown  at  a.  The  middle  figui-e,  h.  shows  how  the  stump  or  hi-anch  is  sawed  off 
and  split,  and  how  the  two  scions  are  inserted.  Note  that  thi-  inner  part  of  the  bark 
of  the  scion  is  exactly  in  contact  with  the  inner  bark  of  the  stock.  The  last  figure, 
c,   illustrates  how  all   cut  surfaces  must  he  thoroughly   covered   with    hot   grafting  wax. 


APPLES 


127 


cut  down  if  not  too  old.  or  regardless  of 
age  (if  large  enough),  its  branches  may 
be  sawed  off  and  the  desired  variety  of 
apple  inserted  upon  the  stump  or  stumps. 
More  people  will  have  occasion  to  use  the 
cleft  graft  than  the  first  method  described. 

Cleft  grafting  is  sometimes  employed 
on  other  trees  besides  the  apple.  This 
method  is  also  sometimes  called  top 
grafting.  As  many  varieties  as  there  are 
branches  to  work  them  upon  may  be  top 
grafted  upon  a  single  tree.  In  fact,  there 
is  no  reason  why  summer,  fall  and  win- 
ter apples  may  not  be  grown  on  the  same 
branch  or  adjacent  branches.  It  is  a  mat- 
ter of  great  curiosity  to  see  apples  of 
different  colors  and  sizes  growing  upon 
the  same  tree,  but  such  a  mixture  would 
be  of  little  practical  value,  as  there  would 
not  be  enough  of  any  one  kind  of  fruit  to 
amount  to  much.  New  varieties  may  be 
hurried  into  bearing  by  being  worked 
upon  the  branches  of  an  old  tree.  Weep- 
ing forms  of  trees  like  the  mulberry, 
ash,  elm  and  others,  are  often  top-worked 
upon    upright   growers   by   cleft   grafting. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  collect  the  scions 
for  cleft  grafting  early  in  the  winter 
before  freezing  weather,  and  store  them 
in  the  manner  described  under  the  dis- 
cussion of  whip  grafting.  The  work  of 
cleft  grafting  is  done  in  late  winter  or 
early  spring.  Top  grafting  of  apple  trees 
is  more  successful  if  done  before  growth 
starts,  but  where  only  a  few  trees  are  to 
be  worked  the  operation  may  be  delayed 
until  after  the  leaf  buds  are  just  begin- 
ning to  open.  Regardless  of  when  the 
grafting  is  done,  the  scions  must  be  per- 
fectly dormant.  To  do  the  work  saw  off 
the  branch  if  as  much  as  an  inch  in 
diameter  or  even  the  body  of  the  tree, 
if  it  is  not  more  than  three  or  four  inches 
thick,  and  split  the  stump  down  the 
center  towards  one  side  with  a  knife 
or  hatchet.  The  scion,  which  is  the  same 
kind  of  wood  described  for  other  scions, 
should  be  only  four  or  five  inches  long. 
The  lower  end  is  whittled  on  both  sides 
to  a  wedge  shape.  Where  many  trees 
are  top  worked,  the  safest  way  to  set 
the  scions  is  to  lean  them  inward  (or 
outward)  so  that  the  growing  layer  of 
both   scion   and   stock   are  sure   to   be   in 


contact  at  the  point  where  they  cross. 
In  making  the  wedge  the  slopes  must  be 
long  and  uniform — care  being  taken  to 
whittle  the  same  amount  of  wood  from 
each  side.  Sometimes  the  branch  or 
trunk,  if  as  much  as  three  or  four  inches 
in  diameter,  is  split  through  the  center 
in  two  directions,  thus  making  room  for 
four  scions.  Instead  of  splitting  the 
trunk  or  branch  through  the  center  many 
people  now  prefer  to  make  the  cleft  to- 
ward one  side  so  that  the  split  part  in- 
volves only  the  outer  part  of  the  sap 
wood.  Such  a  method  would  not  cause 
such  a  large  wound,  and  on  this  account 
it  is  now  preferred  by  many  good  propa- 
gators. 

As  explained,  the  slope  on  the  scion 
must  be  long  and  uniform.  Pry  open  the 
cleft  in  the  trunk  or  branch  to  be  grafted 
and  carefully  insert  the  scion  so  the 
bark  of  one  side  will  be  exactly  in  con- 
tact with  the  inner  part  of  the  growing 
part  of  the  bark  of  the  stock  on  that  side. 
This  is  extremely  important,  for  here 
is  the  place  where  they  are  to  grow  to- 
gether, and  they  cannot  do  so  unless  the 
inner  bark  of  one  piece  is  exactly  in  line 
with  the  inner  bark  of  the  other.  If  the 
old  branch  or  trunk  of  the  tree  is  large 
enough,  that  is,  thick  enough,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  use  two  scions,  one  at  either 
side  of  the  cleft,  as  this  will  double  the 
chances  of  success.  The  same  principle 
is  followed  where  four  scions  are  used. 

If  the  grafted  stump  be  as  much  as 
three  inches  thick  a  wedge  for  the  pur- 
pose should  be  made  of  pine,  or  almost 
any  other  wood,  and  driven  down  in  the 
center  of  the  cleft,  just  far  enough  to 
relieve  the  great  pressure  which  would 
otherwise  be  exerted  on  the  scions,  but 
yet  not  far  enough  to  cause  them  to  be 
loose.  After  being  driven  down  to  the 
proper  point  the  wedge  may  be  broken 
off  even  with  the  top  of  the  stump. 

When  the  scions  and  wedge  are  in  place 
it  will  be  necessary  to  cover  all  cuts  and 
cut  surfaces  with  hot  grafting  wax.  The 
wax  may  be  melted  in  a  tin  pan  at  the 
house  and  carried  to  the  orchard  if  not 
too  far  away.  It  is  best  to  prepare  a 
small  wooden  paddle  with  which  to  dip 
up   the   molten    wax   and   spread    it  over 


128 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTLRE 


and  around  the  scions  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  entirely  exclude  the  air,  and  thus 
keep  them  from  drying  out  until  they 
unite  with  the  old  wood.  This  wax 
should  never  be  disturbed  afterward,  as 
it  will  not  injure  the  tree.  If  more  than 
one  scion  grows,  by  all  means  cut  them 
off.  If  two  scions  are  allowed  to  stand, 
a  forked  tree  will  be  formed,  which  is 
always  to  be  avoided. 

Old  apple  trees  may  be  top  worked  to 
other  varieties  and  entirely  renewed  by 
means  of  cleft  grafting.  If  trees  are  10 
to  20  years  old,  all  of  the  branches  can- 
not be  cut  off  and  grafted  at  once.  Per- 
haps four-fifths  of  the  branches  may  be 
top  worked  to  the  desired  variety  in  one 
season,   and  the  remainder  the  next  sea- 


Fis.  7.  A  llandv  Tool  for  L'se  in  Splittins 
Limbs  for  Cleft  Grafts.  The  wedge  sbanod 
point  is  used  for  holding  the  cleft  apart  while 
inserting   the   grafts. 

son.  In  old  trees  the  growth  which  re- 
sults from  the  newly  inserted  grafts 
seems  to  require  some  protection  from 
sun  and  wind.  A  few  old  branches  are 
left  for  this  purpose.  Furthermore,  the 
old  branches  are  necessary,  as  the  tree 
will  be  in  need  of  more  foliage  than  the 
grafts  could  supply  in  early  summer  to 
carry  on  the  necessary  vital  activities 
which  it  is  the  duty  of  leaves  to  per- 
form. The  chief  duty  of  such  leaves,  in 
fact,  is  to  feed  the  roots. 

In  top  working  vigorous  growing  trees 
of  from  three  to  five  years'  growth  in 
the  orchard,  the  trunk  is  often  cut  off 
a  foot  or  so  from  the  ground  and  cleft 
grafted.  The  one  scion  that  is  permitted 
to  grow  pushes  upward  so  rapidly  as  a 
result  of  the  pressure  of  the  large  root 
system  of  the  tree,  that  it  is  in  very  great 


danger  of  being  blown  oft  during  the  sum- 
mer. In  such  cases  it  is  nearly  always 
necessary  to  drive  down  a  stake  to  which 
the  little  top  of  the  tree  may  be  bound 
for  greater  security. 

Another  form  of  cleft  grafting  which 
is  coming  into  general  use  in  the  West 
and  Northwest  is  somewhat  similar  to 
the  cleft  graft  that  has  been  described, 
except  that  the  stock  is  not  split  at  all. 
Instead,  a  sharp  saw  is  used  to  cut  a 
notch  upon  one  side  of  the  several  points 
around  the  edge  of  the  stump.  By  saw- 
ing straight  into  the  wood  the  notch 
will  be  sufficiently  wide  to  admit  the 
scion  if  the  saw  teeth  have  a  wide  set. 

In  preparing  the  scion  this  will  have 
to  be  whittled  to  a  somewhat  different 
shape,  but  in  the  main  the  same  princi- 
ples will  have  to  be  observed  as  with 
the  other  method.  Be  sure  that  it  fits 
the  notch.  Lean  the  scion  inward  and 
force  down  so  that  it  reaches  below  the 
notch.  This  will  make  it  certain  that  the 
bark  lines  cross.  Finally  cover  all  cut 
surfaces  with  hot  grafting  wax. 

In  all  forms  of  cleft  graftage,  but  par- 
ticularly those  which  employ  the  split- 
ting of  the  old  wood,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  growth  which  heals  the 
wound  will  take  place  from  the  scion  and 
gradually  spread  through  the  end  of  the 
branch  or  trunk  that  has  been  cut  off. 
The  old  wood  is  absolutely  incapable  of 
growth,  and  hence  is  liable  to  become 
infected  with  disease  germs  unless  kept 
protected  until  the  new  wood  can  cover 
it  over  completely.  If  there  is  a  break 
in  the  wax  the  sap,  which  is  under  strong 
pressure  from  the  roots,  will  ooze  out  and 
become  sour,  because  it  has  been  attacked 
by  certain  germs  which  set  up  a  fermen- 
tation. These  same  germs,  and  also 
others,  may  find  their  way  beneath  the 
wax  and  the  central  part  of  the  tree 
thus  becomes  affected,  and  even  though 
the  wound  may  eventually  heal,  the  tree 
will  decay  from  the  interior.  This  is  very 
likely  to  cause  a  hollow  tree,  which  might 
break  down  tmder  the  first  heavy  load 
of   fruit. 

Grafting  Wax 

There  are  more  than  a  dozen  recipes 
or    formulas    for    making    grafting    wax. 


APPLES 


129 


but  all  of  them  are  essentially  the  same. 
The  formula  which  has  been  used  for 
many  years  by  the  Horticultural  Depart- 
ment of  the  I'niversity  of  Missouri  and 
found  to  be  yery  satisfactory,  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

Common  resin  7  lbs. 

Beeswax      , 2  lbs. 

Beef  tallow  .1  lb. 

If  this  much  is  not  desired  divide  each 
of  the  above  items  by  two,  three  or  four, 
as  may  be  needed.  Dissolve  all  of  the 
ingredients  in  a  vessel  over  a  fire,  stir- 
ring thoroughly.  When  they  are  well 
mixed,  pour  such  of  the  mass  as  can  be 
handled  at  one  time  into  a  tub  of  water, 
where  it  will  quickly  cool.  Grease  the 
hands  with  tallow  and  gradually  work 
the  mass  together  in  the  water.  When 
cool  enough  to  stick  together,  remove 
from  the  water  and  pull  like  taffy  candy 
until  it  becomes  too  stiff  to  work.  The 
process  should  be  kept  up  for  at  least  15 
minutes,  or  until  the  mass  has  changed 
color,  much  in  the  same  manner  as  mo- 
lasses candy.  Roll  into  balls  four  or  five 
inches  in  diameter  and  store  away  until 
needed.  It  will  keep  indefinitely.  In- 
stead of  the  beeswax,  some  people  prefer 
to  use  paraffin.  A  pint  of  raw  linseed 
oil  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  tal- 
low  that   was   recommended. 

BnddJng 

Apples  may  be  propagated  readily  by 
budding  at  whatever  time  the  bark  peels 
best.  This  date  will  vary  from  .Tune  to 
September,  depending  upon  latitude  and 
weather  conditions.  The  work  is  usually 
done  during  August  or  the  first  week  in 
September.  The  buds  must  be  inserted 
in  the  wood  that  grew  the  same  season 
that  budding  is  done.  If  the  trees  are 
grown  from  the  seed  thej'  may  be  too 
small  for  budding  the  first  season.  In 
this  event  they  should  be  cut  back  to 
the  ground  the  next  spring,  and  the  new- 
sprouts  budded  towards  the  close  of  the 
season.  The  stock  is  usually  transplanted 
before  budding.  The  branches  of  old 
trees  are  sometimes  cut  off  and  the  new- 
growth  that  comes  out  may  be  budded  at 
the  proper  season.  Similarly  where  the 
trunks  of  trees  are  cut  off  for  the  same 


purpose  or  which  have  been  top  grafted, 
but  the  scions  did  not  grow,  sprouts  will 
arise,  which  may  be  budded. 

Relatively  speaking,  apple  trees  are  not 
budded  to  any  great  extent,  as  it  is  more 
convenient  to  propagate  them  by  means 
of  the  root  graft.  However,  some  nur- 
series make  a  specialty  of  budded  trees. 
It  has  been  claimed  that  budded  trees  are 
superior  to  those  grown  from  root  grafts, 
the  argument  being  that  there  is  no 
wound  below  ground,  and  hence  the  or- 
ganisms which  often  attack  the  roots  of 
apple  trees  will  cause  no  injury.  This 
is  undoubtedly  partially  true,  although  it 
is  found  that  budded  tress  are  attacked 
by  the  diseases  known  as  "crown  gall." 
as  well  as  those  that  have  been  grafted. 
As  a  rule  budded  trees  make  a  better 
root  system  than  piece  root  grafts  and 
therein  lies  their  superiority  if  they  pos- 
sess any.  (Detailed  statement  of  how 
budding  is  done  will  be  found  under  the 
heading  of  Peaches.) 

Dwarf  Apples 

Any  of  the  common  varieties  of  ap- 
ples may  be  grown  as  dwarfs,  provided 
they  are  worked  upon  the  Paradise  apple, 
which  is  a  natural  dwarf. 

Doucin  stock  produces  what  is  known 
as  half-dwarf  apples.  Some  varieties  of 
apples  are  not  adapted  to  being  grown 
as  dwarfs  to  any  great  extent  in  this 
country.  In  general,  the  very  vigorous 
growing  varieties  are  not  adapted  to  be- 
ing dwarfed.  The  Ben  Davis,  it  is  known, 
will   not   dwarf   successfully. 

Paradise  and  Doucin  stock  must  be  im- 
ported from  Prance,  Holland  or  Germany, 
as  they  are  rarely  propagated  in  this 
country.  Since  there  is  now  a  small  de- 
mand for  dwarf  apple  trees,  the  larger 
nurseries  have  begun  to  carry  them  In 
stock.  The  very  large  nursery  firms  of 
the  country  generally  are  able  to  supply 
small  orders  for  Paradise  or  Doucin  stock 
for  grafting  purposes.  They  are  more 
expensive  than  the  common  stock,  as  the 
usual  method  of  propagation  is  to  mound 
up  the  earth  around  the  little  trees  and 
permit  the  numerous  branches  to  take 
root.  Then  they  are  cut  away  and  sold. 
On  this  account  (being  rooted  branches). 


130 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


they  are  not  adapted  to  being  used  as 
stock  for  piece  root  grafting,  but  are 
generally  set  out  and  allowed  to  grow 
one  season  and  then  top  worked  by  one 
of  the  methods  described. 

Dwarf  apple  trees  come  into  bearing 
much  earlier  than  others,  but  do  not  live 
nearly  so  long.  Dwarf  apples,  particu- 
larly varieties  adapted  to  dwarfing,  attain 
a  height  of  six  or  seven  feet,  and  hence 
a  large  niimber  may  be  grown  on  an  acre 
of  ground.  Dwarfs  are  sometimes  grown 
in  pots.  In  the  orchard  they  may  be 
planted  as  close  as  eight  or  ten  feet  apart 
each  way. 

W.  L.  Howard. 

Columbia.  Mo. 

Root  Grafting 
Piece-Root  Experiments 

Probably  no  topic  connected  with  apple 
growing  has  received  more  discussion 
than  the  methods  of  grafting,  the  most 
diverse  opinions  being  held  by  nursery- 
men and  apple  growers.  The  Kansas 
station  has  recently  reported  experiments 
in  which  some  important  points  in  regard 
to  root  grafting  apples  were  brought  out. 
The  object  of  the  work  was  to  determine 
the  relative  positions  of  the  graft  on  the 
stock.  The  tests  were  carried  through  a 
number  of  years,  and  in  all  several  thou- 
sand grafts  were  made.  The  stocks  used 
were  all  No.  1  seedlings,  most  of  which 
were  regraded  to  get  a  uniform  lot.  The 
scions  were  also  as  uniform  as  possible. 

In  the  first  experiment  six-inch  Ben 
Davis  scions  were  grafted  on  different 
parts  of  roots.  The  tops  of  seedlings 
were  cut  off  below  the  crown  and  the  roots 
cut  into  three  pieces.  One  hundred  grafts 
were  made  with  the  upper  parts  of  the 
roots,  100  with  the  middle  parts,  and 
100  with  the  lower  parts  or  tips  of  the 
roots.  About  80  per  cent  of  the  grafts 
made  with  the  upper  and  middle  parts 
of  the  roots  grew,  and  at  one  and  two 
years  old  there  was  little  difference  be- 
tween the  trees  grown  from  them.  Of 
the  grafts  made  with  the  root  tips  only 
60  per  cent  grew.  The  first  season  the 
trees  of  this  lot  avera.ged  one-third  less 
in  height  than  the  other  lots  and  were 
more  slender  and  weak.    The  second  vear 


the  difference  was  less  marked.  The 
same  year  that  the  above  experiment  was 
begun  100  Ben  Davis  scions  two  feet 
long  were  grafted  on  the  upper  parts  of 
roots  cut  below  the  crown.  At  two  years 
old  these  trees  were  about  one-half  larger 
and  stronger  than  the  trees  from  six- 
inch  scions  on  similar  stocks.  Many  of 
the  tops  were  so  heavy  as  to  necessitate 
summer   pruning. 

In  1893  more  extensive  experiments 
were  made.  Winesap,  Missouri  Pippin, 
Ben  Davis,  and  Maiden  Blush  apples 
were  used  in  each  series  of  grafts  made. 
Three  lengths  of  scions,  6,  12  and  24 
inches,  were  used.  With  each  kind  of 
scion  four  lengths  of  stocks  were  used, 
namely,  piece  roots,  1%,  2 'A  and  5 
inches  long,  and  whole  roots.  For  all 
piece-root  grafts  the  upper  parts  of  roots 
were  used.  In  all  cases  except  where 
]%-inch  stocks  were  used,  one-half  of 
the  grafts  were  made  one  inch  above  the 
crown  and  the  other  half  below  the  crown. 
Besides  the  above  a  number  of  grafts 
were  made  on  2to-inch  piece  roots  of 
small  size.  In  all  9,200  grafts  were  made. 
The  grafts  were  set  in  nursery  rows, 
with  the  place  of  union  of  stock  and 
scion  in  all  cases  about  three  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  per- 
centage of  loss  was  great,  owing  to  the 
very  unfavorable  spring  and  to  the  grafts 
having  been  stored  in  a  cellar  which  was 
too  warm.  The  loss  with  the  whole  root 
grafts  was  least,  and  increased  as  the 
length  of  the  root  diminished.  About 
S2  per  cent  of  the  whole-root  grafts  were 
living  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  as 
against  only  about  49  per  cent  of  the 
5-inch,  17  per  cent  of  the  2H'-inch,  11 
per  cent  of  the  small  214-inch,  and  6 
per  cent  of  the  1%-inch  piece-root  grafts. 
From  measurements  made  at  the  end  of 
the  third  season  it  was  shown  that  the 
greatest  growth  was  made  in  trees  grafted 
on  the  longest  stocks  and  that  the  growth 
declined  gradually,  though  slightly,  with 
the  shorter  stocks,  being  about  11  per  cent 
greater  with  the  whole  root  than  with 
the  114 -inch  piece-root  grafts.  The  trees 
also  showed  a  tendency  to  make  the  best 
growth  from  the  longest  scions,  the 
growth    being   11    per   cent   greater   with 


APPLES 


131 


the  24-inch  scions  than  with  the  6-inch 
ones.  There  was  no  constant  difference 
in  growth  between  the  trees  grafted 
above  the  crown  and  those  grafted  be- 
low it. 

In  1894  the  above  experiment  was  re- 
peated in  part  with  Winesap,  Ben  Davis, 
and  Missouri  Pippin  apples,  using  6,  12, 
and  24-inch  scions  on  whole  roots  and 
5-inch  piece-root  stocks  grafted  above  and 
below  the  crown.  After  two  years' 
growth  there  was  no  constant  difference 
between  the  trees  grafted  above  the 
crown  and  those  grafted  below,  either 
as  regards  height  or  diameter.  The 
length  of  the  stocks  and  scions  had  a 
marked  influence  on  the  growth,  the  dif- 
ference in  favor  of  the  long  stocks  and 
long  scions  being  practically  constant  in 
all  cases.  The  height  of  2-year-old  trees 
grafted  on  whole  roots  average  21  per 
cent  greater  than  on  5-inch  stocks  and 
the  diameter  over  3  per  cent  greater. 
Trees  from  24-inch  scions  averaged  10  per 
cent  higher  than  from  12-inch  scions,  and 
20  per  cent  higher  than  those  from  6-inch 
scions.  Their  diameters  were  27  per  cent 
greater  than  the  trees  from  12-inch  scions 
and  34  per  cent  greater  than  those  from 
6-inch  scions.  These  differences  were  not 
nearly  so  marked  after  the  trees  had 
made  three  years'  growth,  the  diameter 
of  the  trees  from  24-inch  scions  at  that 
time  averaging  only  6  per  cent  greater 
than  those  from  the  12-inch  scions  and 
only  7  per  cent  greater  than  those  from 
the  6-inch  scions  as  against  27  per  cent 
and  34  per  cent,  respectively,  after  two 
years'  growth. 

In  1895  grafts  were  made  with  12  and 
6-inch  scions  on  whole  roots,  5-inch  roots, 
and  2iA-inch  roots,  grafted  above  and  be- 
low the  crown.  In  addition  a  stock 
grafted  above  the  crown,  with  roots  cut 
eight  inches  long,  was  tested.  After  two 
years'  growth  no  constant  differences 
were  shown  in  favor  of  either  length 
or  style  of  stock  or  of  grafting  either 
above  or  below  the  crown.  The  trees 
from  12-inch  scions  were  invariably 
greater  in  height  and  diameter  than  those 
from  6-inch  scions. 

An  experiment  in  root  grafting  was 
made  by  F.  Wellhouse,    president    of    the 


Kansas  Horticultural  Society.  About  400 
trees  each  of  Winesap,  Ben  Davis,  and 
Missouri  Pippin  apples,  grafted  on  whole- 
root  stocks,  were  set  in  the  orchard  to- 
gether with  trees  grafted  on  two-inch 
piece-rqot  stocks.  During  19  years  no  dif- 
ference in  growth,  vigor,  or  fruitfulness 
was  observed  between  them,  except  that 
for  the  first  six  or  eight  years  the  whole- 
root  trees  threw  up  from  their  roots 
more  water  sprouts  than  did  the  piece- 
root  trees. 

These  tests  show  that  there  are  fairly 
uniform  differences  in  the  first  few  years' 
growth  of  trees  in  favor  of  the  longer 
scions  and  stocks,  but  that  by  the  end 
of  the  third  year's  growth  the  differences 
largely  disappear,  and  that  there  is  no 
constant  difference  between  trees  grafted 
above  and  those  grafted  below  the  crown. 

Besides  the  observations  on  the  height 
and  diameter  of  trees,  the  Kansas  station 
has  also  reported  a  study  of  the  root  de- 
velopment of  grafted  trees.  It  was  found 
that  the  main  root  growth  of  the  first 
year  from  all  lengths  of  stock  was  made 
at  or  just  below  the  union  of  the  stock 
and  scion,  and  that  the  growth  at  this 
point  became  more  pronounced  in  the  sec- 
ond and  third  years.  The  growth  from 
the  lower  portion  of  the  stock  was  very 
slight  during  the  first  year,  and  became 
of  even  less  importance  during  the  second 
and  third  years:  the  growth  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  stock  was  greatest 
in  case  of  the  shorter  piece  roots  and 
least  in  case  of  the  whole  roots.  With 
grafts  that  were  buried  deeply  a  new 
system  of  side  roots  formed  at  about  the 


Fig.  1.      Whole  Root   Graft  of  Apple. 


132 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTIcrLTTRE 


usual  depth  below  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
to  the  more  or  less  complete  dwarfing  of 
the  lower  and  earlier  root  system.  This 
is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  which  represents  the 
root  development  from  a  whole-root  graft, 
which  was  buried  about  five  inches  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  whitened 
portion  of  the  root  is  the  original  stock. 
The  other   roots   formed   from   the   scion. 

All  these  experiments  go  to  show  that 
the  use  of  long  scions  and  stocks  may 
be  of  some  little  advantage  to  nursery- 
men in  inducing  a  better  growth  of  trees 
during  the  first  two  or  three  years.  The 
long  scions  and  stocks  are,  however,  con- 
siderably more  expensive  than  the  shorter 
ones.  Planting  whole-root  grafts  is  much 
more  laborious  inan  planting  short  piece- 
root  grafts.  In  reporting  these  experi- 
ments the  authors  say  that  the  difference 
In  growth  in  favor  of  the  longer  scions 
and  stocks  is  probably  not  sufficient  to 
repay  the  extra  expense  made  necessary 
by  their  use. 

For  the  fruit  grower,  at  least  in  the 
locality  of  the  Kansas  Station,  the  longer 
stocks  appear  to  have  no  advantage 
over  the  shorter  ones,  since  trees  pro- 
duced from  them  make  no  greater  growth 
than  trees  from  the  shorter  stocks  except 
in  the  first  few  years.  The  fact  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  root  growth  is  made 
from  the  upper  part  of  the  stocks  is  evi- 
dence that  the  long  stocks  serve  very  little 
purpose.  The  production  of  roots  from 
the  scion,  as  occurred  when  short  piece 
roots  were  used,  is  in  many  cases  a  direct 
advantage,  since  seedling  stocks  are  very 
variable  in  hardiness  and  vigor  of  growth, 
lender  the  conditions  at  the  Kansas  sta- 
tion piece  roots  from  two  to  five  inches 
long  are  thought  to  give  the  best  results, 
all   things  considered. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  79. 

Apple  on  Pear  and  Pear  on  .Vpple 

The  experience  of  nurserymen  gener- 
ally seems  to  be  that  apple  scions  on 
pear  roots  result  in  sickly,  short-lived 
trees,  although  it  is  possible  to  secure  a 
good  union  and  for  a  time  the  tree  seems 
to  do  well.  When  the  tree  is  set  very 
deep  so  that  the  apple  may  put  out  new 


roots  of  its  own  a  vigorous  growth  may 
be  secured,  but  in  this  case  tne  pear 
root  only  serves  the  temporary  purpose 
of  keeping  the  apple  growing  long 
enough  to  enable  it  to  secure  roots  of  its 
own.  Pear  roots  are  more  expensive  than 
apple  roots  so  that  it  is  extremely  un- 
likely that  the  practice  will  be  followed 
to  any  extent,  even  though  it  were  mod- 
erately successful. 

Reversing  the  process  and  grafting 
pear  upon  apple  roots  results  in  dwarfing 
the  pear.  Here  again  it  is  possible  to 
secure  a  good  union  but  with  the  dwarfing 
effect  noted.  The  tree  thus  produced  is 
more  prolific  but  is  short-lived.  Planted 
deeply  the  pear  scion  will  root  itself  the 
same  as  the  apple  but  with  greater  diffi- 
culty,  according  to  some  reports. 

Pears  are  grafted  upon  quince  for  the 
purpose  of  dwarfing  them  and  apples  may 
be  grafted  into  "Paradise"  stock,  a  low 
form  of  apple,  which  results  in  dwarfing 
the  apple. 

Ed. 
Heading:  Trees  in  the  Xnrsery 

*  It  is  understood  that  the  first  prun- 
ing largely  determines  the  height  of  the 
head  of  the  tree.  The  question  has  arisen, 
"Why  not  head  the  tree  before  it  leaves 
the  nursery,  instead  of  waiting  until  the 
year  of  planting?"  The  system  does 
have  advantages  some  of  which  I  shall 
set  forth.  One  is  that  it  brings  returns 
in  the  bearing  fruit  one  to  two  years 
before  the  ordinary  trees  begin  to  bear. 
We  have  at  this  time  in  our  nursery  18- 
months'-old  nursery  stock  headed  In  the 
nursery  with  fruit  on  the  trees  at  this 
time. 

Mr.  George  Davenport,  of  Mabton, 
Wash.,  fruit  inspector,  found  many  fruit 
spurs  on  an  eight-months'-old  tree  which 
had  been  headed  in  the  nursery.  We  have 
been  experimenting  on  heading,  pruning 
and  growing  trees  in  the  nursery  for  two 
years  past  in  an  attempt  to  produce  trees, 
which,  when  planted  in  the  orchard  as 
fillers  will  produce  apples  the  next  year. 
We  are  making  our  fillers  principally 
from    Jonathans.      Wageners     and    Rome 


•  Tlie  "Head"  nf  a  tree  is  the  point  at  whicli 
the  trunk  forlis  to  form  the  main  branches. — 
Ed. 


APPLES     # 


133 


The  Figure  Shows  Two  Jonathan  Apple  Trees.  Five  Months 
Old.  "The  Old"  shows  the  ordinary  tree  as  it  is  set  in 
the  orchard  and  trimmed  :  "The  New"  shows  the  nursery 
headed  tree  set   in   the  orchard   ready  for   trimming. 


Beauties.  Professor  W.  S.  Thornber,  for- 
merly of  the  Washington  State  College 
at  Pullman,  Wash.,  stated  at  the  State 
Horticultural  Meeting  at  Prosser,  Wash.. 
1911.  that  early  bearing  does  not  injure 
a  tree,  assuming  that  the  allotted  time 
for  which  fillers  are  to  occupy  the  ground 
is  eight   years. 

Following  the  above  method  we  have 
produced  a  tree  that  will  bear  fully  25 
per  cent  more  fruit,  and  bear  this  fruit 
from  one  to  two  years  earlier  than  trees 
planted  in  the  ordinary  way.  Whether 
it  will  become  extensively  practiced  as  a 
system  for  planting  the  permanent  or- 
chard is  yet  to  be  demonstrated.  We 
have,  however,  commercial  orchardists 
who  bought  these  trees  last  year  for 
fillers  and  who  are  placing  orders  for 
both  permanent  trees  and  fillers  to  be 
headed   in   the  nursery   according  to  our 


method  of  growing  trees  for 
fillers.  It  is  claimed  that  this 
enables  the  trees  to  make  a 
better  root  system  as  the  top 
growth  is  checked  30  to  40 
days  by  pruning  and  in  the 
meantime  the  root  system  is 
growing.  After  this  period 
the  tree  instead  of  growing  a 
five  or  six-foot  whip  in  length, 
makes  a  branched  top  which 
becomes  a  permanent  part  of 
tlie  tree,  being  equal  to  a  two- 
.\  ear-old   tree. 

We  find  our  way  of  treat- 
ing them  in  the  nursery 
makes  a  balanced  head  and 
root  system,  and  nature  has 
developed  a  perfect  tree,  head- 
ed near  the  ground,  and  it  is 
now  past  what  we  call  the 
"dehorning  system,"  as  it  re-, 
quires  very  little  pruning 
from  now  on. 

The  commercial  tree  should 
be  low  and  spreading  and 
should  be  made  without  too 
much  wood  cutting  which 
causes  black  heart.  In  plant- 
ing a  nursery-headed  tree  you 
have  the  advantage  of  setting 
the  heavy  side  to  the  wind, 
while  in  the  ordinary  tree  you  do  not 
know  which  is  going  to  be  the  heavy 
side,  and  if  the  orchard  is  in  the  care 
of  unskilled  labor  it  is  likely  to  be  spoil- 
ed by   improper  pruning. 

A.  B.  C.\pps. 
Prosser.  Wash. 

Pruning  the  To]) 

Some  growers  leave  the  pruning  of  the 
top  of  the  trees  till  they  are  set  out  in 
the  field,  but  it  would  seem  that  the 
work  might  be  more  conveniently  done 
before  the  trees  are  set.  This  would  so 
reduce  the  bulk  that  the  trees  would  be 
more  conveniently  handled,  and  would 
obviate  the  necessity  of  walking  over 
the  whole  orchard  to  prune  the  trees 
after  planting.  The  ultimate  shape  of 
the  tree  depends  largely  upon  how  it  is 
pruned  when  set.  With  yearling  trees 
the  opei'ation  is  very  simple  and  consists 


134 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


merely  of  cutting  off  the  top  at  a  point 
where  it  is  desired  to  form  the  head. 
With  most  varieties  the  head  should  be 
started  not  more  than  two  feet  above  the 
graft  union,  but  in  some  naturally  spread- 
ing varieties,  like  Rhode  Island  Greening, 
for  example,  the  head  would  be  much  bet- 
ter started  at  a  point  three  feet  from  the 
ground.  With  trees  two  or  more  years 
old  the  heads,  which  have  been  formed  in 
the  nursery  row.  are  often  too  high.  *  In 
such  cases  the  entire  head  should  be  re- 
moved and  the  trees  induced  to  form  new 
heads.  If  the  heads  are  in  the  proper 
position,  the  necessary  pruning  consists 
simply  in  cutting  out  unnecessary  • 
branches  and  in  cutting  back  the  remain- 
ing three  or  four  branches  to  within  about 
six  or  eight  inches  from  the  stem. 

See  article  by  A.  B.  Capps.  "Heading  Trees  in 
Nursery."  If  Mr.  Capps'  methods  were  used 
It  would  be  unnecessary  to  prune  the  top  at 
all.— Ed. 

Treatment  of  Nursery  Stock  for  San 
Jose   Scale 

The  San  Jose  Scale.  The  reputable 
nurserymen  are  very  careful  to  keep  their 
stock  free  from  scale,  and  most  of  them 
are  provided  with  a  fumigating  house  for 
the  purpose  and  fumigate  all  their  trees 
before  they  send  them  to  their  customers. 
Notwithstanding  these  precautions,  the 
introduction  of  the  scale  into  unintested 
sections  may  usually  be  attributed  to  the 
planting  of  infested  nursery  trees.  The 
most  careful  examination  is  not  sufficient 
to  detect  the  presence  of  scale,  tor  the  in- 
sects often  hibernate  in  small  crevices  in 
the  bark  and  under  bud  scales.  Before 
planting  the  trees  in  uninfested  sections 
it  is  therefore  important  that  they  should 
be  either  refumigated  or  dipped.  The 
expense  in  connection  with  the  fumigation 
or  dipping  is  very  insignificant  compared 
with  the  cost  of  spraying  the  trees  a  few 
years  later. 

Fumigating 
Fumigating  nursery  stock  consists  in 
subjecting  the  trees  to  the  fumes  of  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas  tor  a  period  of  30  to  45 
minutes.  The  gas  is  made  by  using  the 
following  chemicals: 

•  The  terms  "high"  or  'low"  heading  are 
relative  and  of  course  vary  with  the  circum- 
stances and  the  nature  of  the  tree. — Ed. 


■^ater  ^  fluid  ounces 

Sulphuric  acid  (high  grade, 

66°    Baume) 2  fluid  ounces 

Potassium   Cyanide    (98-100 

purity)     1  ounce   (av.) 

This  quantity  is  required  for  every  100 
cubic  feet  of  space.  A  tight  box  about 
six  feet  long  by  four  feet  wide  and  four 
feet  deep,  will  answer  the  purpose.  It 
should  be  supplied  with  a  tight  fitting 
cover  the  full  size  of  the  top,  and  ad- 
justed so  that  it  can  be  opened  from  a 
distance.    (See  Fig.   l.)      The  box  should 


Fig     1.      A    Home-made    Fumigating    Box    for 
the  Treatment  of  Nursery   Stock. 

also  have  a  small  slide  door  located  at  the 
bottom  near  the  center.  It  is  through 
this  door  that  the  chemicals  are  intro- 
duced. The  acid  and  water  are  mixed  to- 
gether and  placed  in  position,  and  when 
everything  is  in  readiness  the  cyanide  is 
dropped  into  the  liquid  and  the  small  door 
quickly  closed.  When  the  time  is  up  the 
top  should  be  removed  by  means  of  a  rope 
through  a  pulley-block  suspended  above. 
The  fum.es  are  extremely  poisonotis  and 
should  not  be  inhaled. 

The  process  of  dipping  fruit  trees  is 
probably  more  satisfactory  tor  general  use 
among  fruit  growers  than  fumigation. 
Nurserymen,  and  others  who  are  familiar 
with  the  use  of  potassium  cyanide  for 
this  purpose,  will  probably  find  fumiga- 
tion more  convenient.  While  injury  may 
follow  either  method,  if  the  necessary  pre- 
cautions are  not  observed,  there  is  less 
risk  with  the  dipping  process.  Either  the 
lime-sulphur  wash  or  miscible  oil  may  be 
used  for  dipping.  The  former  is  some- 
what troublesome  to  prepare,  and  in  view 
of  the  small  quantity  required  for  this 
purpose  the  trouble  would  be  unwarranted. 
Some  of  the  prepared  lime-sulphur  solu- 
tions on  the  market  have  given  good  re- 


APPLES 


135 


suits  when  diluted  with  not  more  than 
eight  parts  of  water.  The  miscible  oils, 
of  which  there  are  many  brands  on  the 
market,  are  well  adapted  to  the  dipping 
of  the  nursery  stock.  They  should  be 
diluted  with  about  15  parts  of  water.  The 
only  precaution  necessary  regarding  the 
use  of  these  oils  is  to  shake  up  the 
supply  of  oil  thoroughly  before  drawing 
any  off  and  to  make  sure  that  it  com- 
pletely mixes  with  the  water.  A  few 
drops  in  a  glass  of  water  should  produce 
a  milk-like  solution,  without  any  free  oil 
on  the  surface.  Miscible  oil.  on  account 
of  its  spreading  action,  is  more  likely  to 
reach  the  insects  that  may  be  in  protected 
positions. 

The  only  thing  necessary  in  the  way  of 
equipment  for  dipping  is  a  tank  deep 
enough  to  accommodate  the  young  trees 
after  pruning.  A  tank  four  feet  deep,  If 
kept  well  filled  with  the  mixture,  will  an- 
swer the  purpose.  The  trees  are  simply 
lowered  into  the  bath,  tops  first,  as  far 
as  the  roots.  They  are  then  immediately 
withdrawn  and  the  operation  repeated. 
They  are  not  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
liquid  longer  than  is  necessary  to  com- 
pletely coat  their  surfaces  with  the  mix- 
ture. A  limited  number  of  experiments 
with  miscible  oil  suggests  that  the  roots 
may  also  be  dipped.  Such  a  procedure  is 
not  recommended,  however,  unless  the 
roots  are  infested  with  woolly  aphis. 
C.  D.  Jarvis. 
Storrs.  Conn. 

Selecting  Stock 

After  the  tree  has  been  successfully 
grown  in  the  nursery  the  next  step  is 
naturally  that  of  transferring  it  to  its 
permanent  place  in  the  orchard.  To  the 
man,  however,  who  must  select  his  stock 
from  some  nursery  not  his  own,  there  are 
several  questions  of  importance. 

Selecting  the  individual  trees  to  be 
planted  requires  some  little  thought,  as 
oftentimes  we  lose  a  whole  year  by  choos- 
ing poor  and  inferior  trees.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  secure  first  class  trees  of  the 
proper  type  for  each  of  the  varieties  se- 
lected and  trees  that  are  well  grown,  vig- 
orous, and  free  from  diseases  or  blemishes. 
The  ideal  tree  of  most  planters  is  one 
that   is   straight    and    smooth.     The   tree 


may  be  straight  and  smooth  or  it  may  be 
crooked  and  gnarly.  All  this  depends  up- 
on the  variety.  Because  a  tree  is  crooked 
is  not  a  sign  that  it  is  a  poor  specimen. 
That  may  be  a  characteristic  of  that  va- 
riety. Some  of  the  best  varieties  have 
crooked  stems  or  ugly  tops,  Many  plant- 
ers think  that  large  size  is  of  itself  a 
great  merit  in  a  nursery  tree.  This  is  not 
always  true.  Vigor  and  stockiness  are 
more  important  than  large  size.  Buy  first 
class,  shapely,  and  well  grown  trees  that 
have  abundance  of  roots,  free  from  such 
diseases  as  the  crown  gall  or  blackknot. 
In  many  states  buyers  require  the  nursery- 
men from  whom  they  buy  to  give  them  a 
guarantee  that  the  trees  are  free  from  all 
injurious  insects  and  diseases.  This  rule 
ought  to  be  adopted.  While  such  a  guar- 
antee does  not  absolutely  prevent  a  tree 
from  being  infested  with  insects  or  dis- 
eases it  lessens  the  probabilities  of  their 
being  so  Infested. 

Place  to  Buy  Trees 

(1)  "Where  can  I  buy  fruit  trees?"  and 
"Do  fruit  trees  from  the  North,  South, 
East  or  West  do  best  in  this  climate?"  are 
questions  frequently  asked  by  orchardists. 
The  question  of  the  source  of  the  tree  is 
one  which  attracts  considerable  attention 
and  bears  some  relation  to  the  planter's 
local  conditions,  but  is  one  which  cannot 
always  be  definitely  answered.  It  in- 
volves a  number  of  things  such  as  the 
manner  of  growing  the  nursery  stock,  the 
distance  to  be  shipped,  the  way  the  trees 
are  packed  when  shipped,  and  the  treat- 
ment of  the  trees  when  received.  Appar- 
ently there  seems  to  be  no  material  differ- 
enc  in  the  growth  of  the  trees  on  account 
of  their  source,  if  the  trees  have  been 
well  grown,  well  packed,  well  taken  care 
of,  and  well  started  when  they  are  re- 
ceived. As  a  rule,  however.  If  all  of 
these  conditions  be  equal  the  home  grown 
trees  or  those  grown  nearest  you  are  to 
be  preferred. 

(21  There  are  several  reasons  why  it 
is  usually  advisable  to  patronize  local 
nurserymen.  They  generally  handle  the 
varieties  that  are  best  adapted  to  local 
conditions.  But  if  the  local  dealers  have 
not  the  required  varieties  in  stock,  or  if 


136 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


theii'  trees  are  not  of  the  desired  shape, 
It  would  be  better  to  order  from  a  dis- 
tant nursery  rather  than  to  accept  un- 
desirable stock.  By  dealing  with  a  local 
nurseryman  the  buyer  can  visit  the  nur- 
sery and  personally  select  his  stock,  and 
at  the  same  time  reduce  the  risk  of  intro- 
ducing injurious  insects  and  diseases  that 
are  not  common  to  the  neighborhood. 
Again,  home  nurserymen  are  more  likely 
to  supply  the  kind  of  stock  ordered  and 
to  correctly  label  their  goods,  for  if  they 
persistently  misrepresent  they  cannot 
long  continue  in  business.  The  agent 
for  a  distant  firm,  on  the  other  hand, 
can  constantly  change  his  field  of  opera- 
tion. 

(3)  Still  further  by  securing  trees  at 
the  nearby  nursery  all  danger  from  dam- 
age by  long  transit  and  the  injurious 
effects  of  sunshine  and  frosts  are  avoided; 
besides,  if  the  farmer  makes  his  pur- 
chase direct  from  the  nurseryman,  he 
will  save  the  expense  of  the  middleman 
or  agent,  and  is  less  liable  to  the  mis- 
takes and  injury  that  may  occur  through 
repeated    handling. 

To  sum  up.  trees  from  the  nurser.v 
should   be: 

1.  First-class    stock. 

2.  Vigorous  and  stocky  with  good 
root  systems. 

3.  Well  shaped  and  low  headed. 

4.  Preferably  purchased  from  local 
nursery  if  good  stock  can  be  obtained. 

5.  Correctly   named. 


(1)  Fabian   Garcia. 

(2)  C.  n.  .Tarvis. 

(3)  G.   B.   Brackett. 

Kind  of  Trees  to  Buy 

Most  growers  plant  two-year-old  trees 
and,  other  things  being  equal,  they  are 
probably  most  desirable.  It  is  often  dif- 
ficult, however,  to  get  such  trees  of  the 
desired   shape. 

The  two-year-old  tree  has  its  top  formed 
in  the  crowded  nursery  row  and  there- 
fore does  not  assume  the  proper  shape. 
During  recent  years  the  difficulty  of  get- 
ting properly  shaped  trees  has  been 
greatly  lessened,  for  the  nurserymen  are 
now  heading  their  trees  much  lower. 
The  low-headed  tree  is  now  generally 
preferred,   but  with   those   varieties,   like 


Rhode  Island  Greening  and  Tolman,  that 
are  naturally  spreading,  the  head  may 
be  started  higher,  than  with  varieties  like 
the  Yellow  Transparent,  that  are  nat- 
urally upright  growers. 


Fig.  1.  A  Two-year-iilii  Nuisei-y  Tree  Befcire 
and  After  I'l-unlng.  This  tree  was  not  headed 
in  enough  the  first  year  and  it  was  there- 
fore necessary  to  remove  much  of  the  top. 
In  addition  it  was  headed  too  high  in  the  be- 
ginning. 

*lf  two-year-old  trees  of  the  proper 
shape  cannot  be  obtained  it  would  be 
better  to  buy  yearlings,  which  are  mere 
whips,  and  plant  them  in  a  nursery  row 
for  a  year,  giving  them  more  room  than 
they  previously  occupied.  In  this  way 
the  grower  may  shape  his  trees  to  suit 
himself.  Tliis  method  is  especially  ap- 
plicable to  the  man  who  must  clear  his 
land  before  planting,  for  the  reason  that 
there  would  be  no  loss  of  time.  With 
the  man  who  has  his  ground  ready  to 
plant,  on  the  other  hand,  it  would  mean 
a  loss  of  one  year.  Some  recommend 
the  buying  of  yearling  trees  and  plac- 
ing them  back  in  the  nursery  row  for 
two  or  more  years,  or  the  buying  of  two- 
year-old  trees  and  putting  them  back  in 


•  In   Northwest  one-year-old   stock   preferred. 
-Ed. 


APPLES 


137 


the  nursery  row  for  one  or  moi'e  years 
before  setting  them  in  the  orchard.  Such 
a  practice  affords  an  opportunity  for 
weeding  out  the  weak  and  undesirable 
trees  before  they  reach  their  permanent 
location,  and  permits  of  the  full  use  of 
the  orchard   land  for  other  purposes   for 


Fig.   L'.       A    Wei  I -shaped    Uyeai-uld    Tree. 

one  or  more  years  without  affecting  the 
development  of  the  trees.  It  is  also 
claimed  that  such  a  practice  induces  early 
bearing.  The  chief  objection  to  the  prac- 
tice is  the  added  expense  in  handling 
such  large  trees  when  they  are  finally 
transferred   to   their   permanent   location. 


Fig.  3.      Poorly-shaped    Young    Tree.      The 
Head    Has   Been    Started   Too   High. 

First  and  Second  Grades 

Nurserymen  frequently  offer  two  grades 
of  trees,  known  as  first-class  and  second- 
class.  Those  of  the  latter  grade  are  usu- 
ally ill-shaped  or  undersized  trees  and 
may  be  obtained  at  a  lower  rate.     Some- 


times fairly  good  results  follow  the  use 
of  second-class  stock,  but  as  a  rule  the 
saving  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  the 
taking  of  any  chances  on  such  trees.  The 
largest  trees  of  a  certain  age  are  not 
necessarily  the  best  for  planting.  They 
are  more  difficult  to  handle,  and  as  a  rule 
are  more  seriously  affected  by  transplant- 
ing. Southern-grown  nursery  stock  is  us- 
ually larger  than  that  grown  in  the  North. 
This  is  not  a  serious  objection,  but  the 
extremely  large  trees  receive  such  a 
shock  at  the  time  of  transplanting  that 
they  frequently  make  a  very  slow  and 
scanty   growth   the   first   season. 

Healthy  Stock 
Care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting 
stock  free  from  disease  and  injurious  in- 
sects. It  is  a  common  thing  to  find  trees 
affected  with  crown-gall,  woolly  aphis,  and 
San  .lose  scale.  It  is  important  also  to 
make  sure  that  the  trees  have  been  well 
cared  for  after  digging.  Most  nursery 
stock  is  dug  in  the  fall  and  either  heeled 
in  over  winter  or  stored  in  cool  sheds, 
cellars,  or  cold  storage  houses.  Trees 
with  bark  that  has  become  blackened,  dry 
and  shriveled,  or  soft  and  loose,  are  likely 
to  have  been  injured  in  storage  and 
should    not   be   accepted. 

C.   D.   Jarvis. 
."^torrs.    Conn. 

Age  of  Trees  to  Plant 

It  is  the  habit  of  many  orchardists  in 
the  middle  and  eastern  states  to  plant 
two-year-old  nursery  stock;  but  in  the  Pa- 
cific states  the  choice  is  almost  univer- 
sally  for  the   one-year-old  stock. 

Professor  Fabian  Garcia,  speaking  from 
the  standpoint  of  New  Mexico,  says: 

"The  age  of  trees  to  plant  varies  as  a 
rule  from  one  to  three  years  old  from 
the  bud.  In  some  parts  of  the  East  the 
one-year-old  is  planted,  while  in  other 
parts  the  two  and  three-year-old  tree  is 
used.  In  special  cases  large  trees  from 
four  to  six  years  old  can  be  planted  with 
fairly  satisfactory  results.  The  general 
rule,  however,  is  to  plant  young  trees. 
Experience  shows  that  the  one  and  two- 
year-old  apple  trees  are  to  be  preferred. 
If  the  one-year-old  trees  are  large  and 
well    grown    they    can    be    used    in    place 


138 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


of  the  two-yearold,  but  on  the  whole 
the  two-year-old  is  better  for  this  cli- 
mate." 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  recommen- 
dations that  there  is  considerable  differ- 
ences of  opinion  as  to  the  age  at  which 
trees  should  be  planted.  This  difference 
doubtless  grows  out  of  the  experiences 
or  orchardists  and  nurserymen  in  the  dif- 
ferent sections.  It  would  seem  that  in 
the  South,  or  in  sections  where  the  trees 
make  rapid  growth,  that  one-year-old 
stock  is  preferable;  while  in  the  northern 
sections,  two-year-old  stock  is  mostly 
used.  The  Pacific  Northwest  being  an 
irrigated  section,  and  the  climate  more 
or  less  modified  by  the  coast  winds,  en- 
ables the  stock  to  make  rapid  growth,  and 
one-year-old  stock  is  almost  universally 
used. 

GR.\NVrLLE   LOWTHER 

How  to  Determine  Age  of  Trees 

It  is  very  easy  to  determine  the  age 
of  a  nursery  tree.  The  age  is  counted 
from  the  budding  or  grafting.  The  end 
of  each  year's  growth  is  marked  by  a 
row  of  rings  or  scars  around  the  trunk 
and  branches.  To  tell  the  age  of  a  tree, 
begin  at  the  tip  of  a  branch  and  follow 
back  to  the  base  of  the  tree  counting  the 
scale  rings.  The  tree  will  be  one  year 
older  than  the  number  of  rings.  It  is 
best  to  use  the  branches  at  the  top.  In 
trees  on  which  tjie  tips  of  the  branches 
have  been  injured  or  removed,  during  the 
summer,  some  difficulty  may  be  experi- 
enced in  determining  definitely,  but  this 
method  will  serve  in  most  cases  with- 
out  difficulty. 

The  best  age  at  which  to  plant  trees  is 
a  much  mooted  question.  The  present 
tendency  is  to  plant  trees  which  are  too 
old.  The  upper  limit  of  age  for  an  apple 
tree  is  three  years.  Two-year-old  trees 
will  be  found  better  than  older  ones  in 
most  cases.  The  present  demand  for 
large  trees  causes  the  nurseryman  to 
prune  off  the  side  branches  along  the 
first  and  second  year's  growth,  thus  in 
a  great  many  instances  spoiling  the 
shape  of  the  tree  or  at  least  making  it 
necessary  to  form  the  head  too  high. 

Another  factor  which  tends  to  give  in- 


ferior trees  where  they  remain  long  in 
the  nursery  is  the  fact  that  they  are 
grown  very  close  together,  and  this  forces 
the  branches  to  grow  more  in  one  plane 
which  results  in  lop-sided  trees.  The 
shorter  the  period  the  tree  passes  in  the 
nursery,  the  more  likely  it  is  to  be  a  good 
tree  when  the  grower  receives  it. 

It  is  true  the  younger  trees  require 
longer  to  come  into  bearing  after  being 
planted,  but  the  orchardist  can  better 
afford  to  give  them  one  or  two  addi- 
tional years'  attention  and  have  the  op- 
portunity to  prune  and  care  for  them  so 
they  will  make  first-class  trees,  than  to 
let  the  nurseryman  grow  them  for  the 
additional  length  of  time,  and  have  to 
give  the  same  amount  of  care  later  on  in 
trying  to  change  a  spoiled  tree  into  a 
passably  good  one.  It  is  not  the  inten- 
tion to  convey  the  idea  that  no  good  three- 
year-old  trees  are  produced  in  the  nur- 
sery, but  with  the  present  systems  and 
practices  the  chances  are  very  much 
against  it. 

Two  years  is  a  compromise  age,  as  the 
two-year-old  is  less  likely  to  have  been 
spoiled  in  the  nursery  than  an  older  tree, 
and  it  saves  one  year  in  the  orchard 
before  bearing.  If,  however,  suitable 
two-year-old  trees  cannot  be  secured,  by 
all    means   use   the   younger  trees. 

Best  Height  of  Head — By  "height 
of  head"  is  meant  the  distance  be- 
tween the  base  of  the  tree,  after 
planting,  and  the  height  at  which  the 
main  branches  grow  out.  Formerly  trees 
with  branches  lower  than  five  or  six  feet 
were  not  desired  because  when  lower  they 
were  supposed  to  be  very  difficult  to  work 
under.  Today  no  good  commercial  or- 
chardist would  think  of  planting  trees 
with  such  high  heads. 

Economics  in  Low  Heading — There 
are  numerous  reasons  why  a  low- 
headed  is  preferable  to  a  high-headed 
tree,  but  the  chief  one  is  because  it  facil- 
itates orchard  operations.  In  this  day 
of  pruning  and  spraying  and  high  prices 
for  labor  in  picking  the  orchardist  does 
not  want  a  tree  so  headed  that  it  will 
require  a  ladder  to  reach  the  lowest 
branches  producing  fruit  The  old  objec- 
tion   that    the    lower    branches    of    low- 


APPLES 


139 


headed  trees  interfere  with  orchard  cul- 
tivation is  easily  met  by  the  fact  that  a 
great  many  of  our  trees  have  a  habit  of 
growth  which  permits  work  under  their 
branches  even  when  low-headed  without 
additional  inconvenience.  Those  which 
do  not  have  such  a  habit  can  be  improved 
by  proper  pruning,  and  the  head  need 
be  only  a  little  higher  than  in  the  others. 
The  low-headed  tree,  therefore,  is  rapidly 
becoming  the  only  one  used  in  commer- 
cial  plantings. 

The  question  is  often  asked,  "What  is 
the  proper  height  to  head  an  apple  tree?" 
Authorities  differ,  some  giving  one  foot 
as  the  desired  height,  others  as  much  as 
three  feet.  It  is  scarcely  wise  to  make 
any  hard  and  fast  rule  as  the  height 
which  will  be  found  most  advantageous 
will  vary  with  different  varieties.  For 
upright  growing  varieties  like  Wealthy 
and  Northwestern,  18  inches  to  two  feet 
will  be  sufficient.  Varieties  like  Long- 
field  with  a  spreading  habit  and  slen- 
der branches  should  be  headed  somewhat 

higher. 

J.   G.   Moore, 

Madison,  Wis. 

Treatment  of  Trees  When  ReeeiTed 
From  the  Nursery 

Just  as  soon  as  the  trees  are  received 
from  the  nursery  they  should  be  unpacked 
and  planted.  If  the  ground  is  not  ready 
when  the  trees  are  received  they  should 
be  "heeled  in."  If  the  trees  are  to  re- 
main heeled  in  a  long  w-hile  be  sure  that 
the  bundles  are  separated  and  the  trees 
carefully  placed  in  the  trench.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  the  dirt  should  be 
properly  placed  around  the  roots  so  there 
will  be  no  air  spaces  left.  After  the 
trees  are  heeled  in,  water  them  thor- 
oughly and  in  this  way  any  air  spaces 
that  are  left  will  be  noticed  after  the  soil 
settles,  and  the  holes  or  cracks  left  may 
be  filled. 

Occasionally  trees  arrive  in  very  dry 
condition  and  one  does  not  know  just 
what  to  do  with  them.  One  of  the  best 
things  to  do  is  to  bury  the  whole  tree, 
root  and  top.  in  moist  soil  for  a  few  days. 
By  burying  the  whole  tree  it  will  take 
in  moisture  slowly  and  will  gradually 
resume   its    plump   condition.     The   prac- 


tice of  putting  the  dried  trees   in  water 
is   not  to   be   recommended. 

Fabian  Garcia, 
Santa   Fe,  N.  M. 

Preparing:  the  Trees  for  Planting 

The  treatment  that  a  young  tree  should 
receive  before  planting  consists  chiefly  in 
pruning  the  tops  and  roots.  The  main 
object  of  such  pruning  is  to  readjust  the 
balance  between  top  and  root  which  in 
the  process  of  digging  is  somewhat  dis- 
turbed. 

Trimming  the  Roots. — While  a  large 
root  system  is  an  indication  of  a  vigor- 
ous tree,  it  is  not  essential  to  the  suc- 
cessful development  of  a  tree.  It  has 
been  found  by  experiment  that  trees  with 
their  roots  severely  cut  back  thrive  just 
as  well  as  those  with  elaborate  root  sys- 
tems intact.  The  fibrous  roots  on  a  young 
tree  are  not  of  value,  for  these  are  al- 
ways killed  in  transplanting  and  the  tree 
throws  out  a  new  root  system.  The  vital- 
ity of  a  young  tree,  then,  depends  more 
upon  the  energy  stored  up  in  its  stem 
than  upon  its  root  development.  This 
is  an  important  point,  for  a  tree  with 
a  small  root  system  is  more  expeditiously 
planted  than  one  with  an  elaborate  sys- 
tem. All  mangled  roots  should  be  cut 
off  cleanly  and  all  the  main  roots  should 
be  cut  back  to  about  three  or  four  inches 
of  the  trunk. 

C.  D.  Jarvis, 
Storrs,  Conn. 

THE  BOOT  PRUMIVG  OF  TOU]VG 
FRriT  TREES 

Strinpfellow  System 

The  following  conclusions  as  to  the 
value  of  the  Stringfellow  system  of  root 
pruning  were  formulated  by  Mr.  G.  Harold 
Powell  of  the  California  Fruit  Exchange 
some  years  ago  while  horticulturist  at  the 
Delaware  Experiment  Station. 

Both  root  pruning  and  top  pruning  are 
helpful  to  a  transplanted  tree,  for  the 
original  harmony  between  root  and  branch 
is  disturbed  in  its  removal  from  the  nur- 
sery. 

The  Stringfellow  system  removes  all  the 
roots,  and  shortens  the  body  to  a  foot  or 
eighteen  inches  in  length. 

The  advocates  of  the  new  method  claim 


140 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


that  a  stub-pruned  tree  develops  a  many 
tap  rooted  system,  while  a  long-rooted 
tree  forms  a  surface  system  of  roots. 
They  also  claim  economic  advantages  in 
digging  and  packing  the  trees,  in  trans- 
portation, and  in  planting. 

An  experiment  was  begun  in  1896  and 
•continued  until  1899  on  heavy  clay  land 
at  the  experiment  station,  and  on  light, 
sandy  loam  at  Seaford,  Delaware,  to  de- 
termine the  merits  of  stub-pruned, 
three  inch,  and  six  to  eight  inch  rooted 
apple,  pear,  peach,  and  plum  trees;  also 
to  study  some  of  the  jJrinciples  of  root 
formation. 

Sixty-two  and  one-half  per  cent  of  the 
stub-pruned  trees  lived  on  the  heavy  soil, 
86  per  cent  on  the  light  soil;  97  per  cent 
of  the  three-inch  trees  lived  on  the  heavT 
soil,  100  per  cent  on  the  light  soil;  87 '-j 
per  cent  of  the  eight-inch  trees  lived  on 
the  hea\T  soil,  94  per  cent  on  the  light 
soil. 

Twenty-two  per  cent  of  the  stub-pruned 
trees  made  first-class  trees  on  the  heavy 
■soil;   51  per  cent  on  the  light  soil. 


Fi^.  1.  No.  1  the  Stringfellow  Tree  I'runed. 
No.  2  the  many  tap-rooted  tree  that  is  sup- 
posed to   develop   from   it. 

The  roots  of  the  stub-pruned  trees  did 
not  take  a  more  downward  direction 
than   others. 

New  roots  arise  from  the  ends  of  pruned 
roots,  from  fibrous  roots,  from  adventi- 
tious buds  at  the  base  of  the  tree,  and 
sometimes  from  the  sides  of  the  larger 
roots.  They  arise  most  easily  from  the 
smallest  roots.  Shortening  the  roots  in- 
<luces  a  development  of  adventitious 
roots  which  may  compensate  the  tree  tor 


the  loss  of  its  smaller  feeders.  A  long 
root  is  useful  to  a  transplanted  tree  main- 
ly to  anchor  it  in  the  soil  while  the 
new  roots  are  forming.  Fibrous  roots 
may  be  of  importance  to  a  transplanted 
tree  in  that  the  earliest  feeders  are  de- 
veloped from  them.  The  vitality  of  the 
fibrous  roots  is  not  destroyed  where  trees 
are   carefully    handled. 

The  direction  which  the  new  root  sys- 
tem assumes  is  governed  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil,  by  the  distribution  of 
plant  food  and  moisture  in  it,  and  by  the 
natural  habit  of  the  tree.  The  roots  seek 
the  strata  of  most  congenial  moisture 
and   accessible   plant   food. 

Stub-pruned  trees  are  at  a  disadvan- 
tage on  heavy  soils,  on  soils  that  freeze 
deeply  throughout  the  winter,  in  a  dry 
fall  or  spring,  or  in  soils  that  are  slow 
in  warming. 

Stub-pruned  trees,  with  branches 
shortened  to  correspond,  frequently  de- 
velop a  onesided  root  system  and  an  in- 
formed  top. 

The  stub-pruning  system  is  not  founded 
on  principles  of  plant  growth.  It  is  a 
practice  with  merit  in  local  conditions. 
The  claims  for  the  system  are  based  upon 
a  succession  of  misconceptions  of  the  laws 
of  plant  growth.  The  advocates  have  in- 
duced a  careful  study  of  the  development 
of  the  roots  of  plants,  and  therein  lies 
its  value  as  a  contribution  to  horticul- 
tural knowledge. 

Care  of  Trees  from  >'iirsery  to  riantiiie 
Time 

After  goods  leave  the  delivery  yards 
of  the  nurseryman  they  are  beyond  his 
control.  He  has  no  legal  right  to  dictate 
the  care  his  stock  shall  receive.  The 
best  he  can  do  is  to  advise  the  planter, 
and  when  this  advice  is  not  solicited  it 
places  the  nurseryman  in  the  rather  awk- 
ward position  of  presuming  on  the  intel- 
ligence of  the  planter;  yet,  if  any  mis- 
fortune overtakes  the  planter  in  his  hor- 
ticultural venture,  the  nurseryman  is 
likely  to  receive  the  blame. 

After  23  years  of  experience  in  the 
Rogue  River  valley,  the  writer  is  thor- 
oughly convinced  that  if  the  losses  due 
to    the    planter's    inadequate    knowledge. 


appj.es 


141 


his  neglect  of  known  duties,  and  the  in- 
different care  on  the  part  of  the  agent  or 
tree  dealer,  were  eliminated,  the  remain- 
ing loss  could  be  carried  by  the  nursery- 
man very  gracefuljy.  The  instructions 
given  in  this  article  are  designed  to  elimi- 
nate much  of  the  worry  and  financial 
loss  of  the  beginner. 

Many  suggestions  here  made  will  apply 
to  any  part  of  the  country.  They  are 
written,  however,  expressly  to  meet  con- 
ditions in  the  Rogue  River  valley.  Oregon. 

Go  Properly  Prepared  to  Receive  Stock 
Before  going  to  the  nursery  or  freight 
office  for  your  stock  first  provide  yourself 
with  canvas,  horse  blankets,  or  something 
of  that  nature  sufficient  to  properly  protect 
the  roots  from  drying  or  chilling  while 
returning  home,  unless  the  weather  is 
very  favorable — a  mild  foggy  day,  for  in- 
stance. The  orchardist  will  have  little 
trouble  if  he  will  always  remember  that 
a  tree,  although  dormant,  is  alive  and 
must  be  handled  as  a  living  plant. 

Examine  Stock  Carefully  When  Received 

On  receiving  nursery  goods  examine 
each  bundle,  and,  if  necessary,  each  tree 
carefully.  Note  the  condition  of  the  plants 
and  see  that  each  bundle  is  properly 
labeled,  refusing  any  stock  that  has  a 
badly  mutilated  or  insufficient  root  sys- 
tem, and  trees  that  show  signs  of  having 
been  dug  while  immature.  Trees  which 
have  been  removed  from  the  nurserj'  row 
prematurely  will  show  signs  of  withering 
at  the  extreme  tips,  and  soon  after  the 
first  little  freeze  will  develop  a  dark  spot 
in  the  center  of  the  soft  terminals.  A 
cross  section  of  the  main  roots  will  show 
this  same  dark  spot  in  the  center  if  the 
stock  has  been  subjected  to  frost  or  other 
abuses.  Roots  of  trees  that  have  suffered 
from  exposure  will  also  show  a  brownish 
coloring  between  the  bark  and  woody  part 
of  the  root,  although  the  outer  portion 
of  the  root  may  appear  uninjured. 

If  damaged  stock  is  received  at  freight 
office,  proper  care  should  be  given  the 
goods  and  a  prompt  report  made  to  the 
party  from  whom  the  goods  were  received. 

A  Common  Error 

Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  placed 
upon  the  necessity  of  heeling  in  the  plants 


immediately  upon  arrival  at  the  farm. 
They  should  tinder  no  circumstances  be 
left  out  over  night.  This  is  the  stumbling 
block  over  which  many  fall.  Stock  left 
exposed  over  night  may  receive  either 
little  or  no  injury,  or  may  be  either  badly 
damaged  or  ruined,  according  to  the 
changes  that  take  place  in  the  tempera- 
ture. The  labor  involved  to  properly  pro- 
tect the  stock  is  so  trivial  that  no  one 
can  afford  to  take  the  risk. 

Heeling-In  Xnrserj-  Good:i 

Seek  out  a  spot  of  well  drained  soil, 
sandy  loam  if  possible,  where  no  harm 
can  come  to  the  trees  by  the  farm  stock 
browsing  or  otherwise  mutilating  them. 
Spade  a  trench  about  a  foot  wide  and  two 
spades  deep,  leaving  the  loose  dirt  at  the 
bottom.  Govern  the  length  by  the  amount 
of  stock  to  be  taken  care  of.  Separate 
the  stock  so  that  all  the  bundles  of  each 
variety  may  be  kept  together. 

Cut  the  lower  string  on  the  bundles 
as  the  roots  are  placed  in  the  trench, 
standing  the  bundles  at  an  angle  of  about 
45  degrees  and  spreading  the  trees  some- 
what so  the  roots  may  be  more  readily 
covered  with  the  dirt  from  a  second 
trench. 

When  the  first  trench  has  been  filled 
with  trees  begin  again  as  in  the  first 
place  by  cutting  a  trench  close  to  the 
roots  of  the  trees  just  placed,  being  care- 
ful to  see  that  all  the  earth  removed 
from  the  second  trench  is  worked  well 
around  and  over  the  roots  of  the  trees 
in  the  first,  allowing  the  dirt  to  cover 
a  few  inches  of  the  base  of  the  trees 
and  repeat  until  all  the  stock  is  heeled  in. 

Care  should  be  exercised  in  heeling  in 
small  plants,  such  as  strawberries,  to 
avoid  covering  the  crown  of  the  plant, 
and  a  light  covering  of  leaves  or  some 
such  protection  should  be  given  them. 
Roots  and  bulbs  should  'be  entirely  cov- 
ered with  earth  and  stakes  placed  to 
properly  mark  their  location  or  they 
should  be  packed  in  moss  and  kept  in  a 
cool    but    frost-proof   building. 

Pruning  and  Preparing  Stock  for 
Planting- 
Care   should   be   exercised   to   not   bend 
the   stock    unnecessarily   while   being   re- 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


moved  from  the  heeling  grounds.  Re- 
move or  thin  out  any  roots  that  have 
grown  in  a  tangled  mass,  roots  that  were 
mutilated  in  the  process  of  digging,  and 
cut  the  tip  of  each  of  the  main  roots, 
using  a  sharp  linife  or  some  suitable  in- 
strument, remembering  always  to  make 
the  cut  at  an  angle  so  that  when  the 
tree  is  set  in  the  ground  the  cut  surface 
will  be  down.  Remove  all  sucker  sprouts 
from  the  base  of  the  tree,  being  careful 
to  cut  these  close  to  avoid  further  sprout- 
ing. If  stock  is  to  be  held  for  late  spring 
planting  it  should  be  removed  from  the 
heeling  grounds  during  favorable  weather 
about  the  middle  of  February,  the  roots 
pruned  and  the  stock  heeled  in  again. 

A  shady  place  for  the  heeling  grounds 
will  aid  greatly  in  keeping  the  stock 
dormant  for   late   spring   planting. 

No  stock  of  any  kind  should  ever  be 
removed  from  the  heeling  grounds  dur- 
ing freezing  weather  or  while  the  trees 
or  plants  are  frozen,  though  the  weather 
may  be  moderating  at  the  time.  After 
a  cold  spell  allow  the  frost  to  entirely 
disappear  from  the  grounds  before  dis- 
turbing the  stock.  The  tops  of  trees 
should  not  be  pruned  until  after  they 
are  planted,  except  to  save  damaged 
stock  as  explained  later. 

Care  of  Stock  While  Planting 

The  stock  is  now  ready  for  its  final 
place  in  the  field  but  it  must  have  the 
same  careful  protection  from  drying  or 
chilling  winds  as  at  any  other  time. 
Pieces  of  canvas  or  burlap  sacks  may  be 
used  for  this  purpose.  If  planting  is 
done  any  time  after  the  first  of  March 
the  roots  of  each  tree  should  be  dipped 
in  a  thick  batter  of  mud,  and  care  should 
be  taken  that  the  mud  does  not  dry  on 
the  roots  before  the  tree  is  set.  This 
mudding  the  roots  is  very  important. 
Never  allow  bundles  of  trees  to  lie  ex- 
posed to  the  wind  and  sun  nor  place 
them  in  a  creek  to  remain  until  needed. 

Treatment  of  Frosted  Trees 

If  you  notice  frost  in  a  box  of  trees 
on  opening  do  not  remove  the  goods  but 
close  the  box  carefully  and  place  it  in 
a  cellar,  cement  building  or  some  such 
place   where   it   is   cool    but    free    from 


frost.  Cover  the  box  with  sawdust,  can- 
vas, blankets  or  any  convenient  material 
to  prevent  the  stock  from  thawing  out 
too  rapidly  and  leave  undisturbed  for 
a  week  or  ten  days  before  heeling  in  the 
ground. 

Treatment  of  Stock  Received  Dry 

If  goods  are  received  dry,  dig  a  trench, 
in  sandy  soil,  large  enough  to  bury  the 
trees  root  and  top  about  eight  or  ten 
inches  under  the  surface,  and  if  late  in 
the  spring  pour  a  few  bucketsful  of  water 
over  the  stock  after  the  trench  has  been 
filled,  and  let  remain  for  a  few  days 
until  on  examination  the  stock  is  found 
to  be  fresh  and  well  filled  out.  Many 
times  stock  received  in  bad  condition 
can  be  saved  if  treated  in  this  manner 
though  any  undue  exposure  will  weaken 
the  vitality  of  a  tree  and  all  such  dam- 
aged goods  should  be  severely  top  pruned 
when  heeled  in  or  planted. 

Care  of  Evergreens 

The  roots  of  all  cone-bearing  trees, 
and.  in  fact,  most  all  evergreen  plants, 
are  very  sensitive  to  exposure,  and 
should  never  be  handled  without  being 
properly  balled.  The  novice  should  never 
order  goods  of  this  kind  shipped  with 
naked  roots  in  order  to  save  a  little  on 
first  cost  or  freight.  The  roots  of  rose 
bushes,  while  not  evergreens,  should 
never  be  allowed  to  become  dry  or 
frosted. 

N.  S.  Bennett, 

Kden    Valley    Nurseries,    iledford.   Ore. 

PEDIGRKED  TREES 
Definition 

(1)  "A  selected  source  of  multiplica- 
tion which  does  not  require  sexual  gen- 
eration." E.   J.   WiCKSOX. 

Trees  propagated  by  buds  or  scions 
taken  from  trees  with  known  records  for 
superior  qualities. 

Introduction 

At  the  present  time  there  are  compar- 
atively few  trees  whose  "pedigree"  ex- 
tends beyond  the  first  or  second  vegetative 
generation.  The  term  as  here  used  does 
not  apply  to  any  form  of  sexual  generation. 


(1)     Correspondence.  1912. 


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143 


It  is  a  mere  registry  of  buds  or  scions 
from  a  known  tree  or  trees.  By  "vegeta- 
tive generation"  is  meant  successive 
graftings  from  former  graftings. 

Controverted  Points 

On  account  of  tiie  fact  that  this  method 
of  registering  trees  on  the  part  of  nur- 
serymen has  been  but  recently  used,  and 
on  account  of  the  unfortunate  circum- 
stance of  employing  the  term  "pedigree," 
which  has  heretofore  had  a  very  definite 
application  to  the  breeding  of  stocks  of 
all  kinds  from  the  seed  or  through  sex- 
ual generation  only,  some  controversy  has 
arisen  as  to  the  validity  of  the  claims  of 
those  who  profess  to  employ  this  method 
of  selection.  The  controversy  has  arisen 
both  because  the  use  of  the  term  has  been 
disputed,  and  because  of  the  wiAe  diver- 
sity of  opinion  as  to  the  value  of  the 
stocks  so  selected  over  those  selected 
with  ordinary  care  so  as  to  procure  trees 
"true  to   name." 

The  former  controversy  will  be  settled 
when  the  horticultural  world  becomes  ac- 
customed to  the  use  of  the  term  in  this 
connection  or  when  a  new  and  suitable 
term   comes   into    general    use. 

The  other  controversy  is  of  far  dif- 
ferent nature  and  will  not  be  settled 
until  more  is  known  about  the  facts  and 
nature  of  plant  variations  and  the  means 
by  which  they  are  preserved  and  trans- 
mitted. It  hinges  about  the  questions, 
first,  as  to  whether  observed  variations. 
in  trees  of  the  same  variety  or  strain, 
which  show  in  themselves  a  tendency  to 
heavy  or  regular  bearing,  freedom  from 
disease,  shape  or  color  of  fruit  or  other 
desirable  quality,  are  due  to  soil,  mois- 
ture, fertility,  care  or  other  environ- 
mental cause  and  so  not  transmissible; 
and,  second,  as  to  whether  bud  sports  or 
mutations  are  of  frequent  enough  occur- 
rence to  enable  the  nurseryman  to  im- 
prove  his   stock    on   a   commercial   scale. 

Common  Ground 

It  is  quite  generally  admitted,  prob- 
ably universally,  amongst  horticulturists 
that  bud  sports  do  occur  at  rare  inter- 
vals and  give  rise  to  new  varieties.  But 
it  is  not  known  what  these  sports  will 
do.     They  may   give   rise  to   a  beneficial 


variation  and  they  may  produce  a  mere 
freak.  However,  it  offers  an  occasional 
opportunity  for  selection.  It  is  pretty 
generally  admitted  that  variations  in  tree 
fruits  within  a  given  variety  are  in  the 
main  due  to  environmental  causes.  There 
is  the  same  general  tendency  to  regard 
the  theory  of  transmissible  variations 
within  the  tree  itself,  outside  of  the  oc- 
casional sport,  as  unproven.  (2)  W.  T. 
Macoun  of  the  Dominion  Experimental 
Farms  has  had  apple  trees  under  observa- 
tion for  14  years  and  is  "inclined  to  be- 
lieve that  there  is  variation  in  the  tree 
itself,  but  has  no  proof  apart  from  the 
variation  in  yield."  The  proof  will  not 
be  forthcoming  until  there  can  be  oppor- 
tunity for  a  record  of  a  number  of  vege- 
tative generations  under  various  environ- 
ments. So  far  as  known  no  such  record 
of   importance  exists. 

Whitten  Experiment 

.1.  C.  Whitten  of  the  University  of  Mis- 
souri has  conducted  experiments  through 
12  years  with  strawberries  and  Ben 
Davis  apples.  With  regard  to  these  ex- 
periments he   concludes: 

(3)  "I  doubt  very  much  whether  bud 
variations  of  a  permanent  nature  capable 
of  being  transmitted  to  the  buds  used 
for  subsequent  propagation  occur  fre- 
quently enough  so  that  a  given  variety 
may  be  really  improved  by  selecting  buds 
from  trees  that  are  known  to  be  espe- 
cially good  producers.  Of  course  every 
one  must  recognize  the  fact  that  bud 
sports  or  bud  variations  do  occur.  In  my 
judgment  a  bud  variation  or  bud  sport 
occurs  very  rarely  and  when  it  does  occur 
it  is  so  different  from  its  parent  as  to 
be  a  different  variety.  When  such  a  bud 
sport  occurs  it  may  be  reproduced  by 
propagating  it  from  its  buds  as  a  new 
variety. 

"Here  at  the  experiment  station  we 
have  tried  to  increase  the  productiveness 
of  Aroma  strawberries  and  of  the 
Ben  Davis  apple  by  keeping  a  record  of 
the  production  of  the  individual  plants  of 
each.  In  the  case  of  the  strawberries 
the   best   producer   in    the   patch    yielded 


(2)  Corppspondence.   1012. 

(3)  Correspondence,  1912. 


144 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


eight  times  the  production  of  the  poor- 
est yielder,  yet  when  we  allowed  these 
parents  to  make  runners  and  propagated 
from  them  by  these  runners  we  found 
just  as  much  variation  in  the  runners 
produced  from  the  one  as  we  did  among 
those  produced  from  the  other.  In  other 
words,  we  got  equally  good  and  equally 
bad  plants  in  each  lot.  That  was  con- 
tinued  after   12   years   of   selection. 

"In  the  case  of  the  Ben  Davis  apples 
we  kept  a  record  of  the  production  of 
individual  trees  in  an  orchard  where  one 
tree  was  found  to  be  uniformly  a  low 
yielder  and  where  three  trees  were  found 
to  be  uniformly  high  yielders.  Scions 
were  taken  from  the  low  yielding  and 
from  the  high  yielding  trees.  These  were 
worked  on  seedling  roots  and  finally 
planted  in  the  orchard  so  that  in  a  row 
throughout  the  orchard  there  occurred 
first  a  tree  from  the  high  yielding  par- 
ent, then  a  tree  from  the  low  yielding 
parent,  and  so  on  alternating  throughout 
the  row.  These  trees  have  been  in  bear- 
ing after  four  years  and  in  the  three 
crops  produced  as  much  variation  among 
the  different  trees  apparently  as  there 
is  in  any  other  Ben  Davis  orchard.  We 
have  as  good  yielders  taken  from  the 
poor  yielding  parent  as  we  have  from 
the  others.  On  the  other  hand  we  have 
as  poor  yielders  taken  from  the  good 
yielding  parent  as  we  have  from  the 
others. 

"I  know  of  a  few  instances  where  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  secure  high 
yielding  trees  by  selecting  buds  from  es- 
pecially good  producing  trees,  but  I  do 
not  know  of  any  instances  that  are  au- 
thentic where  anything  has  been  gained 
by  this  practice.  I  do  not  want  to  con- 
clude that  it  is  impossible  for  bud  varia- 
tion to  occur  in  an  occasional  tree  in 
which  the  variation  expresses  itself  sim- 
ply in  the  form  of  great  productivness, 
but  I  do  believe  that  the  fact  that  a  tree 
happens  to  have  a  high  record  as  a  pro- 
ducer is  no  indication  of  the  fact  that 
this  quality  would  be  transmitted  to  its 
bud   offspring. 

"Personally  I  believe  that  variations 
that  come  from  buds  are  due  to  some- 
thing which  lies  within  the  tree  or  some 


stimulus  applied  to  the  bud  while  it  is 
forming.  I  do  not  believe  that  differences 
due  to  environment,  soil  formation,  de- 
grees of  fertilization,  freedom  from  dis- 
eases, pests,  etc.,  are  capable  of  being 
transmitted  to  the  offspring.  I  am  not 
ready  to  conclude  that  individual  parent 
trees  might  not  be  found  which  would  be 
capable  of  transmitting  larger  produc- 
tiveness through  their  buds.  I  know  of 
no  direct  evidence  up  to  date,  however, 
that  we  can  secure  higher  yielding  trees 
of  a  given  variety  by  this  method.  I 
think  further  experiments  should  be  tried 
out  by  those  who  happen  to  know  of  es- 
pecially high  yielding  specimens  of  fruits 
before  one  could  reach  a  positive  con- 
clusion." 

Regardiiip:  Laws  of  Variation 

The  causes  of  variations  through  he- 
redity are  not  the  same  as  the  causes  of 
variation  through  environment.  Varia- 
tions of  budded  stocks  seem  to  follow 
environmental  causes  rather  than  heredi- 
tary causes.  When  you  cut  scions  from 
a  tree,  set  them  on  new  roots  and  trans- 
plant them  to  various  soils  and  climates, 
you  are  virtually  testing  that  same  tree 
in  a  variety  of  environments  and  the 
variations  which  occur  from  the  original 
type  will  be  due  to  environment.  The 
thing  to  be  determined  is.  Will  changes 
which  are  due  to  changed  environment 
become  permanent;  for  example,  will  the 
Spitzenburg,  which  produces  an  apple  of 
a  certain  size,  shape,  flavor  and  color  in 
the  Yakima  countr.y,  produce  the  same 
fruit  when  transplanted  to  the  Ozark 
mountains? 

The  conditions  under  which  plants  will 
vary  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  The 
nature  or  quality  of  the  food;  the  quan- 
tity of  food:  the  nature  of  the  climate: 
the  nature  of  the  competition  under 
which  the  plant  has  to  survive;  the  na- 
ture of  enemies,  such  as  fungi,  insects, 
animals  or  other  injurious  circumstances: 
nature  of  the  care  given;  all  these  in 
relation  to  the  nature  of  the  organism, 
its  vigor,  health,  and  equilibrium  of  all 
its   parts. 

U.  P.  Hedrick  of  the  Geneva  experi- 
ment station   (New  York)  has  the  follow- 


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145 


ing  interesting  things  to  say  on  this 
point: 

1 41  "There  are  variations  due  to  the 
effect  of  the  environment  of  the  plant. 
The  richer  the  soil,  the  more  sunlight,  the 
better  the  care,  the  greater  the  freedom 
from  insects  and  diseases  and  the  longer 
the  season,  the  more  vigorous  is  the  plant, 
the  more  fruit  it  produces  and  the  larger 
and  more  perfect  is  the  fruit  But 
though  these  changes  and  conditions  pro- 
duce a  direct  effect  upon  the  plant  during 
its  lifetime,  there  is  no  evidence  to  show 
that  any  of  the  variations  so  brought 
about  can  be  transmitted  from  parent  to 
offspring.  The  fruit  grower  who  wants 
to  perpetuate  such  variations,  must  re- 
new for  each  generation  the  conditions 
which  gave  him  the  desirable  effects.  It 
is  a  question  of  'nurture.'  not  of  na- 
ture.' 

"To  illustrate:  A  man  living  in 
Northern  Michigan  had  a  Spy  tree  which 
bore  small,  green  scrawny  Spies.  He 
attributed  the  poor  apples  to  the  nature 
of  the  tree  and  talked  much  of  the  Spy 
tree  in  mother's  yard  'baclv  East'  that 
bore  marvelous  apples.  He  brought  on 
grafts  of  mother's  Spy.  In  due  time  the 
grafts  bore  the  same  small,  gnarly,  green 
Spies.  Northern  Michigan  Spies  are 
worthless  because  of  climate  and  soil  and 
not  because  of  the  tree.  *  *  * 

"A  Baldwin  tree  taken  from  New  York 
to  Virginia  produces  an  apple  different 
from  the  New  York  Baldwin:  taken  to 
Missouri,  the  Baldwin  is  still  different; 
taken  to  Oregon,  it  is  unlike  any  of  the 
others.  If  the  trees  are  brought  back 
from  these  states  to  New  York,  they 
become  again  New  York  Baldwins.  It 
is  not  likely  that  selection  can  change 
this. 

"If  it  were  true  that  characters  ac- 
quired because  of  environment  were  in- 
heritable, the  resulting  medley  would  be 
overwhelming.  Let  us  see  where  the 
transmission  of  acquired  characters 
would  lead  us  in  a  particular  case — tak- 
ing, it  is  true,  a  somewhat  extreme  one. 
If  a  growing  apple  be  put  in  a  bottle.  It 
will    continue    to    grow    and    assume    the 


i4l    U.  P.   Hediick.  X.  Y.   Circ.   18. 


shape  of  its  covering,  making  a  bottle- 
shaped  apple.  If  one  such  bottle  be  red 
and  another  blue,  the  color  as  well  as 
the  shape  of  the  apples  will  be  changed. 
If  many  variously  shaped  and  colored 
bottles  be  used  and  if  from  their  seeds 
or  buds  the  resulting  products  come  true, 
especially  if  the  seeds  were  crossed,  the 
Imagination  cannot  compass  the  confu- 
sion in  form  and  color  of  apples  which 
would  result  in  a  few  generations'. 

"The  Geneva  station  has  an  experiment 
which  gives  precise  evidence  on  this  ques- 
tion of  pedigreed  stock.  Sixteen  years 
ago  a  fertilizer  experiment  was  started 
with  60  Rome  trees  propagated  from 
buds  taken  from  one  branch  of  a  Rome 
tree.  Quite  as  much  variation  can  be 
found  in  these  trees  from  selected  buds 
as  could  be  found  in  an  orchard  of  Romes 
propagated  indiscriminately  and  growing 
under  similar  conditions.  Data  showing 
the  variations  in  diameter  of  tree  and  in 
productiveness  can  be  found  in  Bulletin 
339  of  this  station,  and  will  go  far  to 
convince  anyone  that  uniformity  of  be- 
havior as  regards  vigor  and  productive- 
ness of  tree  and  size  and  color  of  fruit 
cannot  be  perpetuated. 

"We  have  another  experiment  at  Ge- 
neva which  ought  to  throw  light  on  pedi- 
greed stock.  Baldwin  apple  trees  have 
been  purchased  from  104  nurseries  in 
all  parts  of  the  Union.  Some  of  these 
have  been  propagated  from  bearing 
trees;  others  have  come  for  generations 
from  nursery  stock;  some  are  on  French 
crab,  others  on  Doucin,  and  others  on 
Paradise  stocks.  If  allowed  to  come  into 
bearing  in  the  regions  in  which  we  ob- 
tained the  trees  we  should  have  104  more 
or  less  different  trees  bearing  variously 
shaped  and  colored  apples.  What  will 
the  harvest  be  when  all  come  into  fruit- 
ing in  the  station  orchard?  Will  they 
resemble  the  Baldwins  from  the  various 
regions  from  which  the  trees  come  or 
will    they   be   New    York   Baldwins? 

"What  I  have  said  in  regard  to  the  im- 
provement of  fruit  propagated  from  buds 
is  now  the  accepted  theory  in  regard  to 
the  improvement  of  plants  grown  from 
seed.  To  be  of  any  value  in  plant  im- 
provement a  variation  must  be  inherited; 


146 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


mutations  are  inherited;  variations  re- 
sulting from  environment  are  not  inher- 
ited or  at  least  there  is  no  indisputable 
evidence  of  such  inheritance.  Fluctuat- 
ing variations  in  vigor,  hardiness,  and 
size  of  plant  and  in  color,  size,  amount 
and  quality  of  fruit  play  little  part  in 
the  improvement  of  plants.  Selection 
was  formerly  considered  a  continuous  and 
cumulative  process;  the  revised  theory  is 
that  It  is  a  discontinuous  process  and 
new  characters  are  added  in  one  leap. 
Somehow,  somewhere,  sometime  in  the 
life  of  a  species  of  plants,  a  wholly  new 
character  is  added,  or  removed,  and  the 
variation  is  transmissible  to  the  succeed- 
ing  generation. 

"May  it  not  be  true  that  size  of  fruit, 
vigor,  hardiness  or  productiveness  of 
plant  may  appear  as  mutations  and  be 
heritable?  These  characters  may  appear 
as  heritable  variations  but  it  cannot  be 
known  without  precise  experiments  for 
each  case  whether  or  not  they  will  be 
inherited.  No  fruit  grower  or  nursery- 
man is  warranted  in  assuming  that  the 
qualities  named  can  be  handed  down — 
the  chances  are  many  to  one  that  such 
variations  are  due  to  nurture  and  are 
not  transmissible. 

"For  several  years  the  speaker  has 
spent  much  time  in  studying  the  his- 
tories of  varieties  of  fruits.  In  'The 
Grapes  of  New  York.'  he  has  had  to  do 
with  about  1,500  grapes;  in  The  Plums 
of  New  York.'  2.000  sorts  of  plums;  in 
'The  Apples  of  New  York.'  with  about 
700  kinds  of  apples.  When  this  knowl- 
edge of  thousands  of  varieties  is  focused, 
one  sees  in  fruits  stability  and  not  varia- 
tion. The  generations  of  varieties  of 
fruit  do  not  change.  The  Baldwin  apple. 
Bartlett  pear.  Concord  grape,  Montmor- 
ency cherry  have  not  changed.  In  the 
station  fruit  exhibit  are  Greenings  from 
a  scion  of  the  'original'  Greening  tree. 
200  years  old  when  the  scions  were 
taken;  besides  them  are  Greenings  grown 
from  trees  propagated  from  nursery 
stock.  The  characters  of  the  two  lots  of 
fruit  are  identical.  If  indiscriminate  tak- 
ing of  buds  for  propagation  means 
changes,  we  should  have  innumerable 
types    of    Baldwins,    Bartletts,    Concords, 


Montmorencies  and  these  two  lots  of 
Greenings  ought  not  to  look  alike. 

"There  are,  probably,  more  than  one 
strain  of  some  varieties  of  fruits,  as  of 
the  Baldwin  for  example.  But  these 
strains  are  tew,  not  moi'e  than  two  or 
three  for  any  variety  and  but  one  in  the 
great  majority  of  fruits.  No  one  knows 
how  strains  have  arisen — certainly  not 
by  premeditated  selection.  The  fact  of 
these  occasional  strains  does  not  alter 
the  statement  that  the  great  majority  of 
the  infinitude  of  variations  in  every  or- 
chard are  not  transmissible." 

The  following  letter  from  Alfred  G. 
Gulley  of  the  Connecticut  station  corrob- 
orates   the    view    of    Professor    Hedrick: 

(5)  "I  have  no  doubt  that  variations 
in  tree  fruits  are  chiefly  due  to  environ- 
mental causes  and  I  have  not  seen  or 
produced  variations  due  to  causes  which 
lie  within  the  tree  itself.  If  the  latter 
is  true  why  has  there  not  been  use 
made  of  it  and  off  year  Baldwin  orchards 
produced?  On  the  other  hand,  if  true, 
how  do  we  have  standard  varieties  at  all? 
Slight  permanent  variations  would  come 
and  varieties  change  from  the  original. 
Bailey's  'Plant  Breeding'  says  that  a  va- 
riety will  completely  change  in  a  cen- 
tury. I  doubted  it,  so  some  12  years 
ago  sent  over  to  Rhode  Island  and  ob- 
tained scions  from  the  reputed  original 
tree.  Whether  original  or  not,  it  was 
known  to  be  Rhode  Island  Greening,  and 
at  the  time  I  got  scions  had  had  a  writ- 
ten bearing  record  of  175  years,  nearly 
two  centuries.  I  grew  this  alongside  an- 
other tree,  both  same  stocks,  and  grafted 
from  Rhode  Island  Greening  trees  ob- 
tained in  New  York  state,  which  no  doubt 
had  been  changed  a  dozen  times  or  more 
since  leaving  the  original.  I  placed  sam- 
ples of  fruit  from  both  trees  on  the  tables 
at  the  Western  New  York  Horticultural 
Society  two  years  ago  and  had  the  pleas- 
ure of  hearing  Professor  Bailey  himself 
say  there  is  no  difference.  I  have  read 
Professor  Hedrick's  bulletin  (Circ.  18, 
quoted  above. — Ed.)  and  not  only  agree 
with  him  but  in  the  year  1905  presented 
the   same   idea   with   some   results   along 


(5)   A.  P.  Gulley,  Correspondence.  1912. 


APPLES 


147 


other  lines  of  work  at  the  Western  New 
York  Horticultural  Society  meeting,  and 
had  the  jirivilege  of  having  Professor 
Hedrick  and  George  T.  Powell  climb  all 
over  me  for  taking  such  notions.  Upon 
receiving  the  bulletin  I  wrote  to  Professor 
Hedrick  and  congratulated  him  upon  his 
change  of  heart.  I  quote  from  his  reply, 
"Your  letter  in  regard  to  Circular  18  is 
at  hand.  We  live  to  learn.  The  theory 
that  varieties  of  fruit  could  be  improved 
by  bud  selection  seemed  so  plausible 
to  me  that  without  stopping  to  analyze 
it  very  closely  and  without  doing  any 
experimental  work,  I  accepted  it  and 
preached  it.  I  remember  very  well  dis- 
agreeing with  you  at  the  Rochester  meet- 
ing. Y'our  long  and  wide  experience 
should  have  made  me  more  careful.  Al- 
most from  that  meeting  I  became  a 
doubter  and  for  the  last  two  years  have 
given  the  subject  of  pedigreed  trees  a 
great  deal  of  attention  in  the  various 
aspects   put   forth   in   Circular   18.' 

"I  think  much  of  the  trouble  lies  in 
the  attempt  made  by  many  to  reason  that 
seed  and  bud  propagation  should  produce 
the  same  results.  They  are  not  the  same. 
Many  are  not  willing  to  take  the  time 
to  test  their  propositions.  I  was  just  10 
years  working  out  the  Greening  matter. 
I  believe  there  is  something  in  the  mu- 
tation theory.  I  think  the  Colamer  apple 
belongs  here,  as  I  do  not  understand  that 
any  claim  has  been  made  that  it  is  im- 
proved,   but   discovered." 

Other  Opinions 

Not  a  few  reliable  nurserymen  believe 
that  the  "pedigreed  tree"  is  a  species  of 
faking,  misleading  to  say  the  least,  the 
only  claim  that  can  be  legitimately  made 
being  that  care  has  been  exercised  in  the 
selection  of  scions  from  healthy  trees 
and  in  keeping  them  true  to  name.  One 
noted  specialist  puts  it:  (6)  "Selecting 
scions  for  type  is  rational,  selection  for 
variation  is  a  dream  as  far  as  we  now 
have  any  knowledge."  Perhaps  this  view 
is  extreme,  as  there  are  other  men  ap- 
parently sincere  and  among  them  some 
thoroughgoing  scientists  who  are  suffi- 
ciently convinced  that  there  is  something 


in  the  idea  that  they  are  devoting  time 
and  expense  to  its  further  study.  Bui-- 
bank  thinks  that  there  is  truth  in  the 
theory  but  that  (7)  "its  value  has  been 
greatly  overestimated.  Ten  valuable  vari- 
ations are  produced  by  seed  to  one  bud 
variation." 

In  fairness  to  the  advocates  of  the  pedi- 
gree theory  it  must  be  said  that  one 
bit  of  positive  evidence  is  worth  a  whole 
world  of  merely  negative  evidence.  The 
work  of  A.  D.  Shamel,  of  the  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry,  in  California,  on  citrus 
bud  variation  promises  to  yield  impor- 
tant results.  The  work  here  has  been 
greatly  simplified  by  the  fact  that  prac- 
tically all  of  the  navel  oranges  in  Cali- 
fornia are  the  descendants  of  two  trees. 
Following  is  a  brief  account  of  the  re- 
sults thus  far  secured: 

"Our  four  years'  work  here  has  given 
us  a  definite  line  on  the  frequency  of 
citrus  bud  variations,  their  relation  to 
the  permanence  of  citrus  types,  and  the 
comparative  value  of  these   types. 

"We  have  determined  the  standard  types 
of  the  Washington  and  Thompson  navel 
orange.  Eureka  lemon,  Marsh's  seedless 
pomelo,  and  Valencia  orange  and  the  'off' 
types  of  these  varieties.  We  have  devel- 
oped a  practical  tree  performance  record 
system  now  in  use  in  over  5,000  acres  of 
citrus  fruits,  for  determining  the  trees 
which  are  to  be  rebudded,  the  'drones.'  " 


A.  D.  Sliamel,  Correspondence.  1912. 

The  >'atiire  of  the  Budding  Operation 

A  brief  statement  of  the  nature  of  the 
process  which  is  employed  in  budding 
and  grafting  might  be  helpful  in  clear- 
ing the  whole  problem  of  certain  mis- 
conceptions which  arise  out  of  the  neces- 
sity of  employing  terms  which  belong  to 
another  field. 

(8)  "When  you  take  a  bud  or  limb  from 
a  given  variety  of  tree,  and  insert  that 
bud  on  another  stock  to  which  it  attaches 
itself  and  from  which  its  life  IS  obtained, 
for  the  bud  to  continue  its  growth  sim- 
ply amounts  to  continuing  or  extending 
the  length  of  the  branch  of  the  original 
tree,  and  it  can  no  more  change  the  na- 


(6)   E.  J.  Wickson,  Correspondence,  1912. 


(71    I>.    Burhank,   Correspondence.   1912. 
(8)     F.  WiKgins,  Correspondence.         


148 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


ture  of  the  original  tree  ttian  you  could 
effect  a  change  in  the  limb  of  the  origi- 
nal tree  which  you  have  not  detached. 
If  it  were  possible  to  effect  such  change 
all  nature  would  be  in  a  chaotic  con- 
dition." 

If.  however,  bud  variations  do  occur 
these  varieties  may  be  continued  and  ex- 
tended by  budding  from  the  variant 
stock. 

The  Breeder's  Analogy 

Another  prolific  source  of  misconcep- 
tion arises  out  of  the  use  of  analogy 
from  the  breeder's  experience  and  apply- 
ing it  to  the  propagation  of,  trees  by  buds 
and  grafts.  A  brief  statement  of  the 
breeder's  problems  is  all  that  can  be  given 
here,  but  enough  to  indicate  that  the 
two  methods  of  propagation  are  not 
analogous. 

Xew  Laws  of  Breedinpr 

(9)  The  work  of  Gregor  Johann  Men- 
del established  the  fact  that  some  of  the 
characters,  of  both  plants  and  animals, 
are  inherited  unchanged,  passing  down 
through  each  subsequent  generation. 
Many  of  them  may  be  hidden  in  the  first 
generation  of  progeny  and  in  a  fraction  of 
the  descendants  of  each  subsequent  gen- 
eration by  the  "dominance"  of  stronger, 
opposed,  or  differing,  characteristics  of 
the  same  group.  But  both  the  "dominant" 
and  the  "recessive"  (weaker  or  hidden) 
character  of  a  Mendelian  pair  reappear 
in  pure  form  in  part  of  each  generation 
after  the  first;  so  that  the  descendants 
of  two  parents,  both  showing  the  same 
one  of  these  pure  characters,  will  always 
be  like  their  parents  in  respect  to  this 
character. 

Now,  the  problem  of  the  breeder  is  to 
ascertain  what  characters  follow  this  law 
— for  not  all  do — and  to  secure  the  ones 
desired  in  pure  form  and  in  suitable  com- 
binations. When  once  secured  as  desired 
in  two  parents,  the  descendants  may  be 
depended  on  to  show  the  same  characters 
and  not  to  "revert"  to  some  form  not 
wanted.  But,  even  simplified  as  it  is,  the 
problem  is  still  very  complex :  for  the 
features  or  characteristics  we  think  of 
as   separating  one   plant  or  animal   from 


another  may  each  be  made  up  of  two  or 
more  heritable  characters;  and  the  pos- 
sible combination,  in  any  individual,  of 
these  varied  "unit  characters"  are  ex- 
ceedingly numerous  and  varied.  All 
these  variations  must  be  secured  and 
checked  by  growing  multitudes  of  seed- 
lings, of  at  least  two  generations,  before 
we  can  be  positive  of  our  ground  on  more 
than  a  few  cnaracters. 

In  the  case  of  the  bud  or  scion  you 
are  not  dealing  with  "inheritance"  at  all, 
but  with  a  single  individual  which  you 
wish  to  multiply  in  such  a  way  as  to 
preserve  the  qualities  which  it  now  pos- 
sesses. Stability  then,  so  far  as  those 
qualities  are  concerned,  is  what  is  wanted 
and  not  variation. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  may  wish 
to  make  a  further  study  of  the  problem 
the  following  references  are  appended: 


References 


1900- 


(0)    Geneva    Bull.    3,50,    Popular    Edition. 


-Hitchcock,  A.  S.,  Plant  Breeding 
Bud  Selection  ( Amer.  Card.  21 
(1900)   No.  266,  P.  57.) 

1902— Kellog,  R.  M.,  Bud  Variation  in 
Strawberry  Plant  ( Internal.  Con- 
ference Pit.  Breeding  and  Hibridiza- 
tion,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  30-Oct.  2,  1902). 
-Powell,  G.  T.  Value  of  Improved 
Methods  in  Propagation  of  Fruit 
Trees.  (N.  J.  Hort.  So.  27  11902] 
P.  125-35.  Fig.  2.) 
-Corbett,  L.  C.  Improvement  of 
Roses  by  Bud  Selection.  ( Internat. 
Conference  on  Pit.  Breeding.  N.  Y., 
1902.1 

-Jordan,  A.  T.  Improving  Fruits  by 
Bud  Selection.  (American  Agr.  74 
[19041,  No.  9,  P.  160.) 
1905— Blackwell,  O.  W.  Bud  Variation, 
Facts  That  Prove  Its  Occurrence. 
(Country  Gent.  70  [1905],  No.  2717, 
P.  197.) 

W.    T.      Individuality    of 

(Rep.    Can.    Exp.    Farms, 

105-6.) 

-Symposium,      Apple      Scions      from 

Bearing  Trees.     Influence  of  Stock. 

(Rural  New  Yorker,  64   [1905],  No. 

2907,   P.   741.) 


1902- 


1902- 


1904- 


1905 — Macoun, 
Fruits. 
1905,    P. 

1905- 


APPLES 


149 


1905-8 — Munson,     W.     M,       Variation     in 

Fruitfuluess    of    Individual    Trees. 

(Maine  Bull.  122,  139,  155,  134,  137, 

138.) 
1907— Card,   F.    W.     Scion    Selection   and 

Blooming  Dates.     (R.  I.  Rept.  1907. 

P.   211-14,   220-65.     Pis.   7.) 
1908— Powell,  G.  T.     $1,000  an  Acre  from 

Pedigreed  Trees.     (Country  Life  in 

Am.  13   [1908],  No.  5,  P.  504-6,  538, 

540.     Fig.  12.) 
1909— Beach.    S.    A.      Rept.    of    Com.    on 

Breeding    Vine    and    Tree    Fruits. 

(Am.  Breeders  Assn.,  Vol.  5,  P.  28, 

1909.) 
1909— Ballou,  F.  H.      Bud  Sports    in    Ap- 
ples.      (Ohio  Circ.  94,   P.   70.     Fig. 

20.) 
1911— Wright,   W.   ,1.     What   About   Pedi- 
greed Trees?     (Rural  New  Yorker, 

P.  155,  1911.) 
1912— Hedrick    and     Wellington     (N.    Y. 

Bull.   350). 
1912 — Hedrick,  V.  P.     Pedigreed  Nursery 

Stock.      (N.  Y.  Circ.  No.  18.) 
1912— Shame!,  A.  D.     (Mo.  Bull.  Cal.  Com. 

Hort.  1,  9.  1912.) 

Am.  Breeders  Assn.,  Vol  8,  P.  497. 

Bu.   Pit.   Indust.,   Circ.   77. 

E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  19.  P.  1142:  Vol.  16, 

P.  265. 

American  Agriculturist.  Vol.  74.  No. 

9,  P.   60. 

Wm.  Worthixgtox 

Pedi§rreed  Stock,  Does  It  Pay 

Nurserymen  understand  what  is  meant 
by  "Pedigreed  Stock."  They  may  believe 
in  it  or  they  may  not. 

There  has  been  a  good  deal  of  discus- 
sion as  to  the  correctness  of  the  term 
"pedigreed."  as  applied  to  plants.  A  "pedi- 
greed" animal  infers  known  parentage  on 
both  sides.  With  fruit  trees  and  other 
plants  the  female  parent  is  often  known, 
but  not  the  male,  and  many  of  our  best 
fruits  are  what  is  known  as  chance  seed- 
lings, both  parents  being  involved  in  ob- 
scurity. 

Moreover,  a  flower,  or  a  fruit  (using 
the  term  "fruit"  commercially,  not  scien- 
tifically) may  be  pedigreed  in  the  most 
literal  and  scientific  sense,  being  bred  by 
artificial  methods,  and  still  be  worthless 


so    far   as    any    economic   or   commercial 
value  may  be  considered. 

The  term  "pedigreed,"  however,  implies 
exception  and  fixed  quality,  and  that  is 
what  we  desire;  no  other  name  has  been 
proposed,  except  "selected,"  which  is 
meaningless. 

Pedigreed  stock  is  simply  the  propaga- 
gation  of  selected  plants,  whether  bud 
Tariants,  mutants,  or  by  whatever  name 
they  may  be  known  by  scientists. 

There  is  at  present  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia a  systematic  work  being  carried 
on  under  the  direction  of  an  expert  sent 
out  by  Dr.  Galloway  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  to  segregate  certain  indi- 
vidual citrus  trees  which  have  made  a 
record  as  to  quality  of  fruit,  good  bearing 
habits,  and  general  vigor,  and  to  use  these 
trees  from   which   alone  to  propagate. 

The  leading  citrus  growers  believe  in 
bud  variation,  and  its  propagation,  or 
perpetuation  by  budding  or  grafting,  and 
are  working  to  the  end  that  their  or- 
chards may  be  improved  by  breeding  up. 
Some  growers  already  are  budding  over 
their  bearing  trees  from  these  individual 
specimens.  Such  trees  will  surely  be 
"pedigreed." 

An  increasing  number  of  fruit  growers 
all  over  California  believe  in  pedigreed 
trees,  the  theory  and  practice  of  selecting 
individuals  from  which  to  propagate  being 
warmly  upheld  by  Professor  F.  T.  Bio- 
letti,  of  the  University  of  California,  Mrs. 
M.  E.  Sherman  of  Minnewawa,  and  others. 
Occasionally  most  distinct  bud  variations 
are  met  with,  or  sports,  which  are  en- 
titled to  the  classification  of  a  new  va- 
riety. 

My  attention  was  first  called  to  this  varia- 
tion of  individuality  in  1882  when  studying 
particularly  what  we  call  "French  Prune." 
I  have  a  water  color  sketch,  made  at  that 
time,  showing  the  different  types  of  the 
French  Prune,  but  all  propagated  as  one.» 
These  "types."  or  variations  are  just  as 
fixed  now  as  25  years  ago,  and  no  one 
has  endeavored  to  segregate  them  until 
I  commenced  this  work  in  1905  by  propa- 
gating only  from  marked   individuals. 

But  the  question  arises,  "Does  it  pay?" 
And    this    question    Is    paramount    with 


150 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the  business  man.     Few  of  us  can  afford 
to   be   reformers   or  philanthropists. 

It  pays,  in  theory,  to  sell  good  goods 
rather  than  poor  ones.  It  pays,  ethically, 
to  do  right  rather  than  wrong.  It  pays, 
to  some  extent,  by  being  advertised  as 
progressive,  or  which  is  generally  the 
case,  as  a  crank.  I  admit  that  this  is  its 
best   feature,   commercially. 

It  does  not  pay  when  the  majority  of 
planters,  encouraged  by  the  facetious  and 
skeptical  attitude  of  some  leading  horti- 
cultural journals,  regard  it  as  a  dose  of 
nurserymen's  buncombe,  or  species  of 
humbuggery. 

It  does  not  pay  when  the  majority  of 
planters  take  little  or  no  interest  in  plant 
breeding,  and  even  decline  permission  to 
examine  and  mark  trees  for  buds. 

It  does  not  pay  whenever  the  planter 
who  professes  faith  In  pedigreed  stock 
refuses  absolutely  to  pay  one  cent  more 
for  such  trees,  although  that  would  not 
compensate  for  the  great  added  expense 
of  procuring  buds  from  trees  entitled  to 
be  called  "pedigreed." 

It  might  be  made  to  pay  handsomely, 
both  nurseryman  and  planter,  if  the  two 
would  work  in  unison  in  the  effort  to 
improve  the  standard  of  our  fruits. 

There  are  growers,  of  course,  who 
would  do  this,  as  there  are  also  nursery- 
men who  would  seize  the  opportunity  to 
advertise  their  stock  by  using  the  term 
"pedigreed,"  without  the  shadow  of  reason 
for  doing  so  justly.  The  work,  at  best, 
could  be  but  very  gradual,  although  I 
have  already  seen  a  nursery  firm  adver- 
tising "pedigreed"  apple  trees  for  sale 
by  the  million! 

Personally,  I  believe  the  work  can  only 
be  done  practically  In  a  small  way  by 
Individual  orchardists  co-operating  with 
some  neighboring  nurseryman,  and  thus 
actually  propagating  some  known  and 
fixed  bud  variation. 
'  Leoxaru   Co.\tes, 

Morcanhlll.  Pal. 

LATI>G  OUT  THE  ORCHARD 
The  Orchard  fhart 

Assuming  that  the  decision  has  been 
reached  as .  to  the  general  plan  of  the 
orchard,  it  is  better,  before  active  opera- 


tions are  begun,  to  prepare  an  orchard 
chart  drawn  to  scale  on  heavy  paper  with 
ink  with  a  point  or  cross  for  each  tree 
with  the  name  of  the  variety  along  the 
line  of  each  row,  if  more  than  one  vari- 
ety is  planted.  There  are  several  advan- 
tages in  this  method.  One  is  that  if 
mistakes  are  made  they  are  more  easily 
corrected  on  paper  than  on  the  ground 
after  work  is  begun;  another  is,  that 
the  whole  plan  of  the  orchard  can  be 
seen  at  any  time,  and  will  be  useful  for 
future  reference.  Further,  if  a  record 
or  a  chart  is  made  the  labels  can  be  re- 
moved from  the  trees,  which  is  somewhat 
important  because  frequently  these  labels 
attached  to  the  tree  cut  the  bark,  pre- 
vent the  flow  of  sap,  and  damage  the  tree 
in  its  future  growth.  The  chart  with 
the  place  and  name  of  each  variety  is 
better  than  labels  on  the  trees  because 
it  is  an  instrument  to  which  reference 
can  be  made  at  any  time  in  describing 
the  land  if  it  should  be  offered  for  sale: 
in  bookkeeping,  if  the  profits  of  certain 
trees  are  to  be  recorded:  in  replanting,  if 
some  trees  die;  and  in  grafting. 

Granville  Lowther 

Systems  of  Plantiiig 

The  most  important  thing  to  be  consid- 
ered in  laying  out  an  orchard  is  the  equal 
distribution  of  the  trees.  There  are  sev- 
eral well-defined  systems,  but  only  four 
need  to  be  considered  here.  These  are 
the  square,  the  rectangular,  the  quincunx, 
and  the  hexagonal  systems.  The  choice 
of  any  one  of  these  systems  will  depend 
largely  upon  whether  the  orchard  is  in- 
tended to  remain  as  it  is  originally 
started,  or  whether  some  of  the  trees  are 
to  be  removed  when  they  begin  to  crowd. 

In  the  square  and  rectangular  system, 
the  one  usually  followed  in  New  England 
the  rows  run  at  right  angles,  leaving 
each  set  of  four  trees  in  the  form  of  a 
square  or  rectangle,  depending  upon 
whether  the  trees  are  planted  the  same 
distance  apart  each  way.  The  chief  ob- 
jection to  this  system  is  that  the  trees 
are  not  equally  distributed,  there  being 
a  large  open  sjiace  in  the  center  of  each 
set  of  four  trees.  When  fillers  are  to  be 
planted   and   thinned   out   later,   this   sys- 


APPLES 


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'liifp  I.  The  Rectangular  Methfid  at'  Laying  Out  an  (tn-hard.  Fig.  1  shows  the  arrangement 
uf  the  trees  with  tillers.  Fig.  '1  shows  the  arrangement  after  the  fillers  have  been 
removed,  leaving  just  half  the  number  o£  trees.  This  arrangement  is  sometimes  oalled  the 
quincunx  svstem.  The  tree  in  the  center  of  each  group  of  four  is  a  semipermanent  tree  and 
may  be  removed  later  If  necessary.  Fig.  3  shows  the  final  arrangement  after  tillers  and 
semipermanent  trees  have  been  removed.  Observe  the  large,  open  space  in  the  center  of 
each   group  of  four  trees. 


teni  is  very  suitable,  for  the  fillers  may 
be  removed  without  affecting  the  arrange- 
ment. As  shown  in  Plate  I,  Fig.  1.  the 
trees  may  be  started  say,  20  feet  apart, 
giving  108  temporary  and  permanent 
trees  to  the  acre.  When  they  begin  to 
crowd,  the  fillers  or  temporary  trees, 
which  compose  the  alternate  diagonal 
rows,  may  be  removed,  leaving  54  trees 
to  the  acre,  as  shown  in  Plate  I,  Fig.  2. 
It  may  be  seen  that  the  trees  are  still  in 
small  squares  (28.28x28.28  feet)  running 
cornerwise  of  the  orchard  and  in  larger 
squares  (40x40  feet),  with  a  tree  in  the 
center,  running  across  the  field.  These 
center  trees  may  be  called  semi-perma- 
nent trees.  They  may  either  be  the  same 
as  the  fillers  or  the  permanent  trees,  and 
if  necessary  may  be  removed  later,  leav- 
ing 27  trees  to  the  acre,  40  feet  apart 
each  way. — Plate  I,  Fig.  3.  To  relieve 
the  crowding,  it  is  not  usually  necessary 
to  remove  all  the  fillers  at  once,  and  this 
system  allows  two  thinnings  without  seri- 
ously affecting  the  arrangement.  This 
system  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  orchards 
without  fillers  as  either  of  the  other  sys- 
tems. 

In  the  guincunx  system  the  trees  are 
arranged  in  squares  with  a  tree  in  the 
center.  It  is  the  same  in  arrangement  as 
the  rectangular  system  partially  thinned, 
as  shown   in   Plate   I,   Fig.   2.     The  extra 


tree  in  the  center  of  the  groups  allows 
twice  as  many  trees  to  the  acre  as  the 
straight  rectangular  system,  and  the  trees 
are  more  evenly  spaced.  It  is  also  suited 
to  filler  planting,  for  the  trees  in  the  cen- 
ters of  the  squares  may  be  removed  at 
any  time,  leaving  .the  trees  in  larger 
squares. — Plate  I,  Fig.  3.  Where  fillers 
are  used  the  rectangular  and  quincunx 
systems  are  very  similar,  for  one  is  read- 
ily changed  to  the  other  by  the  process 
of  thinning.  For  use  in  orchards  with- 
out fillers  the  latter  system  is  preferable, 
but  neither  of  them  is  as  suitable  for 
this  purpose  as  the  next  system  to  be 
described. 

For  Permanent  Orchard 
The  hexagonal  system  gets  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  the  trees  are  arranged- 
in  hexagonal  or  six-sided  groups,  with  a 
tree  in  the  center,  as  shown  in  Plate  II, 
Figs.  2  and  3.  The  space  between  each 
group  of  four  trees  is  diamond-shaped. 
The  advantange  of  this  system  is  that  all 
the  trees  are  equidistant,  giving  equal 
distribution  of  air,  light  and  soil.  It  is 
undoubtedly  the  best  system  if  the  trees 
are  set  so  far  apart  that  the  orchard 
will  never  require  thinning.  On  account 
of  the  equal  distribution,  more  trees  may 
be  planted  to  the  acre  than  by  any  other 
system.  It  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  filler 
planting  as  either  the  rectangle  or  quin- 


152 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


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I'late  II.  The  Ilexasoual  Method  of  Laying  Out  an  Orchard.  Fig.  1  shows  the  methi:)d  of 
marking  off  the  field.  Fig.  2  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  trees  with  a  filler  in  the  center 
of  each  group  of  four  permanent  trees.  Fig.  3  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  trees  after 
the  fillers  have  been  removed.  Observe  that  the  trees  are  equidistant  from  each  other  and 
that  there  is  but  a  small,  open  space  in  the  center  of  each  group  of  three  trees. 


cunx  systems.  Where  the  trees  are  set 
sufficiently  far  apart,  say  36  feet,  an  extra 
tree  may  be  set  in  the  center  of  each 
diamond,  as  shown  in  Plate  II,  Fig.  2. 
This  would  place  the  tree  rows  30  feet 
apart,  and  18  feet  apart  in  the  row.  As 
a  result  the  trees  would  be  arranged  in 
rectangles.  18x30  feet,  giving  them  plenty 
of  room  one  way,  but  making  them  some- 
what close  the  other  way.  Trees  planted 
in  this  way  may  be  retained  longer  than 
when  they  are  planted  but  18  feet  apart. 
Following  this  method,  80  trees  to  the 
acre  may  be  set,  half  of  which  would  be 
fillers.  If  fillers  are  used  in  this  way,  it 
would  be  advisable  to  have  the  closer 
planted  rows  run  east  and  west  to  ad- 
mit more  sunlight  between  the  trees.  If 
the  distance  between  the  permanent 
trees  is  increased,  say  to  42  feet,  a  filler 
may  be  placed  between  each  pair  of  per- 
manent trees  in  every  dirction.  This 
would  retain  the  hexagonal  arrangement, 
but  the  hexagons  would  be  only  half  the 
size  of  those  formed  by  the  permanent 
trees.  With  such  an  arrangement  there 
would  be  four  times  more  fillers  than 
permanent  trees.  When  the  trees  com- 
mence to  crowd  the  thinning  may  be  done 
by  removing  ever.v  alternate  row  across 
the  field,  leaving  the  fillers  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  diamond  a  few  years  longer. 
While  the  rectangular  system  seems  to  be 
better  suited  to  filler  planting,  the  hexa- 


gonal method  undoubtedly  gives  the  best 
distribution  of  the  trees  after  the  fillers 
are  eventually  removed. 

Setting  the  Stakes 

The  determination  of  the  correct  posi- 
tion of  the  trees  is  often  one  of  the  most 
difficult  tasks  in  connection  with  the  start- 
ing of  young  orchards.  The  problem  is 
a  more  serious  one  when  large  areas  are 
considered  and  when  the  location  selected 
is  on  irregular  and  uneven  land.  For  con- 
venience in  cultivation,  and  also  for  the 
sake  of  appearance,  the  trees  should  be 
set  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  be  in 
line  in  all  directions.  With  this  in  mind 
it  is  usually  advisable  to  indicate  the  po- 
sition of  each  tree  by  a  stake,  and  to  lay 
out  the  whole  field  before  setting  the  trees. 

In  square  or  rectangular  fields  the 
stakes  for  a  row  of  trees  on  all  sides  of 
the  orchards  may  be  set  by  measuring 
the  distance  into  spaces  of  the  required 
length ;  for  example,  if  the  trees  are  to 
be  set  40  feet  apart  each  way  on  the  square 
method,  the  stakes  are  placed  every  40 
feet  on  all  sides  of  the  field.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  intervening  trees  may  be 
readily  determined  by  sighting  between 
the  stakes  on  the  opposite  sides.  On  small 
areas  the  land  may  be  marked  off  with 
a  line  connecting  the  opposite  stakes,  in 
both  directions.  The  point  of  intersec- 
tion of  these  lines  indicates  the  position 


APPLES 


153 


of  the  trees.  On  larger  areas  the  position 
of  the  trees  is  usually  determined  hy 
sighting  across  the  field  or  by  the  use 
of  a  modified  corn-marker.  Sometimes  a 
plow  is  used  to  open  up  a  furrow  in  both 
directions. 

Before  attempting  to  lay  out  a  field 
that  is  irregular  in  outline,  it  must  first 
be  squared  off  in  such  a  way  that  the 
rows  running  across  the  field  will  be  at 
right-angles  to  the  rows  running  the  other 
direction.  A  base  line  running  along  a 
straight  side  of  a  field  is  first  chosen. 
If  there  is  no  straight  side,  a  straight  line 
running  along  the  longer  side  of  the  field 
may  be  established.  At  right-angles  to 
this  line  and  near  each  end.  may  be  pro- 
jected two  other  lines.  On  small  areas 
this  may  be  done  with  two  straight  edges 
and  a  carpenter's  square,  but  on  large 
tracts  this  method  is  not  sufficiently  ac- 
curate. The  best  and  most  reliable  method 
is  that  described   in   Fig.   3.     At  the   de- 


Fig.   ?•.     Diaffram   Showinsr  Method  of  Squaring 
Off    an     Irreprular    Field. 

sired  point  (A)  on  the  base  line  a  stake 
is  set,  and  exactly  60  feet  from  this  on 
the  same  line  another  stake  (B)  is  set. 
By  stretching  a  string  80  feet  long  from 
the  first  stake  (A)  and  another  string 
100  feet  long  from  the  second  stake  (B) 
and  by  bringing  the  two  ends  together 
at  (C)  the  position  of  the  third  stake 
may  be  determined.  Then  the  desired 
line  is  drawn  from  A  through  C  to  the 
other  side  of  the  field.  The  same  opera- 
tion is  repeated  near  the  other  end  of  the 
field.  The  distance  between  the  rows,  one 
way.  may  be  marked  off  on  the  projected 
lines  and  the  distance  between  the  rows, 
the  other  way  may  be  indicated  on 
the    base     line     and     also     on     the    line 


parallel  to  it  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
field.  The  rows  in  both  directions  can 
be  extended  to  the  margin  of  the  field. 

On  hilly  lands  it  is  often  very  difficult 
to  get  the  trees  lined  up  properly.  In 
such  cases,  telephone  wire  is  sometimes 
employed  to  stretch  across  the  field.  To 
indicate  the  position  of  the  trees  a  smaller 
wire  may  be  wound  around  and  soldered 
to  the  larger  one  at  the  required  dis- 
tances. The  telephone  wire  is  stretched 
tightly  and  a  stake  set  at  every  point 
indicated  by  the  soldered  wire.  In  the 
hollow  places,  where  the  wire  Is  far  above 
the  ground,  a  plumb-bob  may  be  necessary 
to  find  the  exact  position  where  the  stake 
should  be  set.  Twine,  on  account  of  its 
stretching  character,  is'^wnsuitable  to  this 
purpose.  The  main  point  in  measuring 
off  uneven  land,  is  in  keeping  the  meas- 
uring line  level.  On  steep  hillsides,  where 
cultivation  is  impracticable  in  any  way, 
except  parallel  with  the  slope,  the  trees 
are  often  planted  on  terraces.  These 
terraces  are  formed  by  leaving  an  un- 
plowed  strip  of  land  along  or  between 
the  rows.  Where  the  slope  is  irregular 
it  is  very  difficult  and  almost  impossible 
to  line  up  the  trees  properly  and  at  the 
same  time  have  the  terraces  follow  the 
lines  of  trees.  In  such  cases,  the  terraces, 
with  a  row  to  each  terrace,  are  allowed 
to  follow  the  contours  of  the  slope,  and 
the  trees  thus  are  arranged  in  curved, 
instead  of  straight  rows.  Where  the  slope 
is  steep  the  terraces  are  made  somewhat 
farther  apart  so  that  the  trees  will  not 
be  too  close  together.  In  view  of  the 
abundance  of  available  land  that  is  well 
suited  to  orcharding,  it  is  seldom  advis- 
able to  select  such  land  that  cannot  be 
regularly  laid  out  and  conveniently  cul- 
tivated. 

When  laying  out  the  land  for  the  quin- 
cunx system  of  planting,  lines  should  be 
drawn  midway  between  the  other  rows 
in  both  directions;  that  is,  when  the 
quincunx  group  forms  a  square  40x40 
feet,  the  field  must  be  marked  out  by 
lines  20  feet  apart  each  way.  The  stakes 
for  the  trees  of  the  even  rows  are  set 
opposite  the  spaces  of  the  odd   rows. 

The  setting  of  the  stakes  for  the  hexa- 
gonal system  seems  to  be  somewhat  more 


154 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


difficult,  but  when  once  understood  it  is 
a  very  simple  process.  As  may  be  seen 
from  Plate  II.  Fig.  1,  it  does  not  differ 
materially  from  the  laying  out  of  an 
orchard  on  the  rectangular  plan.  Lines 
are  drawn  across  the  field  in  both  direc- 
tions, but  in  all  cases  the  distance  be- 
tween the  lines  running  one  way  of  the 
field,  compared  with  that  of  the  lines 
running  the  other  way,  is  in  the  propor- 
tion of  three  to  five.  In  laying  out  an 
orchard  in  which,  for  example,  the  trees 
are  to  be  36  feet  apart  each  way,  the  dis- 
tance between  the  lines  running  one  way 
would  be  18  feet  (one-half  of  36)  and 
that  between  lines  running  the  other  way 
would  be  30  feet.  (Eighteen  is  to  30 
as  three  is  to  five.)  The  stakes  are  then 
placed  in  the  same  manner  as  suggested 
for  the  quincunx  system.  The  position 
of  the  fillers  in  the  center  of  the  diamond 
groups  may  also  be  located  with  this 
same  system  of  lines.  If  more  fillers  are 
to  be  used,  as  previously  suggested,  lines 
nine  feet  apart  one  way,  and  fifteen  feet 
apart  the  other  way.  will  need  to  be 
drawn.  A  very  simple  method  of  laying 
out  an  orchard  by  this  system,  espec- 
ially on  uneven  ground,  consists  in  the 
use  of  a  wire  triangle,  like  that  shown 
in  Fig.  4.     This  triangle  should  be  made 


Fig.   4.      A  Wire  Trianele   Used  in   Laying  Out 
An  Orchard   After  the   Hexagon   System. 

just  the  size  of  one-half  the  diamond 
formed  by  four  trees:  that  is,  each  side 
of  the  triangle  should  represent  the  dis- 
tance between  the  permanent  trees.  The 
wire  should  be  connected  at  each  angle 
by  means  of  a  ring.     The  triangle  is  car- 


ried around  by  three  people  and  the 
stakes  located  as  shown  on  the  margin 
of  Fig.  3,  Plate  II.  If  the  triangle  is 
always  kept  tightly  drawn  and  held  on 
the  level,  there  should  be  no  trouble  in 
correctly  locating  the  stakes,  even  on 
very    uneven   ground. 

C.  D.  Jabvis, 
Storrs.     Conn. 

Rules   for  Various   Methods 

Rule  for  the  Square  Method — Multiply 
the  distance  in  feet  between  the  rows  by 
the  distance  the  plants  are  apart  in  rows, 
and  the  product  will  be  the  number  of 
square  feet  for  each  plant  or  hill,  which 
divided  into  the  number  of  feet  in  an 
acre  (43.560)  will  give  the  number  of 
plants  or  trees  to  the  acre. 

Rule  for  the  Equilateral  Method — Di- 
vide the  number  required  to  the  acre 
"square"  method  by  the  decimal  .886.  The 
result  will  be  the  number  of  plants  re- 
quired to  the  acre  by  this  method.  The 
meaning  of  the  rule  for  the  "square 
method"  is  that  in  dividing  the  number 
of  square  feet  in  one  acre  by  the  product 
of  the  distance  in  feet  between  the  rows 
by  the  distances  the  plants  are  apart  in 
rows,  the  quotient  indicates  the  number 
of  square  blocks  into  which  an  acre  is 
divided.  Therefore,  each  block  will  have 
one  tree  placed  in  its  center,  which,  of 
course,  means  that  while  the  number  of 
blocks  are  indicated  by  the  rule  the  num- 
ber of  trees  are  also  shown.  In  making 
a  diagram  of  any  plot  of  ground  the  num- 
ber of  squares  will  be  indicated,  and 
each  square  will  have  a  tree  in  the  cen- 
ter of  it.  This  will  give  a  turning  place 
or  strip  on  each  side  of  the  plot  equal 
to  one-half  the  distance  between  the  tree 
rows. 

The  rule  for  the  "equilateral  method" 
may  be  explained  by  stating  that  each 
tree,  instead  of  growing  in  a  triangular 
plot  is  really  placed  in  a  parallelogram 
whose  longest  side  is  equal  to  the  distance 
between  rows  in  the  "square"  method, 
and  whose  shortest  side  is  equal  to  .866  of 
this  distance;  or  the  ratio  of  the  per- 
pendicular drawn  from  an  angle  of  an 
equilateral  triangle  to  one  of  its  sides. 
In  making  the  tables  decimals  have  been 


APPLES 


155 


omitted,   and   the   nearest   whole    number 
used. 

A  Tal)le  of  Distances 
The  question  is  often  aslied,  How  many 
trees  or  plants  can  be  set  per  acre  at  a 
given  distance  apart?  It  will  be  found 
convenient  to  have  at  hand  a  table  which 
will  give  the  nunil)er  without  having  to 
resort  to  a  mathematical  calculation,  and 
to  this  end  the  table  below  has  been  made 
out.  giving  the  number  of  trees  or  plants 
per  acre  planted  according  to  the  "square" 
and    "triangular"   methods. 

Distance  each  Equilateral 

way  in  feet  Square  Triangle 

1 43.560  50.300 

2 10,890  12,474 

3 4,840  5,889 

4 2,722  3,143 

5 1,742  2,011 

6 1,210  1,397 

7 888  1,025 

8 680  785 

9 537  620 

10 435  502 

11 360  416 

12 302  348 

13 258  298 

14 222  256 

15 193  222 

16 170  196 

17 151  174 

18 134  154 

19 120  140 

20 109  125 

21 99  114 

22 90  104 

23 82  94 

24 75  87 

25 70  80 

26 64  74 

27 60  70 

28 55  64 

29 51  60 

30 48  56 

31 45  52 

32 42  49 

33 40  46 

34 38  43 

35 35  41 

36 33  38 

37 31  36 

38 30  35 

39 28  33 

40 27  31 

P.  ,T.  O'Gara.  Assistant  FatlioloRist.  Depart- 
ment of  Apricultm-e. 

A  Good  Plantini?  Flan 

After  the  ground  has  been  thoroughly 
prepared  the  position  of  the  trees  should 
be  determined.  There  are  many  ways  of 
doing   this    work,    and    it   depends    some- 


what upon  the  style  adopted  whether  the 
square,  quincunx,  or  hexagonal  be  used. 
The  square  is  the  most  common  method. 
By  this  method  the  rows  are  planted 
straight  both  ways  across  the  field  and 
the  maximum  distance  between  the  trees 
may  be  had  for  the  growing  of  other 
crops.  This  method  also  facilitates  culti- 
vation. The  rows  can  be  laid  out  by 
measuring  off  the  head  row  all  around 
the  field  and  then  plowing  out  a  furrow 
both  ways;  the  point  where  the  furrows 
intersect  will  be  the  place  for  the  tree. 
This  is  a  simple  method  and  one  that  is 
sometimes  used  very  successfully.  An- 
other method  is  called  the  "stake"  method 
and  may  be  better  understood  from  the 
following  figure. 
-  ..,  .^ 

I  ) 

I 
I 


'9. 


//     /o    y 


«i 


V\K-   1.     A   Good  Plantinj;  Pian. 

A,  B,  C  and  D  represent  the  field  to 
be  planted.  Begin  at  A  and  work  up  the 
lines  AB  and  BC  and  at  the  proper  dis- 
tances at  which  the  trees  are  to  be 
planted  mark  the  points  1,  2,  3,  etc.  Then 
go  back  50  or  100  feet  and  measure  off 
lines  ab  and  be  parallel  to  lines  AB  and 
BC  respectively.  Begin  at  a  and  along 
lines  ab  and  be  mark  points  at  the  same 
distances  and  corresponding  to  points  1, 
2.  3,  etc.,  along  lines  AB  and  BC.  Be 
sure  that  points  D.  A,  and  a  are  in  a 
straight  line  and  that  points  D,  C,  and  c 
are  also  in  a  straight  line.  Place  stakes 
three  to  five  feet  in  height  at  each  of 
these  points  along  the  four  lines.  When 
ready  to  plant  the  trees  start  at  any 
point  inside  the  field  ABCD.     Stand  erect 


156 


ENCYCTLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


with  a  spade  between  your  feet  and 
sight  in  the  direction  of  the  rows  of 
stakes,  and  if  you  are  not  standing  at  the 
point  of  intersection  of  the  two  lines 
move  one  way  or  the  other  until  you 
find  this  point.  The  point  of  intersec- 
tion of  these  lines  is  the  place  where  the 
tree  is  to  go.  All  the  places  for  all  of 
the  trees  may  be  found  in  the  same  man- 
ner and  without  having  to  measure  any 
of  the  distances  inside  of  the  field.  If 
the  men  are  careful  and  always  dig  the 
hole  right  at  the  intersection  of  the  two 
lines  there  will  be  no  trouble  in  getting 
the  trees  in  straight  rows  and  at  the 
proper  distance.  The  planting  can  be 
started  at  any  point  in  the  field  but  it  is 
better  to  begin  at  one  of  the  sides  near 
the  rows  of  stakes  and  then  work  back. 
The  point  marked  x  is  a  good  place  to 
begin.  This  plan,  with  a  few  slight  modi- 
fications, can  be  adopted  for  the  quincunx 
or  hexagonal  styles. 

F.\BiAN   Garcia, 
Santa   Fe.   N.   M. 

Yoeman  System 

One  of  the  easiest  methods  known  to 
the  writer  is  that  called  the  Yoeman  sys- 
tem. This  consists  in  running  a  base 
line  on  one  side  of  the  proposed  orchard 
and  setting  stakes  at  desired  intervals 
for  tree  rows.  These  stakes,  however, 
instead  of  being  set  where  a  tree  is  to 
be  planted,  are  set  some  10  to  20  feet 
beyond  the  last  tree  in  the  row.  With 
the  base  line  as  a  starting  point  the  or- 
(-p   O    O    O   O   OqO   o    o    o    o    c^ 

o  o 

o 


o 
o 
o 
o 


o 
o 
o 


o 
o 


o  o  o 

oooooooooooo 
o  o  o 


o 
o 
o 
o 


o 

o 
o 
o 


o 
o 
o 
o 


^3    O    O    O    O    0°0    0    0    0    0    0° 
FIr.   ] .     Yoeman   S.vstem. 


chard  site  is  enclosed  on  its  four  sides 
with  a  row  of  stakes  which  are  set  at 
similar  distance  from  the  last  tree  in 
the  row  to  those  of  the  base  line.  The 
stakes  simply  indicate  the  tree  row  in 
each  direction.  By  running  another  set 
of  stakes  across  the  field  and  toward  one 
end  of  it,  in  the  opposite  direction  from 
that  in  which  it  is  intended  to  furrow 
out,  the  field  is  ready  for  the  plow.  Using 
a  heavy  plow  and  a  strong  pair  of  horses 
and  by  going  twice  or  more  times  in  a 
furrow  it  is  possible  to  furrow  sufficiently 
deep  so  that  little  digging  is  necessary 
for  the  reception  of  the  tree  roots.  By 
running  a  line  of  stakes  through  the 
center  of  the  field  in  each  direction,  each 
of  which  is  in  line  with  the  ti-ee  row  in 
but  one  direction  the  field  is  ready  for 
planting. 

William  Stuart, 

BiH-linsmn.  Vt. 

Tlie  Square  System  with  Furrows 

Where  the  ground  is  comparatively 
level  and  the  area  small,  one  of  the  sim- 
plest methods  of  laying  out  an  orchard 
in  squares  is  to  set  stakes  along  the 
boundary  lines  at  opposite  sides  of  the 
area  to  be  planted  and  then  use  a 
marked  wire  for  locating  the  position  of 
each  tree.  Beginning  on  the  side  bound- 
ary of  the  tract,  the  first  stake  is  set  25 
feet  from  the  end.  Following  this  stake, 
other  stakes  are  set  successively  at  the 
distances  the  trees  are  to  occupy,  these 
stakes  to  be  in  line  along  the  side  bound- 
ary and  extending  the  entire  length  of 
the  field.  The  opposite  side  of  the  area 
is  staked  in  like  manner,  beginning  at  the 
same  end  and  staking  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. After  this  a  telephone  wire  which 
is  long  enough  to  reach  across  the  field 
is  secured.  In  one  end  of  the  wire  a  loop 
large  enough  to  slip  over  the  stakes  is 
made.  Twenty-flve  feet  from  this  loop  the 
wire  is  wrapped  tightly  with  fine  stove- 
wire  over  which  a  bit  of  liright  red  flan- 
nel is  tied.  Then,  at  distances  the  trees 
are  to  stand  in  the  rows,  other  markings 
are  made  likewise  along  the  telephone 
wire.  By  stretching  the  wire  between  op- 
posite pairs  of  stakes  the  spot  where 
each    tree    is    to    stand    may    be    located. 


APPLES 


157 


Holes  may  be  dug  and  trees  set  at  once 
or  stakes  may  be  driven  at  the  various 
marks. 

Another  system  of  marking  off  squares 
is  to  use  a  common  turning  plow.  First 
of  all  stakes  are  placed  around  the  field 
along  the  boundary  lines  similar  to  that 
describeil  for  the  wire  method  except  that 
the  ends  of  the  field  are  staked  as  well  as 
the  sides.  The  first  stake  in  each  line, 
on  its  respective  side,  is  placed  25  feet 
from  the  true  corner  of  the  field.  (See 
Fig.  1,  p.  156.  Yoeman  system.)  Furrows 
are  made  lengthwise  and  crosswise  in  line 
with  opposite  stakes,  the  position  of  the 
tree  being  located  at  the  intersection  of 
these  furrows.  With  a  good  steady-walk- 
ing team  and  a  firm  hand  to  hold  the 
reins,  rows  may  be  made  comparatively 
straight.  However,  it  is  necessary  to 
align  the  trees  by  sighting  in  order  to 
get  straight  rows.  The  greatest  endorse- 
ment that  this  method  has  is  that  it 
greatly  facilitates  the  digging  of  holes. 

Still  another  method  used  is  to  locate 
stakes  around  the  field  as  in  the  preced- 
ing case  and  then  establish  a  row  of 
stakes  through  the  middle  of  the  field 
each  way  in  line  with  all  side  and  end 
stakes  respectively,  but  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  none  of  these  stakes  come  where 
trees  are  to  be  set.  After  this,  one  man 
may  stake  out  the  orchard  by  himself  for 
he  has  always  two  pairs  of  stakes  running 
at  right  angles  with  each  other  with 
which  to  align  himself  for  each  row  of 
trees  in  the  orchard.  Places  for  digging 
the  holes  for  the  trees  may  be  readily 
located  and  the  latter  practice  of  using 
this  system  is  very  simple  as  no  small 
stakes  for  individual  trees  are  needed. 

Hexagon  System 

Since  an  orchard  laid  out  in  hexagons  has 
all  of  its  trees  equidistant, the  first  essential 
device  for  this  work  is  a  triangle,  the  length 
of  each  side  of  which  is  the  desired  dis- 
tance between  two  rows  of  trees.  Usu- 
ally this  triangle  is  constructed  by  the 
use  of  three  pieces  of  flexible  wire  joined 
together  at  the  three  corners  by  rings  one 
and  one-half  or  two  inches  in  diameter. 
(See  Fig.  4,  p.  154.1  Measured  irom  the 
middle  of  each  ring,  each  side  should  cor- 


respond exactly  with  the  distance  between 
the  trees.  A  triangle  constructed  in  this 
manner  works  very  well  on  comparatively 
level  ground  but  for  sloping  ground  it  is 
usually  best  to  make  the  triangle  of  wood. 
Three  well-seasoned  lx2-inch  pine  strips, 
each  two  inches  shorter  than  the  distance 
the  trees  are  to  be  planted,  are  nailed 
firmly  and  braced  together,  forming  an 
equilateral  triangle.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  have  the  sides  of  the  face  of  this  tri- 
angle on  the  same  plane.  At  each  corner 
of  the  triangle  a  pine  board  6x6  inches  is 
nailed,  an  inch  hole  is  bored  In  each 
board  in  such  a  manner  that  measured 
from  the  center  of  the  holes  each  side 
corresponds  exactly  with  the  distances  the 
trees  are  to  be  planted. 

How  to  Use  Triangle 

In  using  the  triangle  it  is  necessary  to 
stake  out  one  row  by  line  at  one  side  of 
the  field,  after  which  the  triangle  serves 
to  locate  all  other  stakes.  Three  men 
must  carry  the  triangle,  one  at  each  ring. 
By  placing  two  of  the  rings  separately 
over  two  established  stakes  a  third  stake 
is  established.  This  process  is  repeated 
until  the  entire  field  has  been  staked. 
Where  it  is  desired  to  use  hexagons  on 
sloping  or  hilly  ground  a  plumb-line  and 
carpenter's  level  must  be  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  wooden  triangle.  Each 
time  that  the  triangle  is  moved  it  is  lev- 
eled and  the  plumb  line  hung  at  the  cor- 
ner where  the  ground  is  lowest.  By  this 
method  the  third  stake  may  be  exactly 
located  in  reference  to  the  other  stakes. 

The  Quincunx  System  and  De-rice 

The  quincunx  system  is  only  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  square  system.  In  placing  the 
rows  of  stakes  at  the  side  of  the  field  it 
is  necessary  to  place  an  additional  stake 
midway  between  each  two  stakes  described 
in  the  preliminary  staking  for  squares. 
The  marked  wire  described  for  lay- 
ing out  the  squares  has  an  addi- 
tion mark  or  loop  placed  upon  it,  which 
measured  from  the  loop  previously  de- 
scribed is  half  the  distance  that  exists  be- 
tween the  permanent  trees.  In  other 
words,  if  the  permanent  trees  are  40  feet 
apart,  then  this  additional  mark  or  loop 
would  be  20  feet  from  the  end  of  the  loop. 


]58 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


When  a  "filler"  row  is  to  be  staked  this 
second  loop  is  used  and  stakes  or  trees 
are  set  by  the  marks  on  the  wire  (except 
that  the  first  one  Is  skipped). 

J.  R.  Shinn. 
Moscow.  Idatio. 

PLA\  A!VD  DOUBLE   PLANTING 

Double  planting  is  desirable  because  it 
enables  us  to  make  full  use  of  the  land 
while  the  orchard  is  young.  By  converting 
permanent  squares  into  temporary  quin- 
cunxes we  secure  an  ideal  plan  tor  double 
planting;  thus  by  planting  our  filler  at  the 
intersection  of  the  diagonals  of  a  40-foot 
square,  we  get  five  trees  in  the  square 
with  the  central  tree  standing  about  2S 
feet  from  the  permanent  trees.  This  is 
an  almost  ideal  distance  for  apple  trees 
for  the  first  10  or  15  years  of  their  bear- 
ing stage.  This  system  of  planting  is  not 
confined  to  the  apple,  however,  but  may 
be  employed  with  other  fruits  as  well. 
The  practice  of  mixing  different  kinds  of 
fruit  trees  in  the  same  block  is  never  ad- 
visable; the  filler  should  always  be  of 
the  same  kind  of  fruit  as  the  permanent 
trees;  it  is  usually  a  different  and  quicker 
bearing  variety. 

Septuple  Planting 

In  septuple  planting  the  tree  form  equi- 
lateral triangles.  The  chief  claim  made 
for  this  method  is  that  the  trees  are  more 
evenly  distributed  than  by  any  other — 
every  tree  being  equidistant  from  the  ad- 
jacent member  of  its  group.  Moreover, 
the  trees  in  one  row  alternate  with  those 
of  the  next,  which  is  an  advantage  in  es- 
pecially windy  locations.  Although  this 
system  does  not  lend  itself  readily  to  dou- 
ble planting  it  does  not  prohibit  it.  Plate 
I,  Fig.  3,  illustrates  the  different  methods 
of  using  fillers  in  connection  with  perma- 
nent triangles.  By  introducing  fillers  in 
different  ways,  quite  a  variety  of  distances 


may  be  secured.  This  also  meets  the  con- 
dition of  the  home  orchard  inasmuch  as 
we  may  approximate  the  ideal  distances 
for  the  different  kinds  of  fruit  grown 
without  modifying  the  general  planting 
plan.  For  example,  if  apples  are  planted 
in  permanent  triangles,  40  feet  apart, 
then  by  planting  an  additional  tree  in  the 
center  of  each  triangle  we  create  a  sys- 
tem of  smaller  triangles  with  trees  stand- 
ing approximately  23  feet  apart,  which  is 
a  very  good  distance  for  standard  pears 
and  sweet  cherries.  For  plums,  peaches 
and  sour  cherries,  an  additional  tree  may 
be  planted  between  the  corner  40-foot 
trees,  thus  converting  the  plan  into  tri- 
angles with  trees  standing  only  20  feet 
apart ;  or  trees  may  be  set  in  the  center 
of  the  23-foot  triangles,  giving  a  distance 
of  approximately  13  feet  between  trees. 
The  20-foot  triangles  reduce  in  the  same 
manner  approximately  11  feet.  Thus  al- 
most any  distance  can  be  secured  through 
these  various  methods  of  reducing  the 
triangle. 

Planting  Plans 

Many  orchards  are  planted  in  too  hap- 
hazard a  way  and  without  due  regard  to 
plan  or  alignment.  A  little  care  in  laying 
out  the  rows  will  secure  reasonably  good 
alignment  and  a  result  that  will  be  a 
source  of  gratification  and  pride  to  the 
planter  throughout  the  life  of  the  orchard. 

Many  individual  plans  have  been  advo- 
cated from  time  to  time,  but  these  fall 
readily  into  four  systems  of  planting: 
viz.,  rectangular,  square,  triangular  and 
irregular.  The  last  system  need  not  be 
noticed  here  since  it  is  very  seldom  if 
ever  justified. 

The  comparative  merits  of  these  dif- 
ferent systems  is  of  no  little  importance. 
On  smooth  and  level  land  the  preference 
of  the  grower  will  prove  the  main  factor 
in  deciding  tipon  a  plan  for  the  orchard. 


SliowiiiK    [low    Trianjjles    May    Be    Ueduced. 


APPLES 


159 


but  this  is  not  the  case  in  hillside  loca- 
tions and  particularly  where  double  or 
filler  planting  is  |)racticed.  Here  the  ad- 
vantages of  a  particular  system  is  often 
sufficient  to  set  aside  individual  prefer- 
ences. 

Rectangular   Planting' 

This  system  is  often  used  in  connection 
with  double  planting,  especially  in  cases 
where  the  filler  tree  is  set  in  the  row  be- 
tween the  permanents.  For  example, 
trees  may  be  set  at  first  20x34  feet  and 
later  upon  the  removal  of  every  other 
row  in  one  direction  they  are  left  in  rec- 
tangles 34x40  feet.  It  is  my  opinion  that 
none  of  the  plans  of  this  system  that  have 
been  suggested  have  much  to  commend 
them  since  nothing  is  accomplished  that 
could  not  also  be  secured  by  square 
planting  and  with  a  much  more  even  dis- 
tribution of  the  trees.  On  hillside  or- 
chards where  cultivation  must  all  be  in 
one  direction,  plans  falling  under  this 
type  have  some  advantage  but  are  out  of 
the  question  if  fillers  are  to  be  used. 

Square  Planting 

Square  planting  including  the  quincunx 
plan  is  both  simple  and  satisfactory.  It 
is  .easy  to  lay  out,  convenient  for  cultiva- 
tion and  spraying,  and  gives  a  reasonably 
even  distribution  of  trees.  It  is  used  by 
more  growers  than  any  other  system  and 
this  is  likely  to  continue  to  be  the  case. 
Typical  square  planting  does  not  well 
adapt  itself  to  the  use  of  fillers  if  these 
are  of  the  same  kind  of  fruit  as  the  per- 
manent trees.  This  is  true  for  the  reason 
that  halving  the  permanent  distances 
must  lead  to  too  early  crowding  with  the 
result  that  the  fillers  will  have  to  be  re- 
moved before  they  have  yielded  any  con- 
siderable profit.  The  quincunx  plan  is  not 
subject  to  this  criticism.  This  after  all  is 
nothing  less  than  square  planting.  By 
locating  a  filler  in  the  center  of  the 
squares  formed  by  the  permanent  trees, 
a  system  of  smaller  squares  is  produced 
but  with  the  widest  alleys  running  diag- 
onal to  the  permanent  rows.  The  quin- 
cunx method  may  be  considered  ideal  for 
double  planting  on  land  that  is  level  or 
only  slightly  sloping,  but  the  fact  that  the 
system  of  alleys  formed  by  the  fillers  and 


permanents  together  are  diagonal  to  the 
l)ermanent  rows  and  therefore  leave  the 
base  line  at  an  angle  of  4.5  degrees  ren- 
ders the  method  unsuitable  for  hillsides. 
(See  Plate  I,  Fig.  1,  p.  161.1 

The  simple  form  of  square  planting  is 
desirable  on  level  land  where  the  filling  is 
with  peach  or  other  quick-growing  fruit 
and.  therefore,  in  the  row  between  the  per- 
manent: it  is  also  practicable  on  sloping 
land  where  this  type  of  filling  is  practiced 
and  where  filling  is  not  practiced  at  all. 

Triangular,  Hexagonal  or  Septuple 
Planting 

This  system  of  planting  has  many  ad- 
vocates. A  great  many  advantages  have 
been  claimed  for  it,  such,  for  instance, 
as  more  even  distribution  of  trees  with 
the  consequent  better  opportunity  for 
each  tree  to  secure  its  proper  share  of 
food,  space,  light  and  air:  also  the  fact 
that  wide,  wind-swept  alleys  are  avoided. 
There  is  no  doubt  but  that  all  of  these 
items  are  advantages  but  their  impor- 
tance has  been  greatly  overestimated.  The 
best  reason  that  can  be  given  for  the 
adoption  of  this  system  on  level  land  is 
the  personal  preference  of  the  planter. 
This  will  easily  outweigh  any  other  real 
or  imaginary  advantage  in  reaching  a  de- 
cision between  triangular  and  square 
planting.  The  greatest  advantage  of  this 
type  of  planting  is  one  that  I  have  not 
seen  emphasized.  It  permits  triple  plant- 
ing and  at  very  satisfactory  distances. 
Thus  if  the  trees  are  first  set  23  feet 
apart  the  removal  of  two  rows  of  every 
three  later  on  will  leave  the  permanents 
40  feet  apart.  Triple  planting  may  be  an 
advantage  or  a  decided  disadvantage,  de- 
pending on  local  conditions.  If  fillers  are 
set  at  the  centers  of  triangles  this  will 
result  in  twice  as  many  fillers  as  per- 
manents and  will  give  a  choice  of  one  of 
three  varieties  instead  of  one  of  two  as 
in  case  of  the  quincunx  system  of  fillers. 
In  view  of  our  uncertainty  in  regard  to 
the  most  profitable  variety  for  a  given  lo- 
cation, this  extra  row  of  fillers  may  be  a 
very  great  advantage. 

Another  important  advantage  of  this 
plan  applies  only  to  hillside  planting.  Fill- 
ing can  be  employed  in  such  cases  if  tri- 


]60 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


angular  planting  is  adopted.  "This  is  true 
even  where  the  land  is  quite  steep,  since 
if  the  base  line  of  permanent  trees  is  par- 
allel in  the  main  to  the  contour  lines, 
then  this  will  be  true  also  of  the  perma- 
nent alleys  while  the  alleys  formed  by 
all  the  trees  taken  together  will  leave  the 
contour  more  properly  the  base  line  at 
an  angle  of  only  30  degrees.  This  will 
make  cultivation  and  hauling  easy  except 
on  quite  steep  land  where  even  a  better 
plan  than  this  can  be  adopted.  The  base 
line  of  either  the  smaller  or  larger 
(formed  by  permanent  trees)  system  of 
triangles  can  be  so  laid  out  that  it  will 
interesect  the  main  contour  lines  at  an 
angle  of  15  degrees,  which  will  result 
In  both  the  temporary  and  permanent 
alleys  leaving  the  contour  at  an  angle  of 
only  15  degrees.  This  arrangement  will 
result  in  an  easy  grade  even  on  quite 
steep  slopes.  For  the  particular  condi- 
tions just  described,  triangular  planting 
has  very  decided  advantage  over  all  other 
types.  In  fact,  there  is  no  other  sys- 
tem that  has  been  devised  which  will 
satisfy  the  three  conditions  of  even  dis- 
tribution, filler  planting  and  planting  on 
steep  slopes.  The  decision  between  the 
different  methods  of  planting  under  these 
conditions  is  not  a  matter  of  choice  but 
one  of  necessity  unless  one  is  ready  to 
disregard  all  questions  of  convenience  in 
cultivating,  spraying  and  harvesting. 
(See  Plate  I,  Pigs.  2  and  3,  p.  161.) 

Fittingr  the  Plan  to  Special  Conditions 

We  have  seen  above  that  special  topo- 
graphical features  may  have  much  to  do 
with  the  selection  of  a  planting  plan,  but 
thus  far  we  have  considered  only  plane 
surfaces — either  level  land  or  uniform 
slopes.  Cove  lands  are  often  our  very 
best  orchard  sites.  These  coves  may  be 
narrow  or  very  broad.  The  main  con- 
tour lines  of  two  opposite  slopes  may, 
when  projected  to  a  common  point,  in- 
tersect each  other  at  angles  of  approxi- 
mately 60,  90  and  120  degrees  or  they 
may  be  practically  parallel  and  the  head 
of  the  cove  roughly  assumes  the  form  of 
a  half  circle.  The  reverse  conditions 
will  be  met  when  planting  on  two  oppo- 
site sides  and  around  the  ends  of  ridges. 


The  ridge  may  be  narrow  and  sharply 
pointed  or  it  may  oe  broad  with  end  well 
rounded.  It  may  be  practicable  to  plant 
the  whole  slope  or  only  a  part  of  it.  In 
fact,  a  great  variety  of  conditions  will  be 
met  in  actual  practice.  Can  orchard  plans 
be  devised  to  fit  these  variable  topograph- 
ical features?  Such  plan  must  result  in 
rows  parallel  (approximately)  to  the 
contour  lines  and  yet  secure  a  uniform 
distance  between  the  trees  with  regular 
and  even   distribution. 

By  combining  square  and  triangular 
planting  in  the  same  plan  the  grower  will 
usually  be  able  to  fit  his  planting  to  al- 
most any  type  of  surface  which  may  be 
met.  It  is  of  course  obvious  that  minor 
irregularities  cannot  be  taken  into  ac- 
count. We  will  now  attempt  to  show  how 
this  can  be  done  by  discussing  the  main 
types   likely   to   occur. 

1.  Given  a  case  where  the  head  of  a 
cove  or  the  end  of  a  ridge  represents  a 
hollowed  or  rounded  surface  and  the  con- 
tour lines  of  the  opposite  slopes  approach 
so  that  when  projected  to  the  point  of 
meeting  they  will  form  an  angle  of  120 
degrees. 

The  plan  of  planting  that  will  best  fit 
this  type  of  surface  may  be  described  as 
follows:  A  system  of  equilateral  triangles 
are  arranged  on  the  point  of  the  ridge 
or  at  the  head  of  the  cove  so  as  to  form 
a  group  constituting  one  large  equilateral 
triangle.  The  figure  will  have  apex  at 
upper  side  of  field  for  ridge  and  at  the 
lower  side  of  field  for  cove  planting.  The 
triangular  group  thus  serves  as  a  wedge 
to  turn  the  course  of  the  two  wings  of 
the  plan.  Perpendicular  lines  are  pro- 
jected from  the  trees  on  the  two  sides  of 
this  figure  and  these  will  locate  the  rows 
for  the  square  planting.  (See  Plate  I,  Fig. 
4,  p.  161.)  It  is  only  necessary  to  meas- 
ure off  the  proper  distances  on  these  lines 
to  locate  the  position  of  the  trees  belong- 
ing to  the  square  planting.  The  plan  then 
becomes  two  systems  of  squares  (form- 
ing either  square  or  rectangular  figures) 
connected  by  a  system  of  small  triangles 
constituting  one  large  equilateral  triangle. 
It  is  obvious  then  that  the  main  rows  of 
the  two  wings  will  form  with  each  other 
an  angle  of  120  degrees. 


APPLES 


161 


The  only  difficulty   met  in  this  combi-  objection  can  be  avoided  by  substituting 

nation   plan   is  due  to  the   fact   that  the  for  the  equilateral  triangle  a  slightly  dif- 

continuous   alleys   are    reduced    in    width  ferent  figure.     In  the  upper  apex  of  the 

as    they    cross    the    triangular    planting,  triangle    is    considered    the    center    of    a 

for  the  obvious  reason  that  the  altitude  circle  and  a  system  of  arcs  are  inscribed 

of  a  triangle  is  less  than  its  sides.  This  about  this  point  which  subtend  an  angle 


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Plate  I. 


162 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


of  60  degrees  and  are  the  same  distance 
apart  as  the  distance  between  the  trees; 
then  the  trees  can  be  located  in  alternate 
fashion  on  these  curved  lines  so  as  to 
secure  a  gradual  shift  from  the  triangu- 
lar to  square  type  of  planting.  This  re- 
sults in  a  uniform  width  of  alleys,  a 
smoother  and  more  regular  arrangement 
of  rows.  The  rows  are  also  more  nearly 
parallel  to  the  contour.  While  the  trees 
are  not  as  evenly  distributed  as  before 
(requiring  slightly  more  land)  yet  this 
difference  is  unimportant.  The  method  of 
laying  out  this  figure  is  not  difficult.  (See 
Plate  I,  Fig.  5,  p.  161.)  Pure  triangular 
planting  will  also  meet  this  case.  Four 
equilateral  triangles  with  a  common  apex 
will  leave  an  angle  of  90  degrees.  (See 
Plate  I,  Fig.  9,  p.  161.) 

2.  Given  a  case  ivhere  the  contour  lines 
of  the  two  opposite  and  approaching  slopes 
meet  at  an  angle  of  approximately  90  de- 
grees. 

Square  planting  so  as  to  form  an  "L" 
meets  the  requirements  of  this  type  of 
surface.     (See  Plate  I,  Fig.  7,  p.  161.) 

.?,  Given  a  case  where  the  intersect- 
ing contour  lines  form  an  angle  of  only 
GO  degrees. 

This  will  be  approximated  in  case  of 
narrow  ridges  or  coves.  Such  types  of 
surface  conformation  are  frequently  met. 
Two  triangular  figures  such  as  were  de- 
scribed under  No.  1  are  used  for  the  tri- 
angular planting.  They  are  arranged 
with  a  common  base  line  and  with  apices 
opposite.  This  common  base  line  serves 
as  a  meridian  and  runs  directly  up  the 
slope.  Perpendiculars  are  projected  as 
before  from  the  trees  on  the  upper  side 
of  this  double  figure  for  ridge  planting 
and  from  the  lower  side  for  cove  plant- 
ing. The  angle  formed  by  the  main  rows 
of  the  two  wings  form  an  angle  of  60  de- 
grees.     (See  Plate  I,  Fig.  8,  p.  161.) 

This  same  type  of  surface  can  be  solidly 
in  triangles  so  arranged  as  to  form  a 
winged  figure  with  the  same  angle,  but 
the  turn  is  more  abrupt.  (See  Plate  I 
Fig.  6,  p.  161.) 

4.  Only  one  more  type  of  surface  ex- 
ists, viz.,  where  the  contour  of  opposite 
slopes  whether  ridge  or  cove  formation 
are  practically  parallel  except  at  the  end 


of  ridge  or  head  of  cove,  the  point  of  junc- 
ture lieing  effected  hy  a  half  circular 
slope  (either  concave  or  convex). 

Here  three  triangular  systems  or  fig- 
ures with  a  common  apex  furnishes  a  half 
hexagon  and  will  therefore  give  a  full 
turn  to  the  rows.  It  is  better,  however, 
as  in  case  No.  1,  to  describe  a  system  of 
half  circles  and  plant  alternately  on  these 
lines  than  to  plant  in  perfect  triangles. 
The  contour  lines  will  thus  be  approxi- 
mated and  there  will  be  a  uniform  width 
to  the  alleys  as  well  as  a  uniform  curva- 
ture of  rows.  The  distribution  of  trees  is 
sufficiently  even  to  meet  all  practical  re- 
quirements; in  fact,  they  are  more  evenly 
distributed  than  in  square  planting.  (See 
Plate  1.  Fig.  10,  p.  161.) 

At  first  blush  these  combination  plans 
appear  to  be  too  fanciful  to  be  of  practical 
value,  but  on  comparing  them  with  many 
types  of  surface  formation,  and  a  great 
variety  in  topography  which  may  be  found 
in  this  state,  it  will  be  found  that  one  or 
the  other  of  the  plans  described  or  a  com- 
bination of  these  plans  may  be  made  to  fit 
almost  any  type  of  surface  to  be  found. 
If  due  regard  is  given  by  the  grower  to 
planting  plans  there  is  no  reason  why 
roads  should  follow  all  kinds  of  grades 
through  the  orchard.  Too  little  attention 
has  been  paid  to  this  subject  in  the  past 
which  has  resulted  in  great  inconvenience 
in  cultivating  and  spraying  the  orchard 
and    in    harvesting   the   fruit   crop. 

Plantiiiff  Table 
Number  of  Trees  Per  .\cre 

Distance  apart 

of  trees                          Square  Triansulnr 

each  way  in  feet                 Method  Method 

12 302  348 

15 193  222 

18 134  154 

20 109  125 

25                                 69  79 

30 48  55 

35 35  40 

40 27  31 

Planting  Rules 

1.  To  determine  the  number  of  trees  re- 
quired per  acre  by  the  square  method  at 
a  given  distance  apart.  The  number  of 
square  feet  per  acre  (43,560)  divided  by 
the  square  of  the  distance  will  give  the 
correct  number. 


APPLES 


163 


2.  To  determine  the  number  of  trees 
required  per  acre  for  rectangular  method. 
Divide  the  number  of  square  feet  per  acre 
by  the  product  of  the  two  sides. 

3.  To  determine  the  number  of  trees 
required  per  acre  for  triangular  or  hexa- 
gonal method.  Find  the  number  of  trees 
for  the  square  method  (same  distance) 
and  divide  this  number  by  the  decimal 
number  .866. 

4.  To  find  the  width  of  alleys  in  trian- 
gular (equilateral)  planting.  Divide  the 
distance  between  trees  or  side  of  triangle 
by  the  decimal  number  .866. 

5.  In  triangular  planting  where  fillers 
are  located  at  center  of  triangle,  the  dis- 
tance between  permanent  trees  may  be 
found  by  multiplying  the  original  distance 
by  the  number  1.732. 

6.  In  quincunx  planting  to  find  dis- 
tance between  permanent  trees  after  thin- 
ning multiply  the  original  distance  by 
1.42. 

7.  To  determine  the  number  of  trees 
removed  by  thinning  in  quincunx  plant- 
ing multiply  original  number  by  one- 
half:  in  square  plantings  and  triangular 
planting  filled  both  directions  in  the  row 
multiply  original  number  by  three- 
fourths;  equilateral  triangular  planting 
filled  in  center  of  permanent  triangles 
multiply  the  original  number  by  two- 
thirds. 

H.  L.  Price, 
Viiffinia  Polytechnic  School,  Blacksburc.  Xn. 

Trees  Generally  Too  Close 

The  consensus  of  opinion  is,  that  gen- 
erally trees  are  planted  too  close  to- 
gether. Those  who  have  given  this  sub- 
ject much  thought  are  pretty  well  agreed 
that  the  proper  distance  for  large  trees 
of  20  or  30  years  of  age  is  about  two  rods 
or  33  feet.  In  some  parts  of  the  country 
trees  are  of  much  slower  growth  than  in 
others.  It  probably  takes  a  tree  twice  as 
long  to  reach  a  given  size  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  United  States  as  it 
does  farther  south  and  on  the  Pacific 
Coast.  Thirty-three  feet  apart  allows  for 
40  trees  per  acre.  The  principal  objec- 
tion to  this  plan  is  that  it  is  almost  a 
generation  before  the  trees  will  need  all 
of   the   space    that    is    given    to    them    if 


there  are  only  40  trees  to  the  acre,  and 
in  the  meantime  there  is  much  land  and 
labor  wasted  that  might  in  some  way  be 
utilized  to  considerable  advantage.  With 
this  in  view  the  plan  of  planting  "fillers" 
between  the  rows  and  cross  rows  has 
been  adopted,  so  that  instead  of  having 
40  trees  per  acre  there  are  160  trees  per 
acre,  and  instead  of  being  two  rods  a])art 
they  are  one  rod  apart. 

The  purpose  is  to  cut  out  these  fillers 
at  some  period  during  the  growth  of  the 
trees  when  they  begin  to  crowd  each  other. 

Kinds  of  Fillers  to  Use 

If  this  plan  is  adopted  the  question  is 
What  kinds  and  varieties  of  fruits  shall 
be  used  as  fillers,  with  the  object  of  sac- 
rificing them  when  the  permanent  trees 
require  the  room?  Very  often  peaches 
are  selected,  because  the  peach  tree  is  a 
rapid  grower  and  early  bearer;  it  is  also 
a  short-lived  tree  and  will  in  some  cases 
have  passed  its  highest  usefulness  be- 
fore the  apple  trees  need  the  ground. 

The  pear  is  more  nearly  related  to  the 
apple  than  the  peach,  and  needs  more 
nearly  the  same  treatment,  requires  the 
same  spraying  and  can  be  grown  in  apple 
orchards  without  any  particular  incon- 
venience. However,  it  is  not  so  vigorous 
a  grower  as  the  peach  and  will  not  yield 
as  large  returns  for  the  first  few  years. 

Some  will  plant  Wagener  apples  as 
fillers,  because  they  bear  heavily,  bear 
early  and  trees  are  shaped  much  like  the 
pear.  Others  will  plant  small  fruits,  such 
as  strawberries,  raspberries,  blackberries, 
etc.,  because  they  can  be  so  pruned  as 
not  to  interfere  with  spraying  or  cultiva- 
tion. Some  discard  fillers  and  raise  veg- 
etables. If  this  method  is  adopted,  the 
land  should  generally  be  mulched  or  ma- 
nured in  order  to  put  back  into  the  soil 
the  substances  taken  out  by  the  crops. 

It  has  been  argued  by  Van  Reman  and 
Deman  and  others  that  the  best  method 
is  to  plant  nothing  but  apple  trees  in  an 
apple  orchard,  plant  them  20  feet  apart, 
and  when  they  begin  to  crowd  each  other 
cut  them  out  diagonally. 

Thus  we  have  a  variety  of  opinions, 
each  possessing  some  merit,  and  each  the 


164 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


best  adapted  to  some  persons  under  some 
circumstances. 

See   Article   on   "Intercropping." 

Gr.^kville  Lowthee 

Plan  and  Pollination 

For  convenience  in  liarvesting  it  seems 
desirable  to  plant  trees  of  the  same  vari- 
eties   near    together,    but    on    account    of 
many  varieties  being  self-sterile  it  is  not 
advisable  to  plant  more  than  two  or  three 
rows  of  a  single  variety  in  one  block.    A 
self-sterile    variety    is    one    whose    pollen 
will  not  properly  fertilize  the  flowers  of 
the  same  variety.     Trees  whose  blossoms 
have  not  been  properly  fertilized  usually 
fail  to  set  fruit,  but  sometimes   produce 
more  or  less  fruit  of  a  gnarly  and  worth- 
less character.     The  pollen   from  a  self- 
sterile  variety  may  be  depended  upon  to 
fertilize  the  blossoms  of  any  other  vari- 
ety that  blooms  at  the  same  time.     It  is 
difllcult  to   say   which  varieties   are   self- 
sterile  and  which  are  self-fertile,  for  the 
subject   has  not  yet  been   sufficiently   in- 
vestigated.    There  seems  to   be  a  differ- 
ence  of   opinion    among   those   who   have 
made   a   study    of   the   subject,   for   some 
claim  that  certain  varieties  are  self-sterile 
while  others  believe  them  to  be  self-fer- 
tile.    It  is   probable  that  a  variety  may 
be    self-sterile    in    one    locality    and    self- 
fertile  in  another.    The  varieties  that  are 
generally  recorded  as  self-sterile  and  that 
should   not   be   planted   alone   are:      Red 
Astrachan.    Yellow    Bellflower,  Chenango, 
Gravenstein,     Maiden     Blush,     Tompkins 
King,    Primate,    Rambo,    Gano,    Tolman, 
Esopus  Spitzenburg.  York  Imperial,  Wine- 
sap,  Roxbury  Russet,  Golden  Russet  and 
Northern    Spy.      The    varieties    that    are 
generally   believed   to  be   self-fertile  are: 
Oldenburg,     Yellow     Transparent,     Falla- 
water.    Grimes,    Jonathan,   Rome   Beauty, 
Rhode     Island     Greening,    and     Baldwin. 
These  conclusions  are  the  result  of  lim- 
ited observations,  and  until  more  reliable 
information    is    available,    the   best   prac- 
tice is  to  avoid  large  blocks  of  any  single 
variety  and  to  plant  varieties  of  the  same 
blooming  period  in  adjoining  rows. 

C.   D.   Jarvis, 

Storrs.    Conn. 


Avoid  Block  Planting 

Varieties  of  fruit  should  not  be  planted 
in  orchards  in  large  solid  blocks.  Some 
of  the  most  productive  varieties  are  not 
readily  fertilized  with  their  own  pollen. 
Such  varieties  would  be  unproductive  un- 
less situated  so  that  their  blossoms  could 
be  pollinated  by  other  varieties  blooming 
at  the  same  time.  Old  orchards  teach 
their  lessons  along  this  line.  A  commer- 
cial orchard  under  observation  recently 
consisted  of  tour  varieties,  in  solid  blocks, 
in  the  following  order:  Baldwin,  Golden 
Russet,  Roxbury  Russet,  and  Spy.  The 
Baldwin  is  a  self-fertilizing  variety,  and 
whenever  there  was  any  fruit  in  the  or- 
chard it  could  always  be  found  on  the 
Baldwins.  The  Golden  Russets  were  laden 
with  fruit  on  alternate  years.  The  Rox- 
bury Russets  were  pretty  generally  pro- 
ductive. The  Spy  block  was  uniformly 
unproductive,  except  for  a  couple  of  rows 
next  the  Russets,  which  bore  well  when- 
ever the  orchard  bloomed.  Many  good 
varieties  of  fruit  are  unproductive  be- 
cause they  are  so  situated  that  their  blos- 
soms cannot  be  pollinated  from  neighbor- 
ing varieties.  Instead  of  planting  vari- 
eties in  solid  blocks  they  should  be 
planted  in  alternating  rows.  This  may 
make  a  little  more  trouble  at  packing 
time,  but  there  will  almost  invariably 
be  more  to  pack. 

W.   N.  HUTT, 
Ralpiffh,    N.    r. 

SETTING   THE   TREES 
Size  of  Holes 

The  size  of  the  hole  in  which  to  plant 
the  trees  varies  according  to  the  soil  and 
root  system  of  the  trees  to  be  planted. 
We  hear  a  great  deal  about  digging  large 
holes  for  trees.  On  the  whole  it  is  not 
necessary  to  dig  large  holes  if  the  soil 
has  been  properly  prepared  and  it  is  a 
good  tree  soil.  For  the  average  size 
apple  tree  on  good  tree  soil  the  holes 
need  not  be  more  than  12  to  18  inches 
square  and  about  the  same  depth.  If 
the  trees  are  to  be  planted  in  a  soil  that 
is  not  a  tree  soil  then  the  hole  must  be 
made  larger.  If  the  soil  is  almost  pure 
sand  or  gravel  the  hole  ought  to  be  made 
quite  large  and  then  partially  filled  with 


APPLES 


165 


good  earth  in  which  the  roots  may  grow 
the  first  year.  On  the  other  hand  if  the 
soil  is  very  heavy  and  hard  the  same 
treatment  is  recommended.  But,  on  the 
whole,  if  the  soil  is  not  suited  to  trees 
better  not  plant  any.  Orchardists  very 
frequently  inquire  as  to  the  advisability 
of  putting  manure  in  the  bottom  of  the 
hole.  This  practice  is  not  advisable.  If 
manure  is  to  be  used  on  the  young  trees 
it  had  better  be  used  as  a  surface  mulch. 
Fabian  Garcia, 
Santa  Fe,  N.  M. 

TIME   OF  PL.4NTING 

Much  difference  of  opinion  exists  be- 
tween the  best  authorities  as  to  the  sea- 
son for  planting  apple  trees.  Late  fall 
planting  is  advocated  by  some,  while 
others  are  equally  certain  that  early 
spring  planting  is  better.  The  chief  rea- 
sons advanced  by  the  former  are  that 
roots  of  trees  set  in  the  fall  become  thor- 
oughly established  in  the  soil,  and  that 
all  cut  surfaces  on  the  roots  become  cal- 
loused during  the  winter,  which  results 
in  new  roots  pushing  out  early  in  the 
spring.  On  the  other  hand,  dry  falls  and 
dry  winters  will  prove  fatal  to  many  fall- 
set  trees,  and  the  stand  will  therefore 
be  imperfect.  Since  Idaho  very  often  ex- 
periences these  latter  conditions,  early 
spring  planting  may  be  regarded  as  the 
safer  rule.  Moreover,  if  trees  are  "heeled 
in"  in  the  fall  the  roots  will  be  thor- 
oughly calloused  by  earl.v  spring,  thus 
affording  such  trees  one  of  the  main  ben- 
efits derived  from  fall  planting.  Un- 
doubtedly spring  planting  should  be  the 
rule  for  Idaho  orchardists. 

J.  R.  Shinn, 
Moscow.  Idaho. 

Time  of  Planting  in  TCew  England 

In  this  part  of  the  country  spring  plant- 
ing is  usually  preferred.  The  chief,  and 
probably  the  only  advantage,  in  fall  plant- 
ing is  in  getting  the  work  out  of  the  way. 
Trees  for  planting  should  not  be  taken 
from  the  nursery  row  till  the  leaves  have 
fallen,  and  this  is  usually  so  late  that 
the  weather  is  not  suitable  for  planting. 
If  the  soil  should  be  dry,  as  is  often  the 
case  in  the  fall,  the  trees  are  likely  to 
dry  out  and  be  injured  during  the  winter. 


As  previously  noted,  it  is  advisable  to 
purchase  trees  in  the  fall  so  as  to  get  a 
better  assortment  and  to  have  them  ready 
for  planting  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the 
weather  is  favorable.  If  this  suggestion 
is  followed  and  if  soil  and  weather  con- 
ditions are  favorable  in  the  fall  after  the 
stock  arrives,  the  trees  may  be  safely  and 
profitably  planted.  If  left  till  spring  the 
planting  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the 
ground  can  be  conveniently  worked. 
C.  D.  Jarvis, 
Storis.  Conn. 

Southern  Conditions 

The  question  as  to  the  best  time  to 
plant  is  governed  somewhat  by  latitudes. 
In  southern  latitudes  late  fall  or  the  early 
part  of  the  winter  may  be  safe  for  plant- 
ing. But  in  most  of  the  states  early 
spring  is  considered  the  better  time.  Fall 
planting  has  the  objection  against  it  that 
the  roots  of  a  tree  do  not  take  hold  of 
the  ground  sufficiently  to  supply  enough 
moisture  to  maintain  a  healthy  active 
circulation  of  the  sap  which  is  required 
to  prevent  shriveling  of  the  branches 
during  winter's  extreme  cold  and  exhaus- 
tive evaporation  from  drying  winds. 
G.  B.  Bbackett, 
Washinrton,  D.  C. 

Soutliwest 

The  time  of  setting  out  trees  varies. 
There  are  many  different  opinions  on  the 
subject,  some  claiming  the  fall  is  the  best 
time  while  others  favor  the  spring.  It  is 
to  be  remembered  that  a  tree  can  be 
planted  at  any  time  during  its  dormant 
period.  It  may  be  set  out  in  the  fall, 
winter  or  spring.  Fall  planted  trees  some- 
times do  as  well  as  winter  or  spring 
planted  trees.  It  is  a  difficult  thing  to 
recommend  any  set  rule  for  the  time  of 
planting  trees.  Each  time  has  its  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages.  As  a  rule 
-the  local  conditions  decide  which  is  the 
best  time  for  planting.  One  of  the  reasons 
why  fall  and  winter  planting  is  not  prac- 
ticed more  than  it  Is  in  cold  and  dry 
climates  is  on  account  of  the  loss  of  mois- 
ture from  the  tree  during  this  time.  The 
roots  being  cut  off  and  not  having  started 
to  grow  do  not  supply  the  tree  with  any 
moisture  during  the  fall  and  winter.  As 
a  rule  the  roots  will  not  begin   to  grow 


166 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


and  supply  any  moisture  to  the  tree  un- 
til the  spring.  Evaporation  from  the  tree 
is  going  on  all  the  time.  The  moisture 
given  off  by  the  tree  has  to  be  replaced 
by  the  roots.  If  the  roots  have  not  been 
established  they  cannot  supply  this  mois- 
ture which  is  being  evaporated.  The 
longer  this  condition  exists  the  more  the 
tree  will  suffer.  The  roots  of  spring 
planted  trees  do  not  lie  in  the  ground  as 
long  as  those  of  fall  planted  trees  be- 
fore they  begin  to  grow.  The  drier  the 
fall  and  the  winter  the  greater  will  be 
the  evaporation  and  the  more  likely  the 
tree  is  to  suffer.  On  the  other  hand  in 
mild  climates  tall  planted  trees  very  fre- 
quently start  small  roots  which  may  sup- 
ply moisture  to  the  tree  during  the  win- 
ter. Where  trees  do  that  fall  planting  is 
better,  but  where  they  do  not  spring  plant- 
ing is  preferred.  In  the  Mesilla  valley  in 
Southern  New  Mexico  fall  planted  trees 
frequently  start  a  few  roots  soon  after 
being  transplanted.  Taking  everything 
into  consideration  spring  planting  is  bet- 
ter for  New  Mexico  conditions. 

Fabia??  Garcia. 
Santa  Fe.  N.  M. 

Upper  Mississippi   Valley 

For  the  Upper  Mississippi  valley,  spring 
is  the  preferable  time  for  planting.  Trees 
which  have  been  disturbed  in  the  fall 
by  transplanting  are  more  subject  to  root- 
killing  the  following  winter.  The  work 
should  be  done  early  in  the  spring  in  or- 
der that  the  roots  may  have  time  to  be- 
come re-established  before  the  hot  and 
often  dry  weather  of  July  and  August. 
In  planting  all  mutilated  roots  should 
be  cut  back  and  any  diseased  portion  cut 
away.  If  the  root  system  appears  to  be 
unhealthy  the  tree  should  be  discarded, 
as  It  is  a  mistake  to  plant  anything  put 
strong,  healthy  specimens. 

A.   T.   Erwix, 

.\mps.    Iowa. 

Lower  Snalie  River  Valley 

In  the  fall  and  winter  of  1910-11  the 
Lewiston-Clarkston  Improvement  Com- 
pany planted  at  Clarkston,  Wash.,  1,000 
acres  of  apple  trees.  Mr.  W.  B.  Lanham, 
horticulturist  for  the  company,  states: 

"We  started  planting  the  first  of  De- 
cember   and    finished    about    the    first    of 


April,  planting  whenever  the  weather 
would  permit.  The  time  of  transplanting 
seemed  to  make  quite  a  difference  in  the 
growth  the  trees  made  this  season.  The 
first  planted  made  at  least  twice  the 
growth  of  those  set  out  last,  with  a  grad- 
ual graduation  between." 


Conditions  were  practically  the  same  for  all 
plantings  except  that  Decemher  planting  was 
made  after  a  wet  November.  More  rain  fell 
during  that  month  than  during  the  five  months 
succeeding.  The  precipitation  for  November 
was  3. .51  inches,  between  0.3  inch  and  0.75 
inch  for  the  next  five  months  and  1.8(!  inches 
in  May.  No  water  was  used  in  planting  and 
the  trees  were  not  irrigated  later.  The  ground 
froze  that  winter  to  a  depth  of  about  two  feet. 
— Ed. 

Fall  or  Spring  Planting 

(.Michigan) 

The  advisability  of  fall  or  spring  plant- 
ing depends  upon  several  conditions.  Fall 
planting  has  the  advantage  over  spring 
planting  in  that  the  trees  become  firmly 
established  in  the  soil  before  winter  sets 
in,  and  are  able  to  start  growth  in  the 
spring  before  the  ground  can  be  marked 
and  put  into  condition  for  planting.  This 
is  important  because  the  trees  get  a  good 
growth  in  the  early  part  of  the  season, 
before  the  summer  droughts  occur.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  is  more  or  less  dan- 
ger from  winter  injury  during  a  severe 
winter  or  from  drying  out  of  the  trees 
if  the  winter  is  long  or  dry.  Pall  planting 
is  much  more  successful  with  the  hardy 
apples  and  pears  than  it  is  with  the  ten- 
der plums,  cherries  and  peaches.  In  Michi- 
gan it  is  seldom  safe  to  plant  peaches, 
sweet  cherries  or  apricots  in  the  fall. 

The  convenience  of  the  season  will  de- 
termine in  a  majority  of  cases  whether 
or  not  the  planting  shall  be  done  in  the 
fall  or  spring.  Very  often  the  rush  of 
spring  work  induces  the  grower  to  hurry 
his  planting,  or  to  do  it  carelessly,  and 
as  a  result  a  poor  stand  is  secured,  with 
crooked  rows.  Others  have  large  crops  to 
harvest  in  the  fall,  and  would  find  it  more 
convenient  to  do  the  planting  in  the 
spring.  If  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the 
best  time  to  plant,  let  it  be  done  in  the 
spring,  and  as  early  as  the  ground  can 
be  gotten  into  proper  condition. 

O.  K.  White, 

rield  Agent  in  Horticulture.  Michigan  Agri- 
cultural College  Experiment  Station.  East 
Lansing,    Atich. 


APPLES 


167 


Setting  the  Trees 

The  laud  is  now  supposed  to  be  pre- 
pared, and  the  next  step  is  digging  the 
holes  into  which  the  trees  are  to  be  set. 
These  should  be  dug  large  enough  and 
deep  enough  so  that  the  roots  are  not 
crowded,  curved  or  doubled  up  in  plant- 
ing and  so  that  the  tree  will  be  a  little 
deeper  below  the  surface  than  when  it 
left  the  nursery.  It  seems  to  us  a  little 
better  to  dig  all  the  holes  before  any  of 
the  trees  are  set.  Many  pursue  a  differ- 
ent plan,  but  the  reason  we  give  for  this 
is  that  when  the  trees  are  taken  from 
the  pit  where  they  have  been  heeled  in 
during  the  winter  or  to  await  setting, 
they  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  air  for 
any  considerable  period  of  time,  lest  the 
drying  process  stop  the  circulation  of  sap 
and  the  trees  be  less  likely  to  live,  but 
they  should  be  set  as  soon  as  possible 
after  they  are  taken  out  of  the  pit.  The 
roots  at  all  times  should  be  kept  moist. 
In  fact,  the  most  successful  tree  planters 


we  have  known  kept  the  roots  in  a  bar- 
rel or  tank  of  water  which  they  hauled 
along  beside  the  rows  and  as  soon  as  the 
tree  was  taken  from  the  water  it  was 
set  in  the  earth  and  a  bucket  of  water 
poured  around  the  roots,  then  the  loose, 
dry  earth  was  thrown  over  it  and  pressed 
down  closely  at  the  top. 

Granville   Lovvther 

TREE  LOCATING  DETICES 
Planting  Board 

After  an  orchard  has  been  staked  it  is 
imi)ortant  that  some  device  be  used  that 
will  serve  to  locate  the  trunk  of  the  tree 
in  the  same  place  occupied  by  the  stake. 
For  this  purpose  one  of  two  devices  is 
used  by  orchard  planters.  The  first  and 
most  common  consists  of  a  board  one  inch 
thick,  six  inches  wide  and  six  feet  long. 
An  inch  hole  is  bored  in  the  center  and 
one  at  each  end  at  equal  distances  from 
the  center.  To  complete  the  construction 
it  is  only  necessary  to  mark  out  a  strip 


Kg.   1.     Method  of  Keeping  Young  Ti-ees  in  Barrels  of  Water  to  Trevent  Drying 
While  Being  Planted. 


168 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.   1.     Planting  Board  in  Position  Before  tlie   Hole  is  Dug. 
Purdue  Experiment  Station. 


Fig.  2.     Planting  Board   in   Use.     Purdue  Experiment   Station. 


APPLES 


169 


an  inch  wide  on  the  side  of  the  board 
that  will  include  the  hole  made  iu  the 
middle  and  then  saw  out  this  piece. 
Stakes,  12  to  14  inches  long,  are  pro- 
vided which  will  easily  slip  through  the 
end  holes.  In  using  this  device,  the 
groove  in  the  center  of  the  board  is 
placed  tightly  against  the  stake  standing 
where  the  tree  is  to  go,  a  stake  is  pushed 
into  the  ground  through  each  of  the  holes 
at  the  end,  then  the  bar  is  removed. 
After  the  hole  has  been  dug  it  is  only 
necessary  to  replace  the  board  over  the 
end  stakes  and  bring  the  trunk  of  the 
tree  to  occupy  the  same  position  as  that 
occupied  by  the  stake.  After  the  hole 
is  practically  filled  the  bar  is  again 
brought  into  service  and  the  tree  placed 
in   its  exact  position. 

Triangle 

The  second  common  device  employed  tor 
locating  trees  is  a  triangle  made  by  nail- 
ing firmly  together  three  strips  each  one- 
half  inch  thick,  two  inches  wide  and  six 
feet  long,  allowing  a  projection  of  three 
inches  of  the  strips  at  the  corners  of  the 


Fig.  3.    Triangle    for    Locating    Trees. 

triangle  thus  formed.  In  use,  one  pro- 
jecting corner  of  the  triangle  is  placed 
firmly  against  the  stake  standing  where 
the  tree  is  to  go  and  a  stake  driven  in 
each  of  the  other  two  corners,  the  triangle 
is  removed,  the  hole  dug  and  the  tree 
brought  into  exact  position  similarly  to 
that  given   for  the  bar. 

For  Large  Areas 

Where    large   areas   are   to   be    planted 
it  is  often  wise  to  have  two  or  four  of 


these  tree  locating  devices  all  constructed 
according  to  the  same  specifications.  Two 
men  proceed  to  locate  the  temporary  stakes 
and  to  dig  the  holes  while  two  others 
follow,  with  the  same  kind  of  locating 
device,  setting  the  trees. 

Aside  from  the  fact  that  the  tree  lo- 
caters  are  serviceable  in  putting  the  trees 
in  their  exact  positions,  they  also  give  the 
planter  a  good  idea  of  the  depth  at  which 
the  trees  are  being  set.  Without  their 
use,  trees  may  easily  be  placed  in  the 
holes  and  the  earth  filled  in  about  them 
before  it  is  discovered  that  the  planting 
has  been  too  shallow, 

J,   R.   Shinn, 
Moscow,    Idaho. 

Protecting  the  Boots 

When  the  ground  is  ready  for  planting, 
the  trees  are  hauled  to  the  land,  distrib- 
uted at  convenient  distances,  and  heeled- 
in  in  bunches.  The  roots  should  not  be 
exposed  to  the  air  more  than  is  abso- 
lutely necessary. 

Puddling 

Some  growers  believe  in  "puddling"  the 
trees  before  they  are  taken  to  the  field. 
This  operation  consists  in  dipping  the 
roots  in  a  semi-liquid  made  of  clay  and 
water.  The  clay  forms  a  coating  over  the 
roots  and  prevents  their  drying  out.  It 
is  claimed  that  fewer  failures  follow  the 
planting  of  puddled  trees  than  trees  that 
have  not  been  so  treated.  If  the  planting 
is  done  during  drying  weather,  this  treat- 
ment may  prove  to  be  an  advantage,  but 
where  ordinary  care  is  exercised  in  pro- 
tecting the  roots  from  the  sun  and  wind, 
there  is  little  need  for  such  treatment. 
The  trees  for  immediate  planting  may  be 
distributed  by  using  a  barrel  on  a  stone 
boat.  If  the  barrel  is  kept  about  half  full 
of  water  and  the  trees  left  in  it  until 
needed  for  planting,  there  will  be  no  dan- 
ger of  their  dying  out. 

Method  of  Planting 

The  work  of  planting  may  be  most  ex- 
peditiously done  with  four  men,  or  two 
men  and  two  boys.  One  man  operates  the 
planting-board,  another  digs  the  holes,  a 
third  brings  the  trees  and  holds  them  in 
position,  while  the  fourth  man  shovels  in 
the  soil.    Boys  may  be  used  to  operate  the 


170 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


planting-board  and  hold  the  trees.  The 
man  or  boy  who  operates  the  planting- 
board  after  adjusting  the  stakes  for  the 
first  hole,  goes  on  to  the  second,  adjusts 
a  second  pair  of  guide-stakes,  returns  with 
the  board  to  the  first  hole,  allows  the 
other  boy  to  locate  the  tree,  and  then  he 
pulls  up  the  guide-stakes  and  takes  them 
with  the  board  to  the  third  tree-stake. 
While  he  is  back  at  the  first  tree  the  hole 
is  being  dug  at  the  second  position  and 
by  the  time  he  sets  the  guide-stakes  for 
the  third  position  it  will  be  time  to  locate 
the  tree  in  the  second  position.  The  boy 
who  holds  the  tree  while  it  is  being 
planted  gives  it  a  shake  with  an  up-and- 
down  motion  to  get  the  soil  scattered 
among  the  roots,  and  when  about  half 
the  soil  is  in,  he  firms  it  with  his  feet. 
He  then  goes  after  another  tree  and 
leaves  the  man  who  does  the  filling  in  to 
give  the  final  treading  and  to  leave  a 
loose  layer  of  soil  on  the  surface.  The 
holes  are  dug  just  large  enough  to  ac- 
commodate the  roots.  Under  the  best 
conditions,  that  is,  where  there  are  few 
stones  and  where  there  is  nothing  to 
impede  the  progress  of  the  workmen  an- 
other boy  may  be  advantageously  used  to 
bring  the  trees  as  they  are  required.  If 
two  gangs  are  working  on  different  rows, 
one  boy  may  supply  trees  to  both  gangs. 

The  important  point  about  planting  is 
to  get  fine  moist  soil  firmly  packed 
around  the  roots  so  as  to  avoid  large  air 
spaces.  No  fertilizer  should  be  put  into 
the  holes  when  the  tree  is  planted.  It  is 
not  well  to  plant  when  the  soil  is  wet, 
for  handling  it  in  this  condition  spoils 
its  physical  properties,  and  a  baked  soil 
is  the  result. 

Deptli 

Apple  trees  should  be  planted  at  about 
the  same  depth  as  they  stood  in  the  nurs- 
ery row  or  probably  one  or  two  inches 
deeper. 

C.  D.  J.\Rvis. 
Storrs.   Conn, 

Fonr-Man  Squad 

Four  men  make  an  effective  squad.  One 
man  prunes  and  distributes  the  trees. 
Another  places  the  tree  in  proper  position 
by  sighting  on  the  stakes  in  both  direc- 


tions, and  compacts  the  soil  around  the 
roots  of  the  trees  as  it  is  filled  in  by  the 
two  shovellers.  Their  duties  are  to  re- 
move whatever  soil  may  be  necessary  for 
the  reception  of  the  tree  roots  and  to 
shovel  the  soil  back  in  around  the  tree. 
The  surface  soil  should  be  placed  in  con- 
tact with  the  roots  rather  than  the  sub- 
soil. Given  a  man  who  can  sight  accur- 
ately, the  alignment  of  the  trees  in  both 
directions  will  be  close  enough  for  all 
practical   purposes. 

\ViLLi.\M  Stiart. 

Burlinston.    Vt. 

Depth 

How  deep  to  plant  a  tree  is  another 
question  that  comes  up  every  once  in  a 
while.  Many  apple  growers  claim  that 
the  trees  planted  should  not  be  any  deep- 
er than  they  were  in  the  nursery  row. 
Others  pay  no  attention  to  this  idea.  Ac- 
cording to  results  at  the  station  along 
this  line  there  is  no  material  difference  in 
the  growth  of  trees  that  are  planted  at 
the  depth  that  they  were  in  the  nursery 
row  and  trees  that  have  been  planted  for 
two  or  three  or  even  six  inches  deeper. 
In  a  general  way  we  will  say  that  trees 
may  be  planted  two  or  three  inches  deep- 
er than  they  were  in  the  nursery  row  if 
desired. 

Irrigation 

Immediately  after  the  trees  have  been 
transplanted  they  should  be  irrigated.  If 
the  trees  have  been  planted  in  the  small 
trench,  as  suggested  below,  they  can  be 
irrigated  through  it.  If  they  have  not 
been  so  transplanted  they  will  have  to 
be  flooded.  Where  water  is  expensive  and 
where  it  is  desirable  not  to  irrigate  the 
middles  between  the  trees  the  best  way 
is  to  plow  a  trench  about  a  foot  or  two 
wide  and  plant  the  trees  in  the  trench  and 
irrigate  them  from  it.  This  method  we 
find  very  economical  and  very  easy.  It 
is  a  good  idea  to  examine  the  trees  about 
a  week  after  they  have  been  irrigated  the 
first  time,  as  sometimes  the  soil  settles 
quite  a  good  deal  and  some  of  the  roots 
may  be  exposed  to  the  air. 

F.1BIAX  Garcia, 
Santa   Fe.   N.    M. 


APPLES 


171 


TREATMEM   AT  PLANTING  TIME 

The  treatment  of  apple  trees  at  planting 
time  has  a  very  great  influence  upon  their 
future  welfare.  Many  orchard  planters  set 
trees  in  their  permanent  position  with- 
out applying  the  least  amount  of  rational 
treatment  to  them.  For  example,  trees 
are  planted  in  the  orchard  in  the  same 
condition  as  they  are  received  from  the 
nursery.  At  the  close  of  the  first  sea- 
son, the  owner  is  much  troubled  to  learn 
the  reason  for  the  poor  growth,  and  in 
many  instances  the  utter  failure  of  his 
trees. 

Prune  tlie  Koots 

The  amount  of  root-surface  that  trees 
have  when  they  leave  the  nursery  row  is 
usually  about  half  as  great  as  they  pos- 
sessed normally.  Further  than  this,  it  is 
always  advisable  to  thin  out  all  crowding 
and  interlacing  roots  and  to  cut  away 
all  broken  ends  of  those  remaining.  In 
the  South  a  very  severe  system  of  root 
pruning  is  practiced,  known  as  the  String- 


Fig.  1.  Upper  Figure.  A  Good  Root  System  for 
a  Nursery  Tree ;  TJnpruned.  Lower  Figure, 
Same  Root-System  Shortened  in  for  Setting. 
More  Severe  Pruning  Would  Not  be  Injurious. 
— Purdue  Station. 


fellow  method,  but  this  method  is  not 
practicable  in  the  North.  Nevertheless, 
apple  trees  require  a  certain  amount  of 
root  pruning  before  they  are  planted  in 
order  to  get  the  best  results.  The  op- 
portune time  to  do  this  pruning  is  in  the 
fall,  as  stated  elsewhere,  but  where 
the  trees  do  not  arrive  until  spring,  root 
pruning  should  be  administered  Ijefore 
the  trees  are  planted.  However,  root 
pruning  done  in  the  fall,  saves  labor  at 
planting  time. 

Prune  the  Top 

Since  the  tops  and  roots  of  trees  are 
mutually  dependent,  there  is  a  nice  bal- 
ance between  these  parts  as  they  exist 
normally;  consequently  it  appears  reason- 
able to  believe  that  where  a  portion  of  the 
roots  has  been  removed,  a  similar  amount 
of  top  should  also  be  pruned  away.  In 
fact,  even  a  greater  amount  of  the  top 
should  be  removed  than  that  removed 
from  the  roots  since  the  latter  must  be- 
come adjusted  to  their  new  quarters  be- 
fore their  activities  begin,  while  the 
former  experience  no  radical  difference 
in  this  respect.  With  yearling  trees,  the 
necessary  pruning  for  establishing  low- 
head  trees  will  reduce  the  top  sufficiently. 
It  is  best  to  postpone  the  pruning  of  the 
tops  until  the  trees  have  been  set,  at 
which  time  they  are  cut  down  within 
18    or   20   inches   of  the   ground. 

The  trees  should  be  conveniently  lo- 
cated for  the  planters  before  planting 
operations  begin.  Some  orohardists  prac- 
tice distributing  and  "heeling-in"  the 
trees  In  bunches  near  the  place  where 
they  are  needed.  Other  men  puddle  the 
trees  in  a  tub  which  is  placed  on  a  low 
sled  or  stone-boat  and  drawn  by  a  horse 
from  place  to  place  as  the  trees  are 
needed.  The  puddle  is  made  of  loamy  soil 
mixed  with  water  to  a  slushy  consistency. 
Heavy  clay  soils  must  not  be  used  for 
making  puddles.  The  use  of  this  pud- 
dling practice  constitutes  one  of  the  safest 
and  most  satisfactory  methods  of  handling 
trees  in  the  field  for  the  roots  are  not 
exposed  to  the  air  at  all. 

Holes  for  apple  trees  must  be  large 
enough  to  accommodate  all  the  roots  and 
deep    enough    to    allow    the    tree    to    set 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


three  or  four  inches  deeper  than  it  stood 
in  the  nursery.  It  is  believed  that  the 
best  results  are  secured  by  setting  dwarf 
trees  so  that  the  union  between  the  bud 
and  the  stock  is  four  or  five  inches  below 
the  surface. 

Common  Error 
The  common  error  committed  by  most 
tree  planters  is  to  plant  too  shallow.  Deep 
planting  tends  to  develop  a  deeper  root- 
ing system;  besides  it  affords  a  better 
anchorage  for  the  young  tree. 

Size  of  Hole  for  Hard   Soil 

The  size  of  a  hole  in  hard  soil  should 
be  greater  than  that  of  a  hole  dug  in 
loose  soil  that  is  not  underlaid  with  a 
hard  impervious  subsoil.  Holes  for  trees 
in  such  hard  soils  should  be  especially 
large.  In  some  instances  it  is  advisable 
to  use  giant  powder  to  break  up  this  hard 
soil.  Mr.  B.  P.  Hurst  of  Boise,  Idaho, 
recommends  that  a  hole  be  dug  to  a 
depth  of  two  feet,  and  in  the  center  of 
this  hole  another  hole  is  bored  to  an  addi- 
tional depth  of  five  feet.  Giant  powder 
is  then  exploded  in  the  bottom  of  the 
bored  hole.  The  method  is  described  by 
Mr.  Hurst  as  follows:  "Use  two  sticks  of 
giant,  powder  for  each  hole.  Drop  one 
stick  down  in  the  hole.  Loosen,  at  one 
end,  the  paper  around  the  other  stick 
of  dynamite.  At  this  end  insert  a  sharp 
peg  the  size  of  the  cap  to  be  used.  At- 
tach the  fuse  to  the  cap  and  place  the 
cap  in  the  end  of  the  powder.  If  there 
is  water  in  the  hole  cover  the  cap  with 
wagon  grease,  then  draw  the  paper,  and 
tie  it  around  the  string.  Place  this  stick 
in  the  hole  where  the  first  stick  was 
dropped,  leaving  the  fuse  about  six  feet 
long.  The  hole  may  be  filled  with  water, 
or  fine  earth,  but  must  not  be  tamped. 
Touch  the  match  to  the  fuse.  It  is  prob- 
ably superfluous  to  say  that  the  operator 
should  immediately  remove  to  a  consid- 
erable distance  from  the  hole! 

When  using  dynamite  great  care  must 
fee  observed,  for  it  is  extremely  danger- 
ous in  the  hands  of  the  inexperienced.  It 
is  very  essential  that  the  stick,  to  which 
the  cap  has  been  applied,  be  lowered 
gently  into  the  hole  or  a  premature  ex- 
plosion  may   result.     The  safer  practice 


in  using  this  explosive  is  to  employ  ex- 
perienced help.  In  removing  the  dirt 
from  the  hole,  that  taken  from  the  top- 
most six  inches  should  be  placed  on  one 
side  while  that  taken  from  the  lower 
depths  should  be  placed  in  a  separate 
pile.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
surface  soil  is  richer,  containing  more 
available  plant  food  than  the  subsoil,  and 
is  therefore  better  adapted  for  placing  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  roots.  The 
bottom  of  the  hole  should  be  thoroughly 
loosened  by  several  thrusts  of  the  spade 
after  which  some  of  the  surface  soil  is 
thrown  in  before  the  tree  enters  the  hole. 

Filling  tbe  Hole 

After  the  tree  has  been  placed  in  its 
exact  position,  by  means  of  a  tree  locator 
or  by  sighting,  the  roots  are  spread  out 
evenly  in  all  directions  and  then  the 
hole  is  filled.  The  first  dirt  put  into  the 
hole  should  be  the  rich  soil  from  the  sur- 
face. This  should  be  worked  tightly  un- 
der and  between  the  roots  by  using  the 
fingers.  Slightly  moving  the  tree  up  and 
down  will  aid  in  getting  the  soil  under 
the  roots.  The  hole  is  then  filled  half 
full  of  surface  soil  and  tramped  down 
firmly:  after  this  the  hole  is  filled  to  the 
top  with  the  other  soil  and  again  tramped. 
A  few  shovelfuls  of  loose  dirt  or  a  few 
forkfuls  of  manure  thrown  about  the 
tree  to  prevent  the  loss  of  moisture,  com- 
pletes the  operation. 

Manuring  tlie  Hole 

The  question  is  very  often  asked  re- 
garding the  advisability  of  placing  ma- 
nure in  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  A  forkful 
of  fine,  well-rotted  manure  placed  in  the 
bottom  of  the  hole  may  often  prove  bene- 
ficial, but  coarse  manure  should  never  be 
used  in  this  manner  because  it  will  heat 
and  scald  the  roots.  Spreading  manure 
on  the  surface  about  the  tree  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  better  practice. 

Lean  Towards  Wind 

Where  the  wind  blows  strongly  from 
the  southwest,  and  west,  as  it  does  in 
many  localities  of  Idaho,  unless  some 
windbreak  exists,  it  is  ver.v  important 
that  the  tree  be  set  so  that  it  points 
strongly    against    the    prevailing    wind. 


APPLES 


173 


Fig.  2.      "Where    Winds    Are    Strong.    Lean    the 
Tree  Towards   the  Prevailing  Wind. 

Many  trees  that  have  been  set  on  orchard 
sites  exposed  to  the  prevailing  winds  il- 
lustrate the  need  of  using  this  precau- 
tionary measure,  for  where  they  were 
set  straight  they  are  now  found  to  lean 
greatly  away  from  the  wind. 

J.  R.  Shinn. 
Moscow.    Idaho. 

Koot  PrnnJng 

In  digging  the  tree  at  the  nursery  all 
of  the  roots  are  cut  off  considerably. 
Many  of  those  that  remain  are  more  or 
less  bruised.  At  the  time  of  transplanting 
all  of  these  bruised  roots  must  be  cut 
off.  In  placing  the  tree  in  the  hole  it 
usually  advised  that  the  roots  be  spread 
out  flat.  Then  put  some  soil  in  and  raise 
the  tree  a  little.  In  humid  sections  where 
Irrigation  is  not  practiced  it  is  advisable 
to  pack  the  soil  very  thoroughly  around 
the  roots.  In  our  irrigated  regions  we 
do  not  consider  this  so  very  necessary  for 
the  reason  that  immediately  after  the 
trees  are  transplanted  they  are  irrigated. 
If  there  are  any  air  spaces  left  between 
the  soil  and  the  roots  the  irrigation  water 
will  pack  the  soil  around  the  roots. 

To  meet  the  loss  of  roots  due  to  trans- 
planting the  tree  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
move part  of  its  top.  The  amount  to  be 
cut  depends  on  how  high  we  wish  to  start 


the  scaffold  limbs.  This  must  be  decided 
by  the  grower  himself.  As  a  rule  for 
New  Mexico  conditions  we  recommend  low 
headed  trees.  For  such  trees  the  scaf- 
fold limbs  ought  to  start  out  about  12 
to  IS  inches  from  the  ground.  Do  not 
neglect  cutting  back  all  newly  trans- 
planted trees. 

F.\BI.\N     G-\RCI.\, 
Santa  Fe.  N.  M. 

Sbade  the  Trnnk 

Most  nursery  trees  are  grown  close  to- 
gether, some  six  to  eight  inches  apart  in 
the  rows.  The  tendency  is  to  produce  slen- 
der stems,  and  unbalanced  tops.  The 
nurseryman  is  forced  to  produce  his  trees 
as  cheaply  as  possible.  Aside  from  the 
result  of  crowding  mentioned,  the  trees 
shade  the  trunks  of  their  neighbors  con- 
siderably. The  tendency  is  to  cause  a 
softer  and  more  tender  growth.  The  sud- 
den exposure  when  such  trees  are  planted 
out  singly  for  the  orchard  must  be  trying 
to  the  tree.  This  is  one  reason  why  the 
trunks  of  newly  set  orchard  trees  should 
have  their  stems  protected  immediately 
by  the  strips  of  wood  veneer  now  much 
used.  These  may  be  had  of  all  basket 
factories  at  about  $4.50  to  $6  per  1,000. 
They  should  be  wired  on  loosely  and  left 
till  they  rot  off.  When  the  tree  gets  large 
its  own  branches  will  shade  the  trunk, 
and  they  will  then  be  inured  to  their  new 
position.  There  is  some  advantage,  it 
will  be  seen,  in  one-year  trees,  since  they 
have  suffered  less  iy  shading  and  crowd- 
ing each  other  in  the  nursery  roiv,  be- 
sides being  cheaper  and  coming  out  with 
less  mutilation  of  the  root  system.  Young 
trees  are  commonly  considered  preferable 
because  in  digging  there  is  less  mutila- 
tion of  the  roots.  The  writer  is  convinced 
that  the  point  above  suggested  is  quite 
as  important,  if  not  more  so.  It  seems 
hitherto  to  have  escaped  the  attention  of 
writers  dealing  with  this  subject.  In 
setting  the  trees  all  mutilated  roots 
should  be  cut  off  smoothly  by  a  cut  from 
below  outward.  If  the  ground  has  been 
properly  prepared,  the  hole  need  be  only 
sufficient  to  receive  the  roots  in  a  natural 
position,  placing  the  tree  as  a  rule  as 
deep    as   it    stood    in   the   nursery.      Few 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


planters  appreciate  the  importance  of 
working  the  soil  in  among  the  roots  next 
the  axis.  The  fingers  answer  the  require- 
ments of  the  case  better  than  any  imple- 
ment, or  the  foot.  There  should  be  no 
cavities  among  the  roots,  and  provided  the 
soil  is  sufficiently  dry  to  work  it  can 
scarcely  be  pressed  too  firmly  about  the 
roots.  Firmness  of  the  soil  about  the 
roots  encourages  the  movement  of  capil- 
lary   water   towards   the    tree. 

In  land  with  compact  subsoils  the  dig- 
ging of  large  holes  to  be  filled  with  loose 
rich  earth,  as  is  sometimes  practiced  in 
small  plantings,  is  to  be  avoided.  Holes 
in  such  lands  become  receptacles  for  seep 
water.  Better  not  plant  such  land  until 
tiled,  or  if  used  the  holes  should  be  filled 
with  the  soil  removed.  I  have  seen  trees 
planted,  principally  for  home  use,  in  such 
land  where  the  soil  was  built  up  slightly, 
making  a  shallow  mound  where  the  tree 
is  to  stand.  The  roots  of  the  tree  are 
then  set  on  the  slight  mound.  The  ob- 
ject is  plain.  Ordinarily  we  should  use 
for  orchards  only  lands  which  will  admit 
of  level  culture. 

Ernest  Walker, 
Fayetteville.    Ark. 

First  Summer 

The  orchardist  should  be  sure  to  keep 
his  trees  growing  vigorously  during  the 
first  summer,  as  this  is  the  most  vital 
period  in  the  history  of  an  orchard.  It 
is  highly  essential  that  the  trees  have  a 
good  start  before  mid-summer,  in  sections 
where  irrigation  is  not  practiced,  for  sum- 
mer drouth  is  likely  to  prove  fatal  to 
trees  of  low  vigor  and  slow  growth. 
Thorough  tillage  is  imperative  for  the 
best  success,  whether  the  orchard  be  irri- 
gated or  not.  Conservation  of  moisture 
in  the  soil  and  aeration  of  the  soil  are 
the  main  results  to  be  attained  by  this 
cultivating.  To  this  end  any  crop  grown 
in  the  orchard  the  first  summer  should  be 
one  that  requires  frequent  cultivating. 
Such  crops  as  small  fruits,  potatoes,  to- 
matoes, melons,  etc.,  are  therefore,  well 
adapted  to  young  orchards,  while  the 
grain  and  pasture  or  meadow  crops  should 
be  avoided.  Tillage  should  be  continued 
until   about   the  first  of  August   when   it 


is  well  to  sow  some  leguminous  cover  ci'op, 
such  as  hairy  vetch  or  Canada  field  peas. 
Sown  at  this  time  or  a  little  later,  these 
crops  will  make  sufficient  growth  to  form 
a  mat  over  the  surface  of  the  ground; 
and  while  making  this  growth  they  will 
aid  materially  in  ripening  the  wood  for 
the  following  winter.  Moreover,  such 
crops  will  prevent  the  washing  and  leach- 
ing of  soils  during  winter  and  when 
plowed  under  the  following  spring  will 
add  as  much  organic  and  fertilizing  mat- 
ter to  the  soil  as  a  small  coating  of 
manure  would  furnish. 

The  stubs  which  the  orchardist  has  left 
after  planting  soon  become  covered  with 
shoots  issuing  from  every  bud.  The  prop- 
er treatment  of  these  shoots  is  an  impor- 
tant consideration.  Some  rub  off  all  the 
shoots  as  they  appear,  excepting  four  or 
five  which  are  left  for  the  scaffold  limbs. 
A  better  practice  consists  in  rubbing  off 
only  the  lowermost  shoots,  leaving  about 
ten  shoots  to  form  leaves  and  to  grow 
throughout  the  year.  In  allowing  more 
leaf-area  a  greater  growth  of  root  system 
is  promoted  since  the  two  parts  are  mu- 
tually dependent.  The  thinning  out  and 
the  selection  of  the  scaffold  limbs  is  a 
task  for  the  following  spring. 

Diseases   and  Insects 

Diseases  and  insects  are  likely  to  make 
their  visitation  upon  the  young  orchard 
during  the  first  year.  The  orchardist  must 
be  ever  watchful  for  their  appearance  and 
be  read.v  to  shorten  their  stay  to  the 
minimum.  Anthracnose  on  the  trunk  and 
shoots  and  scab  on  the  leaves  are  likely 
to  be  the  most  serious  diseases;  while 
the  apple  borer,  the  green  aphis  and  the 
San  .Jose  scale  are  most  prominent  in- 
sects. Timely  application  of  the  best 
))reventives  and  remedies  for  these  pests 
is  the  only  safeguard.  Careful  and  fre- 
quent observations  is  the  rule  for  suc- 
cess  in   dealing  with  such   opponents. 

J.    R.    SlIINN, 
Moscow,  Idaho. 

Pruning  First  Tear 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  important  of 
any  year  during  the  life  of  a  tree  because 
it  determines  where  the  head  of  the  tree 
shall    begin    to   form.     We   advocate   low 


APPLES 


175 


heading,  and  therefore  the  first  year  in 
pruning  would  cut  off  the  top  not  more 
than  one  foot  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  In  fact,  we  have  thought  six 
inches  is  better  than  one  foot,  but  many 
regard  this  an  extreme.  Our  reasons  for 
low  heading  were  discovered  by  accident. 
Rabbits  having  girdled  several  trees  dur- 
ing the  winter,  the  owner  of  the  orchard 
had  to  decide  between  cutting  off  the 
tops  of  the  trees  near  the  ground  or 
rooting  them  up  altogether.  These  trees 
are  now  18  years  old.  They  are  the 
healthiest,  largest,  most  prolific  bearers 
in  the  orchard.  This  is  not  confined  to 
one  variety,  but  is  true  of  all  the  varieties 
in  this  orchard.  We  have  observed  other 
orchards  where  similar  conditions  pre- 
vailed, and  in  every  case  we  have  been 
confirmed  in  the  conclusion  that  low 
heading  is  decidedly  preferable. 

Gb.\>-vii,le  Lowther 

DISTANCES  TO  PLANT 

One  of  the  most  common  mistakes  made 
by  orchardists  is  that  of  planting  too 
many  trees  to  the  acre.  "Short  lived 
trees"  is  a  very  general  complaint,  and 
overcrowding  is  one  of  the  direct  causes 
of  It 

Moisttire 

A  number  of  important  factors  should 
be  considered  in  determining  the  num- 
ber of  trees  per  acre.  Moisture  plays 
an  important  part  in  plant  growth. 
Most  varieties  of  apples  are  from  85  to 
90  per  cent  water.  This  fact  has  an  im- 
portant bearing  especially  for  semi-arid 
regions.  When  we  recall  that  each  inch 
of  rainfall  means  about  120  tons  of  water 
per  acre  the  amount  is  significant,  par- 
ticularly in  a  country  where  the  annual 
rainfall  is  approaching  a  minimum  sup- 
ply for  the  maintenance  of  tree  growth. 
It  is  therefore  evident  that  with  a  given 
annual  rainfall  per  acre,  the  closer  the 
planting  the  less  the  water  supply  for 
each  tree. 

Distance  and  Yield 

Too  close  planting  is  one  of  the  most 
serious  hindrances  to  the  successful  pro- 
duction of  high  grade  fruit.  A  large 
share   of    the    apple    orchards,    especially 


those  set  from  15  to  40  years  ago,  suffer 
from  this  mistake,  which  deprives  the 
trees  of  air  and  sunlight,  two  of  the 
cheapest  and  most  essential  factors  in 
successful  fruit  growing.  The  writer  has 
seen  many  orchards  in  which  the  trees 
were  planted  from  16  to  20  feet  apart, 
the  branches  interlacing,  forming  a  com- 
plete network  over  the  whole  orchard 
area,  thereby  restricting  sun  and  air  ex- 
posure to  the  top  of  the  floor-like  array 
of  branches.  In  other  words,  these  trees 
planted  20  feet  apart  simply  had  an  area 
of  400  square  feet  of  exposure  to  sun- 
light and  air.  If  instead  of  four  trees 
with  an  area  of  1,600  square  feet  ex- 
posed to  sun  and  air,  but  one  tree  grew 
which  did  not  meet  its  neighbors  by 
about  two  feet,  this  well  developed  tree 
would  have  over  twice  the  area  exposd 
to  sun  and  air  on  top  and  side  alike  or 
somewhere  in  the  vicinity  of  3,500  square 
feet:  and  in  addition  from  20  to  25  per 
cent  of  the  soil  would  be  open  to  the 
sunlight. 

Investigations  at  the  Xew  York  Sta- 
tion *    indicate    that: 

Trees  set  30x30  feet  gave  a  four-year 
average  of  186  bushels  per  acre. 

Trees   set   31x31  to   35x35   feet  gave   a 

four-year  average  of  222  bushels  per 
acre. 

Trees   set   36x36  to    40x40   feet   gave   a 

four-year  average  of  229  bushels  per 
acre. 

Tarieties 

Varieties  attaining  the  size  of  Northern 
Spy,  Rhode  Island  Greening  and  Baldwin 
should  be  set  from  35  to  40  feet  apart 
each  way.  Some  growers  are  even  set- 
ting these  varieties  40  by  50  feet  apart. 
Mcintosh.  Fameuse  and  similar-sized 
trees  may  be  planted  from  32  to  35  feet 
apart.  Yellow  Transparent,  Tetofsky  and 
other  similar  upright  growers  may  be 
planted  somewhat  closer.  Distance-de- 
termining factors  other  than  that  of  va- 
riety are  the  character  of  the  soil,  the 
severity  of  the  climate,  and  the  closeness 
of  pruning.     A  strong  soil  will  of  course 


•New   York    iCornelU    Station,   Bulletin  226, 

p.  Ml  n 00,5 1. 


176 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


cause    a   greater    wood    development   and 
must  bs  taken  into  account. 

William  Stuart, 

Burlinston,    Vt. 


Vermont  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  141, 
1909. 

Distance  and  Climate 

The  distance  at  which  to  plant  apple 
trees  varies  with  the  variety  and  with 
the  climatic  and  soil  conditions.  Apple 
trees  in  states  where  they  attain  large 
size  and  are  long-lived  are  planted  from 
35  to  40  feet  apart.  In  New  Mexico  and 
especially  in  the  warmer  valleys  the  ap- 
ple tree  is  not  very  long-lived  nor  does 
it  attain  a  very  large  size.  Most  of  the 
orchards  now  growing  in  New  Mexico  are 
from  25  to  30  feet  between  the  trees. 
Because  of  the  fact  that  orchards  must 
be  sprayed  economically,  trees  ought  to 
be  planted  at  least  from  30  to  35  feet 
apart. 

Fabian   Garcia, 
Santa  Fe.  N.  M. 

Thirty  to  Forty  Feet  Best 

A  decision  as  to  the  proper  distance 
apart  to  set  trees  varies  with  different 
planters.  Some  plant  16  by  32  feet— 
that  is,  the  trees  16  feet  apart  in  rows 
32  feet  apart.  The  object  of  this  method 
is  to  obtain  a  crop  from  the  trees  until 
they  begin  to  interfere  with  each  other, 
when  ever  alternate  tree  in  the  row  is 
cut  out,  leaving  the  trees  in  the  entire 
orchard  at  a  distance  of  32  feet  each  way. 
The  trees  to  be  cut  out  should  be  early- 
bearing,  short-lived  varieties.  This  sys- 
tem has  the  advantage  of  more  fully  uti- 
lizing the  land  for  fruit  production  until 
the   thinning   out   becomes    necessary. 

Other  planters  adopt  a  distance  between 
trees  of  20,  24,  or  30  feet  apart  each  way, 
claiming  that  by  the  time  the  trees  inter- 
fere with  each  other  they  will  have  fin- 
ished their  growth  and  the  orchard  will 
begin  to  decline.  But  it  is  generally  con- 
ceded that  32  to  40  feet  is  the  preferred 
standard  distance.  If  the  distance  of  40 
feet  each  way  is  adopted,  it  will  afford 
ample  space  between  the  rows  for  growing 
any  crop  which  requires  cultivation,  such 
as  corn,  beans,  potatoes,  etc.  Such  culti- 
vation is  highly  important  and  necessary 


for  the  maintenance  of  moisture  in  the 
soil  and  for  the  health  and  vigor  of  the 
trees.  This  distance  will  afford  free  cir- 
culation of  air  and  abundance  of  sun- 
light, both  of  which  are  essential  to  the 
growing  of  well-developed  and  highly- 
colored  fruit.  Small  grain  should  never 
be  grown  among  fruit  trees,  especially 
when  the  orchard   is  young. 

G.  B.  Brackett. 
Washinsrton.  D.  C. 

Close  Planting  and  Fertilization 

Closely  connected  with  the  subject  of 
the  fertilization  of  orchard  lands,  is  the 
subject  of  close  planting.  Close  setting 
is  the  rule,  and  the  use  of  peach  trees 
as  "fillers" — a  practice  to  be  deprecated — 
is  common.  Various  distances  for  plant- 
ing are  advocated  by  different  growers, 
and  in  use.  There  has  hitherto  been  a 
tendency  to  decrease  the  distance  rather 
than  increase  it.  The  method  of  close 
planting,  so  common  in  connection  with 
early  and  heavy  bearing,  calls  for  especial 
attention  to  the  matter  of  fertilization  of 
orchard  lands.  Such  lands  are  commonly 
fertile  in  the  beginning,  but  it  is  only  a 
matter  of  a  few  years  when  trees  under 
the  conditions  mentioned  begin  to  feel 
the  need  of  additional  plant  food.  If  our 
orchards  are  shorter-lived  than  trees  in 
other  regions,  the  practice  of  close  plant- 
ing of  fruitful  kinds,  coupled  with  neglect 
of  cultivation,  and  of  proper  fertilization 
of  the  land,  offers  an  adequate  explana- 
tion. Some  large  and  successful  orchard- 
ists  advocate  and  practice  close  planting, 
but  they  give  proportionate  attention  to 
the  matter  of  maintainin.g  the  fertility  of 
the  land. 

.7.  H.  Hale,  so  widely  known  in  the  hor- 
ticultural world,  plants  peach  trees  13x13 
feet  and  makes  it  pay — but  as  Van  De- 
man  remarks.*  "he  feeds  them  like  a  lot 
of  pigs." 

In  close  planting,  early  bearing  kinds 
like  Duchess.  Missouri  Pippin.  Wealthy, 
and  Wagener  are  frequently  used  as  "fill- 
ers." the  idea  being  to  cut  out  the  super- 
fluous trees  before  they  do  harm  to  the 
permanent  ones.  but.  as  practical  growers 


•  H.    E.    Van    neman.      "Plans    for    Orchard 
PlanfiniT."  Tiural  New  Yorker.  March  6-13.  1897. 


APPLES 


177 


know,  few  ever  carry  out  their  good  re- 
solves. 

An  orchardist  who  has  900  acres  in 
trees  at  Cedar  Gap,  near  Springfield,  Mo., 
*  writing  on  the  subject  of  close  planting 
after  15  years'  experience,  has  the  fol- 
lowing to  say: 

"Now  that  the  time  for  tree  planting 
has  arrived.  I  desire  to  call  attention  to 
a  mistake  that  is  often  made  by  begin- 
ners in  the  Ozark  region.  I  refer  to 
close  planting.  Apple  trees  in  good  land 
should  never  be  planted  closer  than 
30x30  feet  apart,  and  on  fairly  good  land 
25x25  feet  apart.  On  poor  soil  that  will 
not  produce  20  bushels  of  corn  to  the 
acre  apple  trees  are  unprofitable.  ♦  *  * 
These  distances  give  room  for  cultiva- 
tion, spraying  and  gathering;  produce 
longer  lived  trees,  better  fruit  and  more 
money  in   the  long   run." 

There  are  advantages  in  close  planting 
in  the  row  north  and  south  as  the  trees 
tend  to  shade  and  protect  each  other; 
but  after  some  years  the  roots  interlock, 
and  even  with  the  best  cultivation  it  is 
well  nigh  impossible  to  maintain  the  mois- 
ture needed   in  time  of  drouth. 

Ernest   Waxker. 
Fayetteville,   Ai-k. 

Spraying 

Close  planting  prevents  the  proper 
spraying  of  the  orchard.  Thorough  spray- 
ing has  come  to  be  recognized  as  one  of 
the  first  requisites  of  successful  orchard- 
ing. The  rows  should  be  a  sufficient  dis- 
tance apart  to  admit  of  ready  access  to 
trees  from  every  side.  The  exact  dis- 
tance apart  may  vary  somewhat  accord- 
ing to  the  varieties  planted  and  the  lay 
of  the  ground,  but  in  general  50  mature 
apple  trees  per  acre,  approximately  30 
feet  apart,  is  ample.  Any  number  in  ex- 
cess of  this  means  overcrowding  and 
weakened  trees. 

A.  T.  Erwin, 
G.    R.   Bliss. 

Ames.    Iowa. 

Space  Versus  Soil 

The  space  to  give  apple  trees  in  an 
orchard  varies  according  to  the  soil  and 
variety.  On  good  soil  the  strong  growing 
sorts  require  about  40  feet  in  each  direc- 


*  Louis    Erb.    Mempbis.    Tenn..    in    Practical 
Pruit  Grower,  Vol.  VIII.  No.  141    (1902),  p.  5. 


tion,  at  maturity.  The  space  between  may 
be  occupied  for  the  first  10  or  20  years 
with    "fillers." 

W.  J.  Green, 
Wooster.   Obio. 

Distance    and    Variety 

The  proper  distance  apart  for  planting 
depends  altogether  upon  the  ultimate  size 
of  the  tree,  which  will  vary  with  the 
variety,  the  soil,  the  location,  and  the 
kind  of  treatment.  With  good  treatment, 
full  grown  trees  of  the  smaller  growing 
varieties,  like  Wagener,  Wealthy  and  Yel- 
low Transparent,  for  example,  may  not 
require  more  than  20  to  25  feet,  while 
those  of  the  larger  growing  sorts  like 
Baldwin,  Rhode  Island  Greening  or  Rox- 
bury  Russet,  may  require  from  35  to  40 
feet.  When  located  on  the  heavier  soils, 
especially  at  the  base  of  a  hill,  trees  usu- 
ally grow  much  larger,  and  sometimes  at- 
tain a  spread  of  50  feet. 

The  investigations  of  the  Cornell  Ex- 
periment Station  based  upon  the  behavior 
of  hundreds  of  orchards,  reveal  the  fact 
that  within  certain  limits,  the  wider  the 
spacing  the  greater  the  yield.  It  would 
seem  advisable  either  to  space  the  trees 
the  maximum  width  or  decidedly  closei-. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  in  a  very 
closely  planted  orchard,  half  of  the  trees 
may  be  removed  when  they  begin  to 
crowd,  leaving  the  remainder  about  the 
right  distance  apart,  while  in  an  orchard 
where  the  trees  are  only  moderately  close, 
the  removal  of  every  alternate  tree  would 
leave  the  remaining  trees  too  far  apart. 

C.  D.  Jarvis, 
Storrs.  Ccnn. 

Soil  Determines  Distance 

The  distance  apart  at  which  to  space 
the  trees  should  be  governed  largely  by 
the  character  of  the  soil  upon  which  the 
orchard  is  to  be  located.  Where  the  soil 
is  thin,  as  in  many  of  the  hilly  sections 
of  Ohio,  25x25  feet  apart  is  a  good  dis- 
tance. On  richer  ground  the  distance 
should  be  not  less  than  35x35  feet  either 
way,  or  the  equivalent.  Some  growers 
plant  25x30,  while  still  others  who  have 
had  experience  with  apple  orchards  on 
very  fertile  soil  recommend  not  less  space 
than  40  feet  between  trees  either  way. 


178 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Close  Plaiitine  and  Quality  of  Frnit 

Close  planting  results  in  an  abundant 
supply  of  apple  scab  and  other  troubles, 
by  bringing  about  a  dense  growth  and 
excluding  sunshine  and  ventilation.  Any 
cultural  method  which  tends  to  secure 
good  ventilation,  a  dry  atmosphere,  and 
an  abundance  of  sunshine  does  much  to- 
wards holding  these  foes  in  check.  The 
spray  jjump  has  come  to  stay  and  is  a 
valuable  tool,  yet  prevention  is  always 
better  than  cure. 

Close  planting  gives  protection  when 
the  trees  are  young.  A  better  plan  is  to 
provide  protection  by  a  windbreak  and 
low  headed  trees. 

Color  in  fruit  is  almost  as  important  as 
quality.  The  absolute  necessltj'  of  an 
abundance  of  sunshine  for  the  develop- 
ment of  highly  colored  fruit  is  an  axiom. 
Every  boy  is  conversant  with  the  fact 
that  the  most  highly  colored  apples  are 
to  be  found  on  the  long  outer  twigs  which 
have  an  advantage  over  their  fellows  in 
the  amount  of  sunshine  they  receive.  Too 
many  of  our  fruit  plantations  repi-esent 
forest  rather  than  orchard  conditions.  On 
account  of  over-planting  the  tops  Interlap, 
resulting  in  a  heavy  shade  and  a  moist 
atmosphere,  and  making  high  coloring  in 
fruit  an  impossibility. 

In  the  case  of  the  apple,  the  color  is 
more  than  skin  deep.  Color  forma- 
tion is  accompanied  by  the  flesh  develop- 
ment within.  In  recent  cold  storage  ex- 
periments conducted  at  the  Ohio  Experi- 
ment Station  it  was  clearly  demon- 
strated that,  other  things  being  equal, 
highly  colored  fruit  has  an  advantage  in 
keeping  qualit.v.  There  is  also  a  direct 
relationship  between  the  color  and  the 
percentage  of  scald. 

P.   H.   B.\LL0U, 
Wonster.    Ohin. 

PROBABLE  LOSS  OF  TBEES  FROM 
PL.VMIXG 

The  questions  sometimes  arise,  "What 
is  the  probable  loss  in  setting  young 
trees?    What  per  cent  will  fail  to  grow?" 

This  depends  so  much  upon  the  nature 
of  the  conditions  and  the  manner  of  do- 
ing the  work  that  it  is  difficult  to  esti- 
mate.    The  writer  was   interested   in   an 


orchard  of  80  acres  on  which  there  were 
planted  3,500  trees,  or  an  average  of  471-4 
trees  per  acre.  The  next  spring  we  re- 
placed 33  trees,  making  two  less  than  one 
per  cent  of  loss.  The  next  spring  we  set 
20  acres  and  990  trees.  They  were  set  in 
newly-plowed  alfalfa  soil,  the  land  not 
quite  so  well  leveled,  making  it  a  little 
more  difficult  to  irrigate,  and  as  a  result 
it  was  not  so  well  watered  and  we  had  to 
replant  36  trees  or  nearly  four  per  cent. 
We  have  known  25  per  cent  of  the  trees 
planted  to  die,  and  in  a  few  extreme  cases 
nearly  all  of  them  have  died.  This,  how- 
ever, is  almost  wholl.v  on  account  of  ne- 
glect, and  is  preventable.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  lose  one  per  cent,  provided  care 
is  exercised  in  the  selection  of  good  stock, 
the  roots  kept  moist,  the  ground  properly 
prepared,  and   the  planting  well   done. 

Gra>'ville  Lowtheb 

MIXDBREAKS 
roliimhia  River  Valley 

While  objections  are  often  made  to  the 
use  of  windbreaks  they  are  very  advan- 
tageous wherever  orchards,  vineyards, 
small  fruits,  or  truck  crops  are  exposed  to 
strong  winds.  Especially  is  this  true 
where  the  soil  is  sandy  and  subject  to 
drifting.  Since  the  prevailing  winds  are 
from  the  west  and  southwest,  the  princi- 
pal windbreaks  should  extend  north  and 
south  or  approximately  at  right  angles 
to  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

Some  of  the  more  important  points  to 
be  remembered  in  the  selection  of  trees 
for  windbreaks  are  the  following:    Effec- 


■v\ 


Fig.  1.  Windbreak  Greatly  Needed.  Only  by 
the  most  .ludicious  pruning  can  these  trees 
be  balanced,  and  then  only  with  srreat  diffi- 
culty. Stakinff  -would  have  helped  many  of 
these  trees. — Oregon  Experiment  Station. 


APPLES 


179 


tiveness  in  pheoking  the  velocity  of  the 
wind,  value  as  timber,  longevity,  clifBculty 
in  starting,  inclination  to  harbor  orchard 
pests,  habits  of  encroachment  upon  the 
areas  protected,  etc.  Few  trees  meet  all 
of  these  requirements.  When  a  single  va- 
riety is  planted  few  ti'ees  are  as  effective 
as  the  poplars,  especially  the  Lombardy 
poplar.  They  develop  rapidly,  branch 
from  the  ground  up,  and  make  a  very 
efficient  windbreak  when  planted  close  to- 
gether. A  very  effective  windbreak  can 
be  made  by  planting  the  black  locust  and 
the  Russian  artemisia  together  in  the 
same  row.  The  locust  should  be  set  about 
eight  feet  apart  in  the  row.  The  timber 
of  the  locust  makes  valuable  fence  posts. 

The  artemisia  is  a  shrubby  plant  that 
is  started  from  7-inch  cuttings  set  12  to  15 
inches  apart.  It  should  attain  a  height 
of  4  or  5  feet  the  first  year  and  8  or  9 
feet  the  second  year.  Low  windbreaks 
can  be  made  by  planting  the  artemisia 
alone.  A  good  hedge  of  this  plant  is  grow- 
ing on  the  experiment  farm  of  the  State 
College  at  Pullman,  Wash.,  from  which 
cuttings  may  be  obtained. 

The  European  larch  instead  of  the  black 
locust  may  be  used  with  the  artemisia.  It 
will  not  spread  and  encroach  upon  the 
protected  area  as  much  as  the  locust  or 
the  poplars.  Its  timber  also  makes  good 
fence  posts. 


Fig.  2  illustrates  how  temporary  wind- 
breaks may  be  made  from  sagebrush. 


Byron  Iluntei-,  Bureau  I'laut  Industry,  Circ. 
00. 

Windbreaks  for  Mississippi  Valley 

In  the  mountain  regions  among  the 
hills  or  foothills  an  orchard  site  would 
generally  be  selected  with  reference  to 
protection  from  the  winds  by  the  contour 
of  the  land.  For  instance,  if  the  pre- 
vailing winds  are  from  the  west  an  east- 
ern slope  would  be  protected,  and  from 
this  view  would  be  preferable  to  a  west- 
ern slope.  If  this  is  not  practicable  or 
convenient  then  the  trees  are  often  set  at 
an  angle  of  about  45  degrees,  slanting  to- 
ward the  wind  so  that  the  blowing  will 
not  cause  the  trees  to  lean,  but  to  assume 
an  upright  position,  and  so  that  its  center 
of  gravity  will  not  be  far  from  the  line 
of  the  tap  root.  The  orchard  needs  pro- 
tection either  by  the  hills  about  it  or  by 
means  of  windbreaks. 

In  the  prairie  regions  such  as  we  find 
in  the  Mississippi  valley  there  are  no 
hills  and  the  orchards  are  protected  by 
rows  of  trees  or  groves  sometimes  planted 
so  as  to  shelter  both  the  house  and  the 
orchard. 

For  such  situations  the  following  in- 
structions given  by  A.  T.  Erwin  of  Ames, 
Iowa,  are  applicable: 

"In   prairie  regions  a   windbreak   is  of 


.  2.  Asparagus  Beds  on  Sandy  .Soil  Near  Kennewick.  Washington,  Protected  by  Sage- 
brush Windbreaks.  When  the  land  was  cleared  low  posts  were  set  upon  the  tops  of 
which  a  large  smooth  wire  was  stretched.  Instead  of  burning  the  sagebrush,  it 
was  bung  on  the  wire  to  serve  as  a  temporary  windbreak. 


180 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


great  value  to  the  orchardist.  Windbreaks 
shield  the  trees  from  the  hot  drying  winds 
of  summer,  reduce  the  percentage  of  wind- 
falls, and  assist  in  holding  the  snow  in 
winter.  The  location  oi  the  windbreak 
should  be  determined  by  local  conditions, 
though  generally  speaking  our  most  de- 
structive winds  are  during  the  growing 
season,  and  are  the  hot  dry  winds  from 
the  south  and  west.  It  is  inadvisable  to 
plant  a  windbreak  on  more  than  two  sides 
of  the  orchard. 

"The  windbreaks  may  consist  of  either 
deciduous  or  evergreen  trees.  If  decidu- 
ous trees  are  used,  they  may  be  planted 
in  rows  about  eight  feet  apart  and  the 
trees  four  feet  apart  in  the  row,  with  the 
idea  of  thinning  as  they  become  larger. 
In  this  way  a  supply  of  timber  and  post 
material  can  be  secured  at  the  same  time. 
The  catalpa,  diamond  willow,  and  green 
ash  are  desirable  deciduous  trees  for  this 
purpose.  The  soft  maple  is  also  widely 
used  though  it  is  a  gross  feeder  and 
should  be  given  more  room  and  also  placed 
at  a  greater  distance  from  the  last  row 
of  apple  trees  than  the  kinds  we  have 
named. 

"Among  the  evergreens,  the  white  pine, 
Austrian  pine,  white  spruce,  and  Norway 
spruce  are  widely  planted.  It  is  often  ad- 
vantageous to  plant  two  rows  of  ever- 
greens, using  one  row  of  quick  growers 
such  as  Norway  spruce  or  Scotch  pine,  and 
the  second  row  of  slower  growing,  long- 
lived  kinds,  such  as  the  white  pine.  The 
windbreaks  should  be  cultivated  with  a 
corn  cultivator  for  the  first  two  or  three 
years  after  planting,  as  the  annual  growth 
can  be  greatly  increased  thereby.  The 
red  cedar  should  not  be  planted  as  an 
evergreen  about  the  orchard,  since  it  is  a 
host  for  one  stage  of  apple  rust  or  cedar- 
apple-fungus,  which  is  very  troublesome  in 
some  orchards.  For  further  information 
regarding  different  species  of  evergreens 
and  their  characteristics,  we  refer  the 
reader  to  Bulletin  90  of  the  Iowa  Experi- 
ment Station,  which  may  be  obtained  upon 
request. 

"If  possible  the  windbreak  should  be 
started  one  or  two  years  before  the  apple 
trees  are  planted.  If  the  white  pine  is 
used  it  should  be  placed  on  the  lee  side. 


using  some  more  hardy  variety,  such  as 
the  Austrian  pine,  on  the  windward  side. 
The  windbreak  should  not  be  planted 
closer  than  40  feet  from  the  last  row  of 
apple  trees.  Many  of  our  orchardists 
have  made  the  serious  mistake  of  planting 
evergreens  close  to  the  apple  trees,  and  as 
a  result  the  last  row  of  fruit  trees  is  over- 
shadowed and  practically  worthless." 

Tbe  AVindbreak  for  Idaho 

Where  orchard  sites  are  particularly 
exposed,  windbreaks  are  especially  advan- 
tageous. They  stop  the  force  of  the  wind 
so  that  the  trees  are  allowed  to  attain 
their  normal  shape  instead  of  having 
their  limbs  on  the  southwest  and  west 
sides  forced  to  grow  up  through  the  cen- 
ter of  the  trees.  They  prevent  the  loss 
of  apples  which  autumn  winds  shake 
down  at  a  time  when  their  value  is  great- 
est. They  protect  the  buds  of  winter 
from  drying  out  and  losing  their  vitality. 

Evergreen 

Evergreen  trees  furnish  ideal  wind- 
breaks since  the  winds  are  broken  at  all 
seasons.  Such  barriers  stop  the  sweep  of 
winter  winds  as  well  as  winds  occurring 
during  the  growing  season.  The  Norway 
spruce,  because  it  possesses  these  qualifi- 
cations, is  unsurpassed  as  a  tree  for  wind- 
breaks. 

Lombardy 

The  Lombardy  poplar  is  used  in  some 
sections  but  its  roots  are  so  extensive  and 
its  tops  afford  protection  for  only  part  of 
the  season. 

The  windbreak  should  be  planted  in  ad- 
vance of  the  apple  trees  in  order  that  it 
may  afford  protection  from  the  start. 
Spruces  should  be  set  ten  feet  apart  with 
the  rows  at  least  40  feet  from  the  nearest 
apple  trees.  Since  most  of  the  strong 
winds  of  Idaho  come  from  the  west  and 
southwest,  a  windbreak  should  occupy  a 
position  around  the  south  and  west  sides 
of  the  orchard.  In  wind-swept  i)laces  a 
bank  of  evergreens,  made  in  this  manner 
halfway  around  the  orchard,  should  be  re- 
garded as  a  necessary  part  of  good  or- 
charding. This  wall  of  evergi-een  will 
also  add  a  delightful  variety  to  the  land- 
scape in  all  seasons. 

J.  R.  Shinn, 
Moscow.   Idaho. 


APPLES 


ISl 


VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  TO  PLANT 

In  selecting  varieties  it  is  impossible 
to  give  advice  except  in  a  general  way. 
The  conditions  of  climate  and  soil  and 
the  circumstances  of  the  orchardist  are 
so  different  that  each  one  must  deter- 
mine for  himself,  after  a  few  general 
facts  and  principles  are  presented.  In 
the  first  place,  much  depends  on  whether 
the  planter  wants  a  family  or  commer- 
cial orchard.  If  he  is  planting  a  family 
orchard,  he  will  probably  select  one  or 
more  trees  of  the  very  earliest  varieties 
adapted  to  his  section  of  the  country,  and 
will  choose  varieties  maturing  later,  so 
that  the  fruit  will  be  fit  for  use  each 
month  until  late  in  the  autumn,  when 
he  will  pick  and  store  his  winter  fruit. 
If  he  is  planting  a  commercial  orchard 
he  may  largely  disregard  his  own  taste 
and  that  of  his  family  and  select  only 
those  varieties  that  are  heavy  and  regular 
annual  bearers,  good  keepers,  good  ship- 
pers, and  those  that  bring  high  prices 
in  the  market.  In  doing  this  he  is  de- 
ferring to  the  demands  of  the  market  and 
is  planting  those  varieties  for  which  the 
public  will  pay  the  highest  price.  It  is 
money  he  wants,  and  for  this  reason  he 
does  not  seek  to  gratify  his  own  pe- 
culiarities of  taste.  He  will,  therefore, 
consult  the  markets  and  learn  the  aver- 
age price  paid  for  certain  varieties. 

Local  conditions  often  affect  the  choice 
of  varieties.  For  instance,  the  Wagener 
apple  is  well  adapted  to  the  uplands  of 
Eastern  Washington,  but  it  is  not  the 
best  adapted  to  the  lower  levels  of  the 
irrigated  sections  of  that  state,  and  pro- 
duced under  these  conditions  would  be 
considered  a  third  grade  apple.  The 
Wolf  River  may  be  good  for  certain  sec- 
tions of  the  country:  we  see  it  recom- 
mended for  planting  in  nearly  all  of  the 
districts  of  the  central  and  northern  sec- 
tions of  the  United  Ptates:  but  in  the  low- 
er elevations,  especially  in  the  irrigated 
sections,  it  is  not  considered  a  high  grade 
apple — it  is  too  large,  punky  and  lacks 
flavor.  The  Rome  Beauty  and  the  De- 
licious are  among  the  very  best  apples 
in  the  higher  elevations  of  Central  Wash- 
ington, but  it  is  questionable  whether 
as    products    of    the    lower    valleys    they 


will  be  so  highly  regarded.  However, 
the  Rome  Beauty  has  been  before  the 
public  long  enough  to  establish  itself, 
and  to  make  a  reputation  which  places 
it  among  the  higher  grades  of  apples. 
The  Delicious  has  since  its  introduction 
to  the  markets  brought  higher  prices 
than  any  other  apple,  but  is  one  of  the 
new  varieties  which  may  or  may  not  hold 
its  place  for  a  long  period  of  time 
in  competition  with  others.  There 
are  varieties  that  have  a  wide  range  of 
adaptability.  The  Winesap,  Jonathan. 
Esopus  Spitzenburg,  Grimes  Golden, 
Northern  Spy,  Gravenstein,  Rome  Beauty. 
Newtown  Spitzenburg  and  Tompkins 
King  are  among  the  varieties  that  adapt 
themselves  to  varied  conditions  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  for  the  most 
part  to  the  northern  and  central  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States.  There  are 
a  few  exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  Yel- 
low Newtown  is  not  so  adaptable.  It  is 
one  of  the  best  apples  in  the  world's 
markets;  it  reaches  a  high  state  of  per- 
fection in  Albemarle  county,  "Virginia, 
where  it  bears  the  name  of  Albemarle 
Pippin.  It  is  also  one  of  the  best  apples 
for  Washington  and  Oregon,  but  is  not 
so  variously  adaptable  as  the  other  vari- 
eties named. 

About  the  safest  way  for  the  planter 
is  to  take  the  advice  of  the  professor  of 
horticulture  in  the  nearest  experiment 
station,  and  of  his  neighbors,  in  order 
to  know  what  results  have  been  obtained 
by  those  who  have  tested  the  varieties 
of  that  section.  For  commercial  orchard- 
ing, it  is  argued  by  men  of  large  experi- 
ence, that  it  is  better  to  plant  but  few 
varieties.  One  man  planted  100  acres  and 
chose  Spitzenburgs,  Newtowns  and  Wine- 
saps;  another  similarly  located  chose 
Winesaps,  .Jonathans  and  Rome  Beauty. 
Here  is  a  difference  of  opinion  between 
two  experienced  and  educated  men.  It 
is  generally  conceded  that  it  is  better 
to  have  more  than  one  variety  because 
the  cross-pollination  improves  the  qual- 
ity and  quantity  of  fruit.  Considering 
the  value  of  an  orchard  of  good  commer- 
cial fruit,  and  considering  the  time  it 
takes  to  bring  it  into  bearing,  the  im- 
portance of  wise  selections  is  evident,  but 


JS2 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICrLTURE 


how  to  advise,  involves  so  many  ques- 
tions that  it  is  a  difficult  undertaking. 
Under  the  heading  of  Districts^  this  sec- 
tion, the  lists  of  fruits  recommended 
by  the  American  Pomological  Society  are 
given,  and  while  none  will  agree  with 
them  on  every  point,  when  all  things  are 
considered  it  is  the  best  list  published 
and  perhaps  the  best  that  can,  with 
present  information,  be  adopted. 

Cost  of  Prodnctioii  and  Talne  of  Good 
Varieties 

The  selection  of  good  varieties,  and  the 
production  of  the  best  qualities  of  what- 
ever varieties  are  chosen,  cannot  be  over- 
estimated in  a  desire  for  large  net 
profits.  It  costs  almost  as  much  to  grow 
poor  varieties  and  poor  grades  as  it  does 
to  grow  the  best,  and  the  results  are 
vastly  different.  Suppose,  when  the  or- 
chard comes  into  bearing,  the  land  it 
occupies  is  valued  at  $1,000  per  acre.  In- 
terest on  this  amount  at  7  per  cent  is 
$70  per  acre,  on  10  acres,  $700.  We  will 
suppose  the  average  cost  of  irrigating 
water,  in  sections  where  irrigation  is 
practiced,  to  be  $1.50  per  acre,  or  for 
10  acres,  $15.  We  will  estimate  the  cost 
of  food  for  team,  depreciation  of  the 
value  of  team,  wear  and  tear  of  ma- 
chinery, harness,  etc.,  at  $25  per  acre, 
for  10  acres,  $250.  This  makes  a  total 
p^r  acre  of  $96.50,  or  for  10  acres, 
$965.  Under  fair  treatment,  this  or- 
chard should  yield  650  boxes  per  acre, 
or  6,500  boxes.  This  estimate  is  high 
except  in  case  of  large  trees.  The  cost 
as  thus  far  estimated,  will  be  approxi- 
mately 14  cents  ($0.14)  per  box.  Now. 
suppose  we  add  the  cost  of  spraying,  la- 
bor, irrigating,  picking,  assorting,  pack- 
ing, box-materials,  boxing  and  hauling  to 
market.  According  to  a  consensus  of 
opinion  gathered  from  a  wide  range  of 
inquiries,  we  will  place  these  expenses 
at  47  cents  ($0.47)  per  box.  This,  added 
to  the  16  cents  per  box,  which  includes 
interest  on  land,  water,  taxes,  etc.,  places 
the  cost  of  producing  a  box  of  apples  at 
61  cents  ($0.61).  Generally,  the  inter- 
est on  land,  taxes  and  labor  of  the 
owner  are  not  counted,  because  it  is  ar- 
gued they  furnish  the  owner  a  home,  a 
profitable  place  to   work,  and   steady   em- 


ployment. We  estimate  it  here,  however, 
because  in  our  purpose  of  showing  the 
difference  between  the  growing  of  good 
or  poor  varieties,  it  occupies  a  logical 
place,  and  the  estimate  would  not  be  com- 
plete without  it.  See  tables  on  cost  of 
producing    apples    for    further    estimates. 

Suppose,  then,  an  orchardist  grows  va- 
rieties of  apples  that  sell  at  $1.00  per 
box;  he  has  a  net  profit  of  39  cents  per 
box,  or  $2,535  on  ten  acres  of  6,500  boxes. 
He  has  had  interest  on  the  money  in- 
vested, has  had  pay  for  his  labor,  a  place 
to  live  and  work  and  $2,405.  This,  of 
course,  would  yield  him  an  income  suf- 
ficient to  enable  him  to  live,  to  avoid 
the  trouble  of  moving,  paying  rent,  and 
to  pay  him  for  responsibility,  care,  long 
hours  of  labor  which  he  often  performs, 
and  unforeseen  emergencies.  All  these 
are  important  items,  and  are  as  much  as 
many  expect,  because  many  come  up  to 
the  close  of  life  with  nothing  saved. 
Suppose,  however,  that  instead  of  grow- 
ing varieties  or  grades  that  sell  at  $1.00 
per  box,  he  grows  fruit  that  will  sell  at 
$1.50  per  box:  he  has  in  addition  to  the 
estimates  we  have  already  made,  50  cents 
per  box  net  profit,  or  on  one  acre  $325: 
on  10  acres,  $3,250.  This,  added  to  the 
profits  of  $2,535.  already  obtained  under 
the  system  that  produced  apples  at  $1.00 
per  box,  equals  on  ten  acres  $5,785.  The 
difference  between  the  two  profits  of 
$2,535  and  of  $5,785,  is  a  difference  of 
choice  of  varieties,  and  proper  manage- 
ment. 

We  would  not  overlook  the  emphasis 
upon  "iiroper  management,"  because  even 
if  the  best  varieties  are  selected,  and 
they  are  not  properly  adapted  to  soil 
conditions,  to  frost  conditions,  sprayed, 
pruned  or  thinned,  they  may  result  in 
disappointment.  If  not  sprayed  for  scale, 
or  codling  moth.  90  per  cent  of  the  crop 
may  be  unmarketable.  If  not  properly 
thinned,  it  may  be  of  good  quality:  but 
be  too  small  to  bring  high  prices  on  the 
market.  We  may  have  as  many  boxes 
of  unthinned  small  fruit  as  we  would  of 
thinned  well-developed  fruit:  but  our 
small  fruit  will  bring  a  small  price,  while 
our  well  developed  fruit  will  bring  a  good 
lirice. 


APPLES 


183 


The  cry  of  "over-production"  of  fruits 
need  strike  terror  to  none  except  tiiose 
growing  poor  grades:  for  tlie  world's  best 
things  are  never  over-done. 

Further,  whoever  puts  a  poor  grade  or 
a  poor  qualit}'  of  fruits  on  the  markets 
is  just  insofar  as  his  product  is  capable 
of  influencing  the  markets,  destroying 
the  demand  for  fruits.  For  instance, 
whoever  eats  a  Spitzenburg.  Yellow  New- 
town or  Delicious,  in  the  proper  season 
of  the  ripening  of  these  varieties,  will 
want  more  apples.  Whoever  eats  a  Ben 
Davis  or  Missouri  Pippin  will  feel  less 
desire  for  fruit,  for  these  varieties  do 
not  so  strongly  appeal  to  the  average 
taste.  The  Arkansas  Black  is  for  beauty 
the  best  apple  we  grow,  but  for  taste  it 
is  inferior  to  several  other  varieties,  and 
is  almost  alwaj-s  sold  before  its  proper 
period   of  ripening. 

The  figures  of  profits  above  given  are 
based  upon  the  growing  of  the  best  vari- 
eties and  average  market  conditions. 

Granville  Lowther 

For  Eastern  Washington 

Seconiniendations    by    State    Experiment 
Station 

The  following  is  the  list  of  fruits  rec- 
ommended   by    the    horticulturist   of    the 


state  agricultural  experiment  station  at 
Pullman  for  planting  in  that  part  of  the 
state  lying  east  of  the  Cascade  mountains. 
In  cases  where  the  varieties  to  be  recom- 
mended for  planting  in  the  irrigated  val- 
leys are  different  from  those  best  adapted 
to  the  non-irrigated  uplands,  this  is  indi- 
cated. The  letters  (E),  (M)  and  (L) 
indicate  that  the  varieties  ripen  early,  mid- 
season,  or  late,  respectively.  The  lists 
do  not  include  all  varieties  that  might 
be  planted,  but  are  those  which  experi- 
ments and  actual  orchard  practice  have 
shown  to  be  desirable  for  general  plant- 
ing. The  varieties  are  arranged  alpha- 
betically in  each  case: 

Apples — (For  the  irrigated  valleys), 
Delicious  (L),  Duchess  (M),  Gravenstein 
(M),  Grimes  Golden  (L),  Jonathan  (L), 
King  (M),  Rome  Beauty  (L),  Spitzen- 
bui'g  (L),  White  Winter  Pearmain  (L1, 
Winesap  (L).  Winter  Banana  (L),  Yel- 
low Newtown  (L),  Yellow  Transparent 
(E):  (for  upland  orchards),  Delicious 
(L),  Duchess  (M),  Gano  (L),  Graven- 
stein (M),  Jonathan  (L),  King  (M), 
Rome  Beauty  (L),  Wagener  (L),  White 
Winter  Pearmain  (L),  Wealthy  (M), 
Winter  Banana  (L).  Yellow  Transparent 
fE).  York  Imperial   (L). 


Best  Sellers 

Best  sellers  reported  in  order  of  importance  by  Yakima  valley  nurseries. 


Winesap 
Jonathan 
Rome  Beauty 
Wagener 


Delicious 
Spitzenburg 
Yellow    Newtown 
Arkansas  Black 


Stayman   Winesap 
Grimes  Golden 
W.    W.    Pearmain 


>'ew  Tarieties 

In  order  of  importance  based  on  returns  from  nurserymen  throughout  the  United 
States  and  Canada. 


Delicious 

Black  Ben  Davis 

Kauffman 

Mrs.  Bryan 

Wallace  Howard 

Brilliant 

Reigel 


Regan 

Oliver 

Senator 

Lowry 

Stark    King   David 

Albany   Everbearing 

Oreno 


Waklron    Beauty 

Vanderpool    Red 

Bietigheimer 

Ideal 

Peter 

Chas.  Ross 


184 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Best  Sellers 

Best  sellers  as  indicated  by  the  largest  number  of  nurserymen  reporting  a  given 


variety. 

Jonathan  14 

Grimes   11 

Winesap  - .-  10 

Rome  Beauty S 

Baldwin    7 

Mcintosh  7 

Stayman    7 


Wagener    6 

Yellow  Transparent 5 

Gano 5 

Spitzenburg    4 

Yellow   Imperial   4 

Yellow  Newtown  4 

Northern    Spy    3 


Delicious   3 

Delicious  2 

M.  B.  Twig 2 

Arkansas   Black   2 

Black   Ben   Davis 2 

Bonum 1 

Maiden   Blush   1 


Wealthy  6      Ben  Davis  3      N.   W.   Greening 1 


Table  of  Varieties  Having  tlie  Highest  Number  of  Recommendations 

Apples  having  the  highest  number  of  recommendations  for  districts  and  states. 
This  does  not  mean  that  these  apples  are  necessarily  best  for  every  district;  it  simply 
means  that  they  do  well  in  the  greatest  number  of  places.  The  numeral  following 
the  name  gives  the  number  of  recommendations  according  to  the  American  Pomo- 
logical    Society. 


Red  Astrachan  65 

Early  Harvest  56 

Oldenberg    50 

Maiden's    Blush    ..  50 

Winesap    49 

Ben  Davis  47 

Gravenstein    - --  43 

Fameuse    36 

Fall    Pippin  35 

Sweet  Bough  35 

Baldwin  34 

Jonathan   33 

Northern    Spy    33 

Porter    32 

Ralls    .Janet 32 

R.  I.  Greening  32 

Tolman   Sweet : 32 

Yellow  Belinower  31 

Sap   of  Wine 31 

None   Such   30 

William's  Favorite  29 

Summer  Pearmain  29 


Golden    Sweet    .  29 

Smith's   Cider   28 

Benoni    . 28 

Ro.xbury    Russet 27 

Rambo    27 

Primate  26 

Alexander    25 

Buckingham  25 

Grimes  .  25 

L.  Strawberry  25 

Peak's  Pleasant     25 

Summer   Rose   25 

Early  Strawberry  24 

Mother  .- 24 

Shockley    i.4 

Twenty  Ounce  .    22 

Summer  Queen   22 

Early  Margaret  22 

Dyer   22 

Gilpin  21 

Golden  Russet  21 


Hall     21 

Limbertwig 21 

Tompkins    King    21 

Hoas   (Horse)    , .-  20 

Nickajack    20 

Wagener    20 

Willow  Twig   20 

Hewes  Crab  19 

Jersey  Sweet 19 

Roman   Stem   18 

Fallwater    18 

Rome  Beauty  18 

High  Top  Sweet 18 

Wealthy  ..    18 

Lowell 18 

Newtown  Pippin  18 

Keswick   Codlin    17 

Spitzenburg    17 

Canada  Red  15 

York  Imperial    13 

White  Winter  Pearmain  12 


Apples   Recommended  for  Commercial   Orchards   in   the   United  States  and   Canada 

J.  L.  DrM.\s 

The  tendency  for  the  orchardists  of  the  country  to  select  fewer  varieties  for 
commercial  plantings  Is  well  illustrated  by  the  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  revision 
committee  of  the  American  Pomological  Society  to  cut  down  the  number  of  recom- 
mendations to  fifty.  The  attempt  did  not  succeed,  but  the  suggestions  to  the  com- 
mittee, made  by  air.  J.  L.  Dumas,  of  Pullman,  Washington,  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee, are  given. 

Only  40  varieties  are  named,  ten  spaces  being  left  blank  to  be  supplied  later. 


APPLES 


185 


Apples  Recommended  lor  Commercial  Orchards  in  tbe  United  States  and  Canada 

KEY  TO  ABBREVIATIONS — Form:  c,  conical;  o,  oyate :  ob.  oblate:  obi.  oblong;  r,  round. 
Size:  Numbers  indicate  smallest  and  largest  number  of  commercial  pack  in  a  Northwest  standard 
box.  Color:  b.  blushed;  c,  crimson;  d,  dark;  g,  green;  p,  pale;  r,  red;  ru,  russet;  s.  striped; 
w,  white;  y,  yellow.  Flavor:  a,  acid;  b,  brisk;  m,  mild;  p.  pleasant;  r.  rich;  s,  sweet;  sa. 
subacid.  Quaiitv:  50  credits  for  dessert;  2.t  for  cooking,  and  25  for  market;  total,  100.  Plant- 
ing recommendations:     •  indicates  success;  •*,  highly  successful;  blank,  not  reported  upon. 


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186 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Percentages  of  Sizes  and  Grades  of  Certain  Varieties  of  Apples 

The  following  table  was  made  up  of  averages  of  59.200  boxes  of  apples  shipped 
during  the  season  of  1911  by  the  Yakima  Valley  Fruit  Growers'  Association.  The 
apples  shipped  were  not  of  uniform  pack  but  were  taken  from  the  farmer  as  he 
packed  them. 


The  different  varieties  showed 

the  following  percentage  in 

each  size 

Tier 

The  different  varieties 

showed  the  following 

percentage  in  each 

grade 

3 

4 

4J^ 

5 

Ex.Fancy 

Fancy 

Choice 

Spitzenburg 

9 
25 

2 
12 

4 
26 
24 
61 
18 
12 

5 
17 
12 

5 
12 

2 

5 

59 
57 
43 
54 
19 
48 
64 
58 
49 
48 
48 
54 
32 
79 
55 
38 
27 

26 
15 
38 
30 
10 
23 
7 
35 
40 
28 
40 
23 
35 
40 
30 
31 
58 

6 
3 

16 
5 

66 
2 
4 

35 
50 
34 
15 

7 
31 

5 
37 
40 
33 
64 
26 
23 

3 
16 
60 
15 

30 
35 
40 
67 
10 
45 
50 
39 
40 
39 
6 
16 
39 
83 
20 
25 
30 

35 
15 

Jonathan 

Arkansas  Black 

Grimes  Golden 

Rome  Beauty 

Gano 

26 
18 
83 
24 
45 

Delaware  Red 

24 

Black  Twig 

York  Imperial 

Y'ellow  Newtown 

Ben  Davis 

Missouri  Pippin 

Wagener 

6 

1 

13 

5 

22 

20 
28 
30 
58 
38 
14 

Red  Cheek  Pippin.   .  . 

Winesap 

Various 

3 

28 
10 

64 
15 
55 

*Total 

12        1      45 

30 

13 

37 

37              26 

*  Winter  Banana,   White  Winter  Pearaiain,   Black  Ben  Davis  omitted  from   list ;   very  small 
shipments. 


Bearing   Ability   of   Ccrtaiu   Varieties   at 
Certain  Ages 

Orchard  of  W.  N.  Yost,  Meridian,  Idaho, 
2-year-old  Jonathan  trees  planted  in  1906: 

Packed 
Boxes 
Year.  per  Tree. 

1910    1 2/3 

1911    13/8 

1912    4  4/5 

1913  (heavy  frost)    15/8 

1914  (estimated)    6  to  7 

I  do  very  little  pruning  from  the  third 


year  on  until  the  trees  begin  bearing 
freely.  Prune  and  shape  heavily  second 
and  third  years,  then  scarcely  any  prun- 
ing until  about  the  eighth  year. 

Two-year-old  Rome  Beauty  trees  planted 

i°   19"«:  Packed 

Boxes 
Year.  per  Tree. 

1910    5/8 

1911    2  3/5 

1912    3  3/10 

1913  (heavy  frost)    2  1/2 

1914  (estimated)    6  to  7 


APPLES 


187 


Apples  Preferred  by  Hotels  aud  Kestauraiits  in  the  Xortliwest  for  Certain  Purposes 
Including  Dininer  Car  Department,  Northern  Pacific  Bailroad 


For  Baking 


For  Pies 


For  Cooking 


For  Eating 


Newtown  Pippin. . . 

20  Oz.  Pippin 

Rome  Beauty 

Red  Cheek  Pippin . 


Yellow  Newtown. 
R.  I.  Greening.  . . 

Duchess 

Gravenstein 

Winesap  (3ds). . . . 


Yellow  NewtowTi. . 
R.  I.  Greening. 

Duchess 

Red  Cheek  Pippin. 
Winesap 


Winesap 
Spitzenburg 
Jonathan 
Winter  Banana 
Delicious 
Yellow  Xewtown 
Bellflower 
Northern  Spy 
Gravenstein 


Size  Most  Used 

3J^  and  4  tier 

33^  and  4  tier 

Color  Most  Used 

Red 

High   class   hotels   desiring  to   cater   to   best   trade. 

Ten  Leading'  Varieties  of  Apples  for  Yaklnia  Yalley  with  Periods  of  Maturity  and 
Length  of  Keeping  in  Cold  Storage 

H.   M.   Gilbert 


Variety 


Jonathan 

Grimes  Golden 

Spitzenburg 

Delicious 

StajTnan 

Rome  Beauty 

Yellow  Newtown  Pippin. 
White  Winter  Pearmain 

Winesaps 

Arkansas  Black .      


Lower  Valley 

Up  to  1,000  feet 

elevation 


Oct. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 


1  to  Jan. 
15  to  Jan. 
15  to  Jan. 
15  to  Jan. 

1  to  Feb. 
15  to  Feb. 
15  to  Feb. 

1  to  Feb. 

1  to  Mar. 

1  to  Mar. 


Upper  Valley 

Up  to  1,800  feet 

elevation 


Oct 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Jan. 


15  to  Feb. 
1  to  Jan. 
1  to  Feb. 
1  to  Feb. 
1  to  jNIar. 
1  to  ^Nlar. 
1  to  Mar. 
1  to  Mar. 
1  to  April 
1  to  April 


Careful  Cold  Stor- 
age at  proper 
time  e.xtends 


3  months 

2  months 

3  months 

3  months 
\]/2  months 
2  months 
2  months 

2  months 

4  months 

3  months 


188 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


If  poorly  treated  and  kept  In  a  warm 
place  after  packing,  all  these  apples  will 
ripen  a  month  earlier,  and  be  out  of  con- 
dition at  least  two  months  earlier. 

The  above  suggestions  are  general  ones 
and  I  know  every  one  will  find  some 
objections.  I  have  seen  Jonathans  from 
the  high  lands  kept  well  until  April.  Spltz- 
enburgs  can  often  be  kept  till  May  in  good 
cold  storage. 

If  the  trees  are  vigorous  and  in  good 
health,  the  apples  seem  to  ripen  later.  I 
have  also  noticed  the  apples  ripening  a 
little  later  and  keeping  better  where  or- 
chards are  seeded  to  clover  or  alfalfa. 
Orchards  allowed  to  get  too  dry  will  often 
ripen  up  exceptionally  early,  but  I  think 
the  seasons  given  above  will  be  found 
fairly  accurate,  and  risk  of  loss  will  be 
encountered  every  time  dealers  or  con- 
sumers try  to  keep  apples  later  than  the 
dates  suggested. 

COOKING  Qr.\LITY  OF  V.VRIOFS 
APPLES 

.  At  the  National  Apple  Show  in  Spokane, 
Wash.,  in  1911,  tests  of  various  apples 
were  made  for  cooking  qualities  by  Miss 
Laura  Breese  of  the  Domestic  Science  De- 
partment of  the  University  of  Idaho.  The 
tests  were  given  each  variety,  for  apple 
sauce,  for  baking  and  for  pies.  All  tests 
were  made   without  sugar. 

The  varieties  were:  Winter  Banana, 
Grimes  Golden,  Rome  Beauty,  Winesap, 
Stayman  Winesap,  Arkansas  Black,  White 
Winter  Pearmain,  Babbitt,  Jonathan,  De- 
licious and  York  Imperial. 

Baked    .V|i])les 

In  the  baked  apple  contest,  on  color 
after  being  cooked,  the  Babbitt  stood  first, 
the  Arkansas  Black  second.  On  general 
appearance  after  cooking  the  Arkansas 
Black  stood  first,  the  Rome  Beauty  second 
and  Jonathan  third.  For  taste  in  baked 
apples  the  Rome  Beauty  stood  first  and 
Jonathan  and  White  Pearmain  tied  for 
second  place. 

.Vpple   Saiicp 

In  the  apple  sauce  contest,  on  color  the 
Arkansas  Black     stood     first     and  Rome 


Beauty  second.  On  general  appearance 
the  Arkansas  Black  stood  first,  Rome 
Beauty  second  and  Jonathan  third. 

For  the  best  tasting  apple  sauce  the 
Winter  Banana  stood  first.  White  Winter 
Pearmain  second  and  the  Stayman  Wine- 
sap third. 

Apple  Pie 

Apple  pie  was  judged  for  taste  only. 
The  Grimes  Golden  got  first  place.  Bab- 
bitt second,  and  Jonathan  third.  A  record 
of  the  time  required  to  cook  the  different 
apples  as  sauce  and  by  baking  was  made. 

The  number  of  minutes  required  to 
bake  each  apple  follows:  Delicious  38: 
Jonathan  .54;  Stayman  Winesap  35;  Win- 
ter Banana  51:  York  Imperial  64;  Arkan- 
sas Black  63:  Babbitt  44:  Grimes  Golden 
49;  White  Winter  Pearmain  49;  Winesap 
50:  Rome  Beauty  20. 

The  number  of  minutes  required  in  the 
cooking  of  the  apple  sauce  of  each  of  the 
apples  follows:  Arkansas  Black  7;  White 
Winter  Pearmain  9;  Delicious  7:  Jona- 
than 14:  Stayman  Winesap  8;  Rome 
Beauty  8:  York  Imperial  25;  Winesap  19; 
Winter  Banana  10.  The  Babbitt  was  not 
entered   in  the  sauce  contest. 

PRICES  OF  VARIETIES 

The  following  prices  represent  an  aver- 
age constructed  on  the  basis  of  a  3-year 
average  of  prices  paid  by  Richey  &  Gil- 
bert, Toppenish,  Wash.;  an  average  for 
seasons  of  1911  and  1912  of  the  Hood 
River  Apple  Growers'  Union  and  David- 
son Fruit  Co.  of  Hood  River;  the  aver- 
age price  received  by  the  Wenatchee 
Fruit  Growers'  Association  and  the  Yaki- 
ma Valley  Fruit  Growers'  Association. 
Involving  as  it  does  widely  separated  dis- 
tricts, a  variety  of  markets  and  several 
hundred  thousand  boxes  of  apples,  we 
have  a  fair  basis  for  comparison  as  to 
the  value  of  the  various  varieties  of  ap- 
ples named.  The  prices  represent  the 
average  for  all  sizes  and  grades:  where 
shipments  of  a  given  variety  were  too 
small  to  give  a  fair  average  no  figures 
are  given. 

W.    WORTHIXGTON 


APPLES  189 

Average  Prices — Percentage  of  Grades — Percentage  of  Sizes 


Average  prices  received 
for 

Percentage  of 
Grades 

Percentage  of 

Sizes* 

Extra 

Fancy 

"C" 

Tier 

4 
Tier 

4}^ 
Tier 

5 
Tier 

Winesap 

SI.  39 
1.47 
1.39 
1.52 
1.17 
1.09 
1.13 
1.10 
.86 
.99 

60 
64 
15 
35 
34 
31 
40 
60 
26 
23 

25 
6 
67 
30 
40 
45 
40 
33 
16 
39 

15 
30 
18 
35 
26 
24 
20 
7 
58 
38 

2 
24 
19 
23 

2 
31 
16 

3 
25 

6 

32 
24 
55 
52 
43 
44 
53 
52 
46 
19 

33 

38 
25 
22 
38 
23 
27 
40 
22 
39 

33 
14 

Arkansas  Black 

Spitzeuburg 

3 

3 

16 

Rome  Heautj' 

•7 

Black  Twig 

3 

White  Winter  Pearmain 

4 

Ben  Davis 

6 

Missouri  Pippin 

36 

Gflno 

.97 
Price 
1.01 

.95 

5 

avera 

7 

37 

50         45 

41 
t  ship 

4 

4 
75 

48 

8 

3 

Delicious 

Grimes  Golden 

ges  hi 
10 

gh,  bu 
83 

ments 
19 
48 
25 

small 
10 
39 

66 

Delaware  Red 

39 

24 

9 

Staj-man 

1.23 
.91 

1 

35 
83 

15 
14 

35 
05 

52 
59 

11 

40 

21 

Bellflower 

Red  Cheek  Pippin 

1.17 

16 

20 

64 

22 

52 

23 

3 

Aikin 

York  Imperial 

1.18 
1.91 

33 
60 

39 
25 

28 
15 

10 
16 

48 

58 

36 

25 

4 

Winter  Banana 

Senator 

Ortlev 

•  Average  of  two  shippers,  20,000  boxes  each. 

Aiueteeu  Leading  Varieties 

The  19  leading  varieties  of  apples  as 
indicated  by  the  displays  for  the  past 
few  years  at  the  National  Apple  Show  at 
Spokane.  Washington,  arranging  the  list 
alphabetically,    is    as    follows: 

Arkansas  Black,  Baldwin,  Delicious 
Gravenstein,  Grimes  Golden,  Jonathan 
Mcintosh  Red,  Northern  Spy,  Rhode  Isl 
and  Greening.  Rome  Beauty,  Spitzenburg 
Stayman  Winesap.  Wagener,  Wealthy 
WTiite  Winter  Pearmain,  Winter  Banana 
Winesap,  Yellow  Bellflower,  Yellow  New- 
town. 

This  list  indicates  the  consensus  of  opin- 
ion as  to  the  leading  varieties  at  the  time 
those  trees  now  in  bearing  were  planted 
and  from  which  the  apples  were  selected 
for  exhibition. 

Granville  Lowther 


V.VLUE    OF    SIZES    AJfD    GRADES    OF 
APPLES 

The  following  figures  are  given  to  indi- 
cate the  difference  in  the  value  of  the 
standard  sizes  and  grades  of  apples  of 
various  varieties  in  the  Northwest,  and  are 
based  upon  the  average  prices  received 
by  the  Wenatchee  and  Yakima  Valley 
Fruit  Growers'  Associations  for  the  sea- 
son of  1911-12: 

DIFFERENCE  IN  VALUE   OF  GRADES 


Average 

Grade 

Size 

Price 

Difference 
All  Sizes 

Ex.  Fancy. 

3Hx4  tier 

$1.46 

Ex.  Fancy. 

4  3.2x4  tier 

1.37 

Ex.  Fancy. 

5          tier 

1.17 

1.33 

Fancy 

3J^x4  tier 

1.30 

Fancy 

4}4x4tier 

1.23 

Fancy 

5          tier 

1.03 

1.19 

-C" 

.87 

87 

190 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Average  difference  in  value  of  grades; 

Ex.  and  Fancy Av.  10.14 

Fancy   and    "C" 32 

Ex.   and  "C" 46 

Average  difference  of  highest  and  low- 
est: 

Ex.  Fancy  Si-S   and  "C" Av.  $0.59 

Average  difference  in  value  between  a 
3%  tier  and  a  4^2  tier  apple  is  $0.0S. 

Average  difference  in  value  between  a 
3^2    tier  and   a   .5   tier  apple   is   $0.25. 

W.  W. 


KECOaniEXDATIOXS  OF  ISURSERT- 
MEN 

As  an  indication  of  current  opinion  on 
the  best  varieties  to  plant  in  the  various 
districts  the  following  tables  are  given, 
having  been  compiled  from  reports  of 
nurserymen  throughout  the  United  States. 
The  varieties  are  given  in  the  order  of 
importance  based  on  the  largest  number 
of  nurserymen  reporting  the  variety 
amongst  the  best  sellers. 

The  numbers  at  the  head  of  the  columns 
are  those  of  the  American  Pomological  So- 
ciety Districts  for  1909.  See  accompany- 
ing map.     (P.  192.) 


District  No.  S,  Northern  Illinois.  Southern   Iowa,  Eastern  Kansas  and  Nebraska, 
Northern  Missouri. 


Best  Sellers 

Jonathan 

Baldwin 

Salome 

Grimes 

Arkansas  Black 

Stark 

Winesap 

English   Golden   Russet 

Tolman  Sweet 

Stayman  Winesap 

Fallawater 

Wal  bridge 

Ralls  .Janet 

Gano 

Winesap 

Wealthy 

Mann 

Stayman 

Maiden  Blush 

Minkler 

Wolf    River 

Yellow  Transparent 

Mcintosh 

York    Imperial 

N.  W.  Greening 

M.  B.  Twig 

Whitney  No.  20 

Duchess   of  0. 

Northern   Spy 

Ingram 

Ben  Davis 

Princess  Sweet 

Early   Harvest 

Fameuse 

Pewaukee 

Rome  Beauty 

Stark    Delicious 

Black  Ben  Davis 

White  Winter  Pearmain 

Stark    King    David 

Xew  Varieties 

Delicious 

Oliver 

Stark  King  David 

Regan 

Senator 

Stark   Delicious 

Black  Ben  Davis 

Lowry 

District  No.  12,  Northern  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  Utah  and  Western  Colorado. 

Best  Sellers 


Rome  Beauty 
Winesap 


Black  Ben   Davis 


Jonathan 
Stayman 

»w  Varieties 

Delicious 


Gano 


District   No.    14.   Eastern   California.   Washington,   and    Oregon.     Western    Jlon- 


tana.  Idaho. 


Spitzenburg 
Yellow   Newtown 
Winesap 
Jonathan 


Albany   Everbearing 

Oreno 

Waldron  Beauty 


Best  Sellers 

Rome  Beauty 

Wagener 

Grimes 

\ew  Varieties 

Vanderpool  Red 

Bietigheimer 

Ideal 


Delicious 
Wealthy 
Mcintosh  Red 


Peter 
Delicious 
Stayman  Winesap 


APPLES 


191 


District  Xo,  15.  Western  Washington.  Oregon  and  N'orth western  California. 

Bpst  Sellers 


Jonathan 

Wagener 

Mcintosh 

Yellow  Bellflower 

Northern  Spy 


Chas.  Ross 


Cox  Orange  Pipjiin 

Wealthy 

King 

Baldwin 

Winesap 

Jfew  Varieties 


Grimes 
Spitzenburg 
Yellow  Newtown 
Ben   Davis 


District  No.   2,   Michigan,   Northern    Indiana,   Ohio,   and    Pennsylvania.   Southern 
New  York.  Vermont.  Massachusetts,  Southern  Maine,  Northern  Connecticut. 


Baldwin 

Mcintosh 
Spy 


Best  Sellers 

Grimes 

Stayman  Winesap 


Jonathan 
Winesap 


District  No.  3,  Delaware,  Rhode  Island,  Eastern  Virginia,  and  all  of  New  Jersey. 

Best  Sellers 


Baldwin 

Jonathan 

Nero 

Stayman  Winesap 

Williams  E.  Red 


Ben  Davis 
M.  B.  Twig 
Rome  Beauty 
Stark  Wealthy 
Yellow  Transparent 


Grimes 
Mcintosh 
Spitzenburg 
Winesap 
York  Imperial 


District  No.  5,  Southern  Georgia  and  South  Carolina,  and  Eastern  South  Caro- 


lina. 


Best  Sellers 

Arkansas    Black 

Magnum  Bonum 

Stayman  Winesap 

Harvest 

Yellow  Transparent 

Horse 

Kansas  Queen 

Red  June 

Pall  Pippin 

Grimes 

Gano 

Rome  Beauty 

Shockley 

Winter  Queen 

Yates 

York  Imperial 

Winesap 

New  Varieties 

Kauffman 

Mrs.   Bryan 

Wallace 

Howard 

Brilliant 

Reigel 

WEIGHTS  OF  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES 
PER  BUSHEL 

The  following  varieties,  just  from  the 
trees  in  October,  gave  the  following 
weights  for  a  heaped  bushel  (Michigan) : 

Pounds. 

Baldwin  ...  50 

Belmont  50 

Ben  Davis  47 

Bunker  Hill 49 

Cabashae     57 

Esopus  Spitzenburg  44 

Rambo    50 

Rhode    Island   Greening 52 


Roxbury   Russet   50 

Rubicon   46 

Stark 56 

Fallawater 48 

Golden  Russet  53 

Lawyer 47 

Nickajack    51 

Northern  Spy  46 

Pennock  47 

Swaar  51 

Sweet  Bough   .  39 

Tolman  Sweet       48 

Tompkins  King 44 

Yellow  Bellflower  46 

Bailey's  Rule  Book,  p.  149. 


192 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Reconiiiiendations   of   the    American   Fomolo^ical   Society 

Following   are    the    recommendations    of    the    American    Pomological    Society    as 
given  in  Bulletin  151,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 


130* 

125'               120* 

IS'          no*         lOS* 

00»           95*            SO-           85-           80- 

75"            TV 

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Map  Showing  the  Pomological  Districts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 


DISTRICT  KO.  1 

Maine  above  500  feet  above  sea  level: 
New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  and  New  York 
north  of  latitude  44  degrees;  Ontario  north 
of  Lake  Simcoe  and  east  of  longitude  80 
degrees;  Quebec.  New  Brunswick,  and 
Prince  Edward  Island.  The  dominant 
natural  feature  of  this  district  is  the  St. 
Lawrence  valley.  Many  of  the  hardier 
fruits  flourish  within  its  borders. 

Apples 

Highly  recommended — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Gravenstein;  Northern  Spy; 
Wealthy.  Kitchen  and  market:  Haas 
(Fall  Queen,  Gros  Pomier)  ;  Hibernal; 
Oldenburg,  Duchess  of;  Pewaukee;  Scott 
Winter;  Tolnian  Sweet;  Twenty  Ounce 
(Cayuga  Redstreak);  Wolf  River;  Yel- 
low Transparent.  Dessert  and  market: 
Bailey  Sweet;  Blue  Pearmain;  Fameuse 
(Snow):  Mcintosh;  McMahon;  Peach  of 
Montreal;  Porter;  Saint  Lawrence.  Mar 
ket:  Tetofski.  Kitchen:  Gideon;  Long- 
field;  Quince,  Cole;  Switzer. 


Recom.mexded  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Bogdanoff;  Canada  Baldwin; 
Donneghan;  Magog  Red  Streak;  Malinda; 
Northfield;  Rhode  Island  Greening;  Rus- 
sian Baldwin;  Saint  Johnsbury;  Shiawas- 
see Beauty;  Starkey;  Yellow  Bellflower. 
Kitchen  and  market:  Alexander;  Anton- 
ovka;  Baldwin:  Blenheim:  Borovinka; 
Irish  Peach:  Mann;  Raspberry;  Red  As- 
trachan;  Roxbury  Russet;  Titovka.  Des- 
sert and  market:  Canada  Reinette;  Der- 
by: Early  Strawberry;  Golden  Russet  (N. 
Y.) ;  Hubbardston  Nonsuch;  Plumb  Cider; 
Red  Canada;  Tompkins  King;  Wagener; 
Westfield  Seek-no-further;  Williams  Fa- 
vorite. Dessert  and  kitchen:  Early  Hai-- 
vest;  Fall  Harvey:  Fall  Pippin:  Lady 
Sweet;  Ribston  Pippin;  White  Pigeon: 
Wythe.  Market:  Ben  Davis;  Bethel; 
Cooper  Market;  Domine;  English  Russet; 
Fallawater  (Tulpehocken)  :  Fall  Jennet- 
ing; Gano;  Ontario;  Stark:  Walbridge 
(Edgar  Redstreak).  Dessert:  Bough, 
Sweet;  Cornell  Fancy:  Grimes  Golden; 
Hunt    Russet;     Jewett    Red     (Nodhead) ; 


APPLES 


193 


Late  Strawberry:  Pomme  Gris;  Sops  of 
Wine;  Winter  St.  Lawrence.  Kitchen: 
Green  Sweet:  Kent  Beauty;  Keswick  Cod- 
ling; Pumpkin  Sweet  (Pound  Sweet). 

Recommended  for  trial — Dessert,  kitch- 
en and  market:  Rolfe  (Macomber) .  Kitch- 
en and  market:  Arctic;  Nortli western 
Greening.  Dessert  and  market:  Sutton 
Beauty:  Swayzie  Pomme  Gris.  Market: 
Bietigheimer.  Red.  Dessert:  Louise,  Prin- 
cess.   Kitchen:  Munscn. 

Apples,  Crab 

Highly  recommended  —  Kitchen  and 
market:  Martha;  Minnesota.  Kitchen: 
Gibb;  Red  Siberian. 

Recommended — Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Jumbo;  Pringle  Sweet;  Wliit- 
ney.  Cider,  kitchen  and  market:  Montre- 
al. Kitchen  and  market:  Elgin;  Hyslop; 
Marengo;  Queen  Choice;  Transcendent; 
Yellow  Siberian.  Dessert  and  kitchen: 
Island  Gem.  Dessert:  Van  Wyck.  Kitch- 
en: Ball  Winter;  Orange;  Stanstead,  Rose 
of. 

DISTRICT  NO.  2 

Nova  Scotia;  Maine  below  500  feet  ele- 
vation; New  Hampshire  and  Vermont 
south  of  latitude  44  degrees;  Massachu- 
setts: Rhode  Island:  Connecticut:  New 
York  south  of  latitude  44  degrees,  except 
Long  Island:  Northern  New  Jersey  above 
500  feet  elevation;  Pennsylvania  east  of 
the  Susquehanna  river  and  above  500  feet 
elevation,  north  of  latitude  41  degrees 
west  to  the  Allegheny  river,  and  that  por- 
tion of  the  state  lying  north  of  the  Ohio 
river:  Ohio  and  Indiana  north  of  latitude 
40  degrees:  and  the  lower  peninsula  of 
Michigan.  The  Annapolis  valley  of  Nova 
Scotia,  the  North  Atlantic  coast,  the  lake 
region  of  Western  New  York.  Ohio  and 
Michigan,  and  the  Hudson  river  valley  are 
the  leading  features  of  District  No.  2. 
This  may  he  considered  the  northern 
grape,  peach  and  winter  apple  district. 

.Vpples 
Highly  recommended — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Gravens=tein:  Jonathan: 
Northern  Spy:  Peck  Pleasant:  Rhode  Isl- 
and Greening;  Shiawassee  Beauty:  Weal- 
thy. Kitchen  and  market:  Baldwin: 
Maiden  Blush:  Mann:  Oldenburg.  Duchess 
of;  Red  Astrachan;  Roxbury  Russet:  Tol- 


man  Sweet:  Twenty  Ounce  (Cayuga  Red- 
streak)  ;  Yellow  Transparent.  Dessert  and 
market:  Bailey  Sweet;  Chenango  Straw- 
berry; Early  Strawberry;  Fameuse 
(Snow);  Golden  Russet  (N.  Y.) ;  Hub- 
bardston  Nonsuch;  Mcintosh;  Peach  of 
Montreal;  Porter;  Red  Canada;  Sutton 
Beauty:  Tompkins  King;  Wagener;  Wash- 
ington Strawberry;  Westfield  Seek-no- 
further.  Dessert  and  kitchen :  Early  Har- 
vest; Fall  Harvey;  Golden  Sweet.  Market: 
Ben  Davis;  Domine;  Fanny;  Stark;  Tet- 
ofski.  Dessert:  Benoni;  Bough,  Sweet: 
Bullock  (American  Golden  Russet) ;  Dyer 
(Pomme  Royal) ;  Early  Joe:  Esopus  Spitz- 
enburg:  Grimes  Golden;  Hightop  Sweet; 
Hunt  Russet:  Jefferis:  Jewett  Red  (Nod- 
head)  ;  Summer  Pearmain.  Kitchen:  Gid- 
eon;  Green  Sweet;   Munson. 

Recommended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Foundling;  Green  Newtown; 
Rolfe  (Macomber) :  Rome  Beauty:  Wine- 
sap:  Yellow  Bellflower;  Yellow  Newtown 
(Albemarle).  Kitchen  and  market:  Al- 
exander; Arkansas  (Mammoth  Black 
Tivig) :  Belle  Bonne;  Blenheim;  Boro- 
vinka;  Buckingham  (Fall  Queen):  Clay- 
ton: Dan  vers  Sweet;  Early  Pennock; 
Haas  (Fall  Queen.  Gros  Pomier) :  Irish 
Peach;  Kirkbridge  White;  Lowell;  North- 
western Greening:  Ohio  Pippin  (Shan- 
non): Pewaukee:  Ramsdell  Sweet:  Red- 
stripe;  Scott  Winter;  Smith  Cider;  Sum- 
mer Queen;  Titovka;  Vandevere:  Wolf 
River.  Dessert  and  market:  Arnold;  Blue 
Pearmain;  Buncombe  (Red  Winter  Pear- 
main)  ;  Canada  Reinette;  Champlain  (Ny- 
ack  Pippin):  Cogswell;  Jacobs  Sweet: 
Lady  (Lady  Apple);  Lawver;  McMahon; 
Melon,  Norton;  Minister;  Ohio  Nonpareil: 
Ortley;  Plumb  Cider;  Red  June,  Carolina; 
Saint  Lawrence:  Swayzie  Pomme  Gris; 
White  Pearmain  (W.  W.  Pearmain) : 
White  Pippin:  Williams  Favorite;  York 
Imperial  (Johnson's  Fine  Winter).  Des- 
sert and  kitchen:  Broadwall  Sweet:  Fall 
Pippin;  Golding  (American  Golden  Pip- 
pin): Jersey  Sweet;  Kinnard:  Lady 
Sweet:  Pease.  Walter;  Perry  Russet; 
Rambo;  Ribston  Pippin;  Roman  Stem; 
Sweet  Winesa".  Kitchen,  and  cider:  Gil- 
pin (Little  Red  Romanife).  Market: 
Bethel:  Bietigheimer,  Red:  Clyde  Beauty; 
Cooper:   Cooper  Market:   English  Russet; 


194 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICrLTURE 


Fallawater  (Tulpehocken) ;  Fall  Jennet- 
ing; Gano;  Lansingburg;  Limbertwig; 
Nickajack;  Ontario;  Ralls  Genet  {Janet, 
'Neverfail) :  Walbridge  (Edgar  Red- 
streak)  ;  Willow  Twig.  Dessei-f:  Autumn 
Bough;  Autumn  Swaar;  Belmont;  Black, 
Jersey;  Cornall  Fancy;  Evening  Party; 
Fall  Wine;  Garden  Royal;  Late  Straw- 
berry; Louise,  Princess;  McLellan;  Moth- 
er; Newtown  Spitzenburg;  Pomme  Gris; 
Primate;  Russell;  Sops  of  Wine;  Sterling 
(American  Beauty)  ;  Summer  Rose; 
Swaar.  Kitchen:  Bentley;  Ewalt;  Fall 
Orange;  Keswick  Codling;  Longfield; 
Moore  Sweet;  Pumpkin  Sweet  (Pound 
Sweet);  Quince,  Cole;  Smokehouse;  Swit- 
zer.    Cider:  Hewes. 

Recommended  foe  trial — Dessert,  kitch- 
en and  market:  Brown  (Xottinffham 
Brown):  Donneghan;  Lehigh  Greening; 
Saint  Johnsbury.  Kitchen  and  market: 
Antonovka;  Arctic;  Whinery.  Dessert 
and  kitchen:     Krauser. 

.ipples,  Crab 

Highly  reco.m mended — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Whitney.  Cider,  kitchen 
and  market:  Montreal.  Kitchen  and  m,ar- 
ket:  Hyslop;  Marengo;  Martha;  Tran- 
scendent.    Dessert:    Van  Wyck. 

Recommended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Jumbo.  Kitchen  and  market: 
Beach;  Elgin;  Minnesota;  Queen  Choice; 
Yellow  Siberian.  Dessert  and  kitchen: 
Island  Gem.  Kitchen:  Excelsior;  Orange; 
Red  Siberian. 

DISTRICT  NO.  3 

Long  Island;  New  Jersey,  except  a  small 
portion  north;  Eastern  Pennsylvania,  be- 
low 500  feet  elevation;  Delaware;  the 
District  of  Columbia;  and  those  portions 
of  Maryland  and  Virginia  below  500  feet 
elevation.  This  is  the  Delaware  and 
Chesapeake  bay  district.  Though  a  small 
district,  its  productive  capacity  of  the 
fruits  that  succeed  within  its  borders  is 
great. 

Apples 

Highly  recomme.nded — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Gravenstein;  Rome  Beauty; 
Staynian  Winesap;  Wealthy;  Winesap; 
Yellow  Newtown  I  Albemarle) .  Kitchen  and 


market:  Ar'ka.nsa.sdlammoth  Black  Twig)  ; 
Nansemond  Beauty;  Nero;  Red  Astra- 
chan;  Smith  Cider;  Yellow  Transparent. 
Dessert  and  market:  Early  Ripe;  Early 
Strawberry;  Hubbardston  Nonsuch;  Ohio 
Nonpareil;  Porter;  Wine.  Hays;  York  Im- 
perial (Johnson's  Fine  Winter).  Dessert 
and  Kitchen:  Fall  Pippin;  Kinnard; 
Rambo;  Roman  Stem.  Market:  English 
Russet;  Fallawater  (Tulpehocken)  :  Fan- 
ny; July,  Fourth  of:  Stark;  Willow  Twig. 
Dessert:  Benoni;  Fall  Wine;  Grimes 
Golden;  Margaret,  Earl.v  Red;  Mason 
Stranger.  Kitchen:  Pall  Orange;  Keswick 
Codling;   Smokehouse. 

Reco.mmended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Jonathan;  Noyes,  Doctor;  Peck 
Pleasant;  Starkey;  Yellow  Bellflower. 
Kitchen  and  market:  Alexander;  Bald- 
win; Early  Pennock;  Green  Cheese;  Haas 
(Fall  Queen,  Gros  Pomier) ;  Lowell; 
Maiden  Blush;  Mann;  Maryland  Maid 
(Maryland  Maiden  Blush) ;  Oldenburg, 
Duchess  of;  Ramsdell  Sweet;  Roxbury 
Russet;  Summer  Hagloe;  Summer  Queen; 
Twenty  Ounce  (Cayuga  Redstreak) .  Des- 
sert and  market:  Bradford  (Kentucky 
Redstreak)  ;  Buncombe  (Red  Winter  Pear- 
main) :  Champlain  (Xyack  Pippin):  Che- 
nango Strawberry;  Lankford:  Lawyer; 
Lilly  of  Kent;  Paragon;  Plumb  Cider; 
Red  June,  Carolina;  Saint  Lawrence; 
Shockley;  Stephenson;  Tompkins  King; 
Townsend;  Vanhoy;  Washington  Straw- 
berry; Williams  Favorite.  Dessert  and 
kitchen:  Early  Harvest;  Golden  Sweet: 
Lady  Sweet;  Oconee:  Perry  Russet;  Rib- 
ston  Pippin;  Summer  King;  Yellow  June. 
Kitchen  and  cider:  Gilpin  (Little  Red  Ro- 
manite).  Market  and  cider:  Horse.  Mar- 
ket: Ben  Davis;  Bietigheimer,  Red; 
Cooper  Market;  Domine;  Gano;  Lansing- 
burg; Limbertwig;  McAfee:  Missouri  Pip- 
pin: Ralls  Genet  (Janet.  Ncverfail) : 
Ridge  Pippin.  Dessert:  Bonum:  Bough, 
Sweet:  Colton,  Early;  Early  Joe;  Jefferis: 
Julian;  McLellan;  Primate;  Sops  of 
Wine;  Summer  Pearmain;  Summer  Rose. 
Kitchen:   Garrettson;   Mattemuskeet. 

Recommended  fok  tbial — Dessert,  kitch- 
en and  market:  Brown  (Xottingham 
Brown);  Rolfe  (Macomher) .  Dessert  and 
market:  Mcintosh:  Sutton  Beauty.  Des- 
sert and  kitchen:  Pease.  Walter. 


APPLES 


195 


Apples,  Crab 

Highly  recommended — Cider,  kitchen 
and  market:  Montreal.  Kitchen  and  mar- 
ket: Hyslop;   Yellow  Siberian. 

Recommended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Whitney.  Kitchen  and  market: 
Transcendent.  Kitchen:  Gibb;  Orange; 
Red  Siberian. 

DISTRICT  >0.  4 

Pennsylvania  above  500  feet  elevation 
and  south  of  latitude  -41  degrees;  Mary- 
land, Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  Mississippi,  and  Ala- 
bama, above  500  feet  elevation ;  West  Vir- 
ginia, Kentucky;  Tennessee;  Ohio  and  In- 
diana south  of  latitude  40  degrees:  South- 
ern Illinois,  below  the  general  elevation 
of  500  feet,  from  the  Wabash  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi: Missouri  south  of  a  line  from 
near  St.  Louis  and  along  the  elevation 
of  1,000  feet  to  the  southeast  corner  of 
Kansas:  Oklahoma  below  2,000  feet  eleva- 
tion; Indian  Territory;  and  Arkansas 
north  of  latitude  35  degrees  and  also  south 
of  it  wherever  the  elevation  exceeds  500 
feet.  The  Allegheny  and  the  Ozark  moun- 
tains, the  valleys  of  the  Ohio,  the  Ten- 
nessee, and  the  Cumberland,  and  portions 
of  the  Wabash,  the  Mississippi,  and  the 
Arkansas  rivers  are  embraced  within  this 
district.  Portions  of  it  are  noted  fruit 
regions,  while  throughout  its  vast  terri- 
tory the  hardier  deciduous  fruits  flourish. 
Many  of  the  varieties  recommended  suc- 
ceed best  in  certain  localities  within  the 
district.  An  exception  to  the  general 
character  of  the  district  occurs  in  those 
portions  of  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Arkan- 
sas, and  Southeastern  Missouri  lying  near 
the  Mississippi  river,  where  the  varieties 
adapted  to  culture  in  Districts  Nos.  5  and 
7  generally  succeed. 

.\i>i>Ies 

Highly  keco.m mended — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Gravenstein:  Jonathan: 
Rome  Beauty:  Wealthy;  Winesap;  Yellow 
Newtown  {  Albemarle) .  Eitche7i  and  mar- 
ket: Arkansas  (Mammoth  Black  Twig)  ; 
Buckingham  (Fall  Queen):  Maiden 
Blush;  Oldenburg.  Duchess  of;  Red  As- 
trachan;  Red  Stripe;  Yellow  Transparent. 
Dessert  and  market:  Bailey  Sweet;  Bun- 
combe (Red  Winter  Pearmain)  :  Paragon: 


Red  June:  Shockley;  Stephenson;  White 
Pippin:  Wine,  Hays;  York  Imperial 
(Johnson's  Fine  Winter).  Dessert  and 
kitchen:  Early  Harvest;  Fall  Pippin; 
Summer  King.  Cider  and  market:  Horse. 
Market:  Ben  Davis;  Cullasaga:  Fanny; 
Gano;  Ralls  Genet  (Janet.  Neverfail) ; 
Stark;  Willow  Twig.  Dessert:  Benoni; 
Bonum:  Bough.  Sweet;  Carter  Blue; 
Grimes  Golden;  Jefferis;  Margaret,  Early 
Red;  Romanite,  South;  Watson,  Carolina. 
Recommended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Green  Newtown;  Northern 
Spy;  Peck  Pleasant;  Rhode  Island  Green- 
ing; Salome;  Shiawassee  Beauty:  Star- 
key;  Stayman  Winesap:  Yellow  Bell- 
flower.  Dessert,  kitchen  and  cider: 
Hunge.  Kitchen  and  market:  Alexander; 
Baldwin;  Carolina  Beauty;  Clayton; 
Danvers  Sweet;  Early  Pennock:  Gilbert; 
Green  Cheese:  Heslep:  Hoover:  Kirk- 
bridge  White;  Lowe;  Lowell;  Mann;  Ohio 
Pippin  (Shannon);  Pewaukee;  Ramsdell 
Sweet:  Roxbury  Russet;  Smith  Cider; 
Summer  Hagloe;  Summer  Queen;  Tetof- 
ski;  Tolman  Sweet:  Trenton  Early; 
Twenty  Ounce  (Cayuga  Redstreak) ;  Van- 
devere;  Wolf  River.  Dessert  and  market: 
Blue  Pearmain;  Bradford  (Kentucky  Red- 
streak):  Cannon  Pearmain;  Chenango 
Strawberry:  Early  Ripe;  Early  Straw- 
berry: Fameuse  (Snoto):  Farrar  (Robin- 
son Superb):  Fulton:  Golden  Russet 
(N.  Y.) ;  Hubbardston  Nonsuch;  Hunts- 
man Favorite;  Lady  Apple;  Lankford; 
Lawyer;  Mcintosh;  Melon  Norton;  Minis- 
ter: Monmouth  (Red  Cheek  Pippin) ; 
Ohio  Nonpareil;  Ortley:  Porter;  Red 
Canada;  Terry  Winter:  Tompkins  King; 
Townsend:  Vanhoy:  Wagener;  Washing- 
ton Strawberry;  Westfield  Seek-no-furth- 
er: White  Pearmain  (W.  W.  Pearmain); 
Williams  Favorite.  Dessert  and  kitchen: 
Broadwell:  Camak;  Golden  Sweet;  Gold- 
ing  (American  Golden  Pippin) :  Kinnard; 
Oconee;  Pryor  Red;  Rambo:  Ribston  Pip- 
pin: Roman  Stem;  Yellow  June.  Kitchen 
and  cider:  Gilpin  (Little  Red  Romanite). 
Market:  Beach  {Richardson's  Red,  Apple 
of  Commerce):  Bietigheimer,  Red;  Col- 
lins (Champion)  :  Domine;  Early  Cooper: 
English  Russet:  Fallawater  (Tulpehock- 
en) :  Fall  .lenneting:  Fink;  Hockett; 
Horn:     July.     Fourth     of:     Lansingburg; 


196 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Limbertwig;  McAfee;  Minkler:  Missouri 
Pippin;  Oliver  (Senator);  Virginia  Green- 
ing; Walbridge  (Edgar  Redstreak) ; 
Yates.  Dessert:  Autumn  Bough;  Autumn 
Swaar;  Belmont  (Waxen);  Bullock 
(American  Golden  Russet) ;  Colton, 
Early;  Cornell  Fancy;  Early  Joe;  Esopus 
Spitzenburg;  Evening  Party;  Fall  Wine; 
Family;  Hall;  Hightop  Sweet;  Julian; 
Junaluskee;  Late  Strawberry;  Mangum 
(Oulley)  ;  Mother;  Primate;  Sops  ot 
Wine;  Summer  Pearniain;  Summer  Rose; 
White  Juneating  (Yellow  May) .  Kitchen; 
Bentley;  Cracking;  Ewalt;  Gideon;  Kent 
Beauty;  Keswick  Codling;  Moore  Sweet; 
Munson;  Pumpkin  Sweet  (Pound  Sweet); 
Smokehouse;  Taunton.    Cider:  Hewes. 

Recommendep  for  trial — Dessert,  kitch- 
en and  market:   Brown,  Nottingham;   Le- 
high Greening;    Noyes.   Doctor.     Kitchen 
and  market;    Maryland   Maid    (Maryland 
Maiden     Blush);     Monsees     (Hopewell) ; 
Northwestern  Greening;  Whinery.  Dessert 
and  market:   Ingram;   Kernodle;   McCull- 
er;  Sutton  Beauty.     Dessert  and  kitchen 
Krauser;   Nansemond;   Wetmore.  Market 
Carlough.      Dessert:     Millboy.      Kitchen 
Longfield ;    Switzer. 

Api)les,  Crab 

Highly  recommended  —  Kitchen  and 
market:    Hyslop;  Transcendent. 

Recommended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
m,arket;  Whitney.  Kitchen  and  market: 
Elgin;  Yellow  Siberian.  Dessert;  Van 
Wyck.     Kitchen:   Red  Siberian. 

DISTRICT  >0.  5 

Eastern  North  Carolina,  South  Caro- 
lina, and  Georgia,  below  500  feet  eleva- 
tion, and  Florida,  north  of  latitude  30 
degrees,  east  of  the  Chattahoochee  river, 
and  above  100  feet  elevation.  This  dis- 
trict embraces  the  Southern  Atlantic  sea- 
board, with  its  many  frithlike  indenta- 
tions and  valleys.  The  climate  is  gener- 
ally mild,  and  within  its  borders  many 
of  the  more  tender  deciduous  fruits  flour- 
ish. 

Apples 

Highly  recommended — Dessert  and  mar- 
ket: Schockley;  Terry  Winter.  Kitchen 
and  market;  Buckingham  (Fall  Queen). 
Market:    Yates.     Dessert:    Bonum;    Sum- 


mer    Rose;     White     Juneating     (Yellow 
May ) . 

Recommended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Jonathan;  Rhode  Island  Green- 
ing; Rome  Beauty;  Stay  man  Winesap; 
Winesap;  Yellow  Newtown  (Albemarle). 
Dessert,  kitchen  and  cider:  Hunge.  Kitch- 
en and  market:  Carolina  Beauty;  Green 
Cheese;  Lowe  Maiden  Blush;  Maryland 
Maid  (Marylan/I  Maiden  Blush)  ;  Maver- 
ack;  Nansemond;  Red  Astrachan;  Smith 
Cider;  Summer  Queen;  Tolman  Sweet; 
Yellow  Transparent.  Dessert  and  market: 
Buncombe  (Red  Winter  Pearmain) ;  Che- 
nango Strawberry;  Clark  Pearmain;  Early 
Ripe;  Early  Strawberry;  Kernodle;  Lady 
Apple;  Lankford;  McCuUer;  Paragon; 
Red  June,  Carolina;  Stephenson;  Vanhoy; 
White  Pearmain  (W.  W.  Pearmain); 
Wine,  Hays;  York  Imperial  (Johnson's 
Fine  Winter).  Dessert  and  kitchen; 
Early  Harvest;  Kinnard;  Oconee;  Pryor 
Red;  Yopp.  Cider  and  market:  Horse. 
Market:  Ben  Davis;  English  Russet; 
Gano;  Hockett;  Horn;  Limbertwig;  Mc- 
Afee; Nickajack.  Dessert;  Bough,  Sweet; 
Carter  Blue;  Colton,  Early;  Early  Joe; 
Fall  Wine;  Family;  Grimes  Golden;  Hall; 
Julian;  Junaluskee;  Late  Strawberry; 
Mangum  (Gulley)  ;  Margaret,  Early  Red; 
Mason  Stranger;  Mother;  Romanite, 
South;  Summer  Pearmain;  Watson,  Caro- 
lina. Kitchen;  Fall  Orange;  Garrettson; 
Mattamuskeet;  Smokehouse;  Taunton. 
Cider;  Hewes. 

Recommended  for  trial — Kitchen  and 
market:  Arkansas  {Mammoth  Black 
Twig)  ;    Heslep. 

Apples,  Crab 

Recommended  —  Kitchen  and  market; 
Transcendent.    Kitchen:  Red  Siberian. 

DISTRICT  KO.  6 

Florida  south  of  latitude  30  degrees,  and 
the  remaining  portions  of  the  state  with 
elevations  below  100  feet,  and  those  por- 
tions of  Alabama.  Mississippi.  Louisiana, 
Arkansas,  and  Texas  lying  below  the  100- 
toot  contour  line  as  it  skirts  the  coast 
from  Florida  to  the  Rio  Grande.  This  is 
the  Southern  Peninsula  and  Gulf  Coast 
district.  The  successful  cult\ire  of  citrous 
and  other  subtropical  fruits  and  nuts  is 
restricted    to    the     peninsula     portion    of 


APPLES 


197 


Florida  and  to  the  Delta  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. Tropical  species  are  only  recom- 
mended for  that  portion  of  Florida  lying 
south  of  latitude  27  degrees. 

.Vpples 

Highly  reco.mmkxded — Dessert  and  mar- 
ket: Red  June,  Carolina. 

Recommended  —  Kitchen  and  market: 
Oldenburg,  Duchess  of.  Dessert  and  mar- 
ket: Shockley.  Dessert  and  kitchen: 
Yopp.  Dessert:  Watson.  Carolina.  Kitch- 
en: Taunton. 

Recommexded  for  tri.vl — Kitchen  and 
market:  Red  Astrachan.  Market:  Nicka- 
jack. 

Apples,  Crab 

Recommended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Whitney.  Kitchen  and  market: 
Hyslop;  Transcendent. 

DISTRICT  >0.  7 

Florida  west  of  the  Chattahoochee  river 
and  above  100  feet  elevation:  Alabama. 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Arkansas, 
above  100  and  below  50u  feet  elevation: 
and  Texas  south  of  the  Red  river  and 
with  an  elevation  from  100  to  1,000  feet. 
This  may  be  denominated  the  Valley  dis- 
trict. It  embraces  portions  of  the  Chatta- 
hoochee. Alabama,  Pearl,  Mississippi,  Ar- 
kansas, Red,  Sabine.  Colorado  (of  Texas), 
and  Rio  Grande  valleys.  The  climate  in 
the  eastern  and  larger  portion  is  warm 
and  moist:  in  the  extreme  west  more  dry 
and  tending  toward  aridity.  A  wide  range 
of  the  more  tender  varieties  and  species 
is  adapted  to  culture  in  this  district. 

-Vpples 

Highly  recomme:nded  —  Kitchen  and 
market:  Arkansas  (Mammoth  Black 
Twig):  Buckingham  (Fall  Queen):  Old- 
enburg. Duchess  of:  Red  Astrachan;  Sum- 
mer Queen.  Dessert  and  market:  Red 
June,  Carolina;  Shockley.  Dessert  and 
kitchen:  Kinnard;  Yellow  June;  Yopp. 
Cider  and  market:  Horse.  Market: 
Gano;  Yates.  Dessert:  Summer  Pear- 
main:  Watson,  Carolina.  Kitchen:  Taun- 
ton. 

Recommenued  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Bryan,  Mrs.;  Jonathan;  Rome 
Beauty;  Winesap;  Yellow  Bellflower. 
Kitchen     and    market:     Bledsoe:     Early 


Pennock;  Green  Cheese:  Maiden  Blush; 
Maverack;  Ohio  Pippin  (Shannon);  Tren- 
ton Early;  Wetsel;  Yellow  Transparent. 
Dessert  and  market:  Bradford  (Kentucky 
Redstreak);  Buncombe  (Red  Winter  Pear- 
main) :  Champlain  (Ni/ack  Pippin): 
Clark  Pearmain:  Early  Strawberry;  Far- 
rar  (Robinson  Superb):  Lawver;  Town- 
send:  York  Imperial  (Johnson's  Fine 
Winter).  Dessert  and  kitchen:  Broad- 
well;  Early  Harvest.  Market:  Ben  Davis; 
Cullasaga;  Domine;  Doyle;  Early  Cooper; 
English  Russet;  Fanny.  Dessert:  Beno- 
ni;  Bonum;  Bough,  Sweet:  Carter  Blue; 
Cornell  Fancy;  Early  Joe;  Esopus  Spitz- 
enburg;  Hall;  Jefferis;  Jewett  Red  (Nod- 
head)  :  Margaret,  Early  Red.  Kitchen: 
Cracking:    Garrettson;    Smokehouse. 

Recommended  for  trial — Dessert,  kitch- 
en and  market:  Wealthy. 

Apples,  Crab 

Recommended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Whitney.  Kitchen  and  market: 
Hyslop;  Transcendent. 

DISTRICT  JfO.  8 

Illinois  north  of  the  500-foot  contour 
line  as  it  crosses  the  state  between  .38 
degrees  and  39  degrees  latitude;  a  small 
portion  of  Southwest  Wisconsin:  Iowa 
south  of  latitude  42  degrees  30  minutes; 
the  Missouri  river  valley  portion  of  South- 
eastern South  Dakota;  Nebraska  and  Kan- 
sas below  2,000  feet  elevation,  and  Mis- 
souri north  of  a  line  drawn  from  near 
St.  Louis  and  along  the  elevation  of  1,000 
feet  to  the  southeast  corner  of  Kansas. 
The  Missouri  and  Mississippi  valley  sec- 
tions of  the  district  are  its  dominant 
features.  The  hardy  deciduous  fruits  suc- 
ceed in  most  portions,  and  commercial 
fruit  growing  has  recently  become  a  very 
important  Industry. 

Apples 

Highly  recommended — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Jonathan;  Rome  Beauty; 
Wealthy;  Winesap.  Kitchen  and  market: 
Hoover;  Lowell;  Maiden  Blush;  Olden- 
burg, Duchess  of;  Ramsdell  Sweet;  Red 
Stripe;  Summer  Queen;  Trenton  Early; 
Yellow  Transparent.  Dessert  and  mar- 
ket: Bradford  (Kentucky  Redstreak): 
Cannon  Pearmain:  Chenango  Strawberry; 


198 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fameuse    (Snoic):    Fulton;    Hubbardston 
Nonsuch;     Huntsman    Favorite;     Porter; 
Red  June,  Carolina;  White  Pippin;  Wine, 
Hays;     York     Imperial     (Johnson's   Fine 
Winter).      Dessert   and    kitchen:    Broad- 
well;   Early  Harvest;   Golden  Sweet;   Ro- 
man   Stem;    Wythe.     Market  and   cider: 
Horse.      Market:     Ben     Davis;     Cooper; 
Domine;  Gano;  Minkler;  Missouri  Pippin; 
Ralls  Genet    (Janet,    Xeverfail) ;    Willow 
Twig.      Dessert:  Benoni;    Bough.   Sweet; 
Dyer  (Pomme  Royal) ;  Fall  Wine;  Grimes 
Golden;    Jefferis;    Margaret,    Early    Red; 
Summer  Pearmain.  Kitchen:  Fall  Orange. 
Recommended  —  Dessert,     kitchen     and 
market:      Babbitt     (Western     Baldwin); 
Gravenstein;    Green   Newtown;    Northern 
Spy;   Peck  Pleasant;   Salome;   Shiawassee 
Beauty;   Stayman  Winesap.     Kitchen  and 
market:  Antonovka;  Arkansas  (Mammoth 
Black     Twig);     Blenheim;     Buckingham 
(Fall  Queen):   Clayton;    Danvers   Sweet; 
Early  Pennock;   Haas    (Fall  Queen.  Gros 
Pomier) ;       Isham      Sweet;       Kirkbridge 
White;       Mann;       Milwaukee;       Monsees 
(Hopewell) :    Nansemond  Beauty;    North- 
western  Greening:     Ohio    Pippin    (Shan- 
non):  Pewaukee;   Red  Astrachan:    Smith 
Cider;   Tolman  Sweet;   Wolf  River.     Des- 
sert  and   market:     Bailey     Sweet;     Blue 
Pearmain;   Buncombe   (Red  Winter  Pear- 
main);  Canada  Reinette ;  Champlain  (Ny- 
ack    Pippin):    Charlamoff;     Early    Ripe; 
Early  Strawberry;  Golden  Russet  (N.  Y.) ; 
Ingram;    Mcintosh;    McMahon;    Minister; 
Monmouth    (Red  Clieek  Pippin):   Ortley; 
Paragon;    Red  Canada;    Saint  Lawrence; 
Townsend;    W'agener;    Westfield    Seek-no- 
further;    White   Pearmain    (W.   W.  Pear- 
m.ain) ;   Williams  Favorite.      Dessert  and 
kitchen:    Dutch   Mignonne;    Fall   Pippin; 
Golding   (American  Golden  Pippin) ;   Per- 
ry  Russet;    Pry  or   Red;    Rambo;    Yellow 
June.     Kitchen  and  cider:   Gilpin    (Little 
Red  Romanite).      Market:    Bietigheimer. 
Red;     Clyde     Beauty:     Cooper     Market: 
Early  Cooper;  English  Russet;  Pallawater 
(Tulpehocken) :    Fanny;    Fink;    Lansing- 
burg:  Limbertwig;  Nickajack;  Stark:  Te- 
tofski:     Walbridge     (Edgar    Redstreak). 
Dessert:  Autumn  Bough:  Autumn  Swaar; 
Black  Jersey:   Cornell  Fancy:   Early  Joe; 
Evening   Party:    Family;    Garden   Royal; 
Hall;    Hightop  Sweet;   Jewett  Red    (Nod- 


head);  Late  Strawberry;  McLellan;  Moth- 
er; Newtown  Spitzenburg;  Sops  of  Wine; 
Sterling  (American  Beatity) ;  Summer 
Rose.  Kitchen:  Cracking;  Kent  Beauty: 
Keswick  Codling;  Longfleld;  Moore 
Sweet;  Pumpkin  Sweet  (Pound  Sweet) ; 
Quince,  Cole;   Switzer. 

Recojimexded  fob  trial — Dessert,  kitch- 
en and  market:  Garfield.  Kitchen  and 
market:  Borovinka;  Green  Glass;  Jud- 
son;  Kaump;  Nero;  Okabena;  Scott  Win- 
ter. Dessert  and  market:  Anisim;  Peach 
of  Montreal;  Shockley;  Sutton.  Dessert 
and  kitchen:  Kinnard.  Market:  Oliver 
(Senator).    Kitchen:    Gideon. 

Apples,  Crab 

Highly  recommended — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Whitney.  Kitchen  and  mar- 
ket: Hyslop;  Martha. 

Recommended  —  Kitchen  and  market: 
Brier;  Marengo;  Transcendent;  Yellow  Si- 
berian.   Kitchen:  Excelsior;  Red  Siberian. 

DISTRICT  yO.  9 

Wisconsin,  except  the  southwest  corner; 
Minnesota;  Upper  Michigan;  Iowa  north 
of  latitude  42  degrees,  30  minutes;  North 
Dakota  and  South  Dakota  east  of  longi- 
tude 99  degrees;  and  the  British  prov- 
inces west  of  longitude  80  degrees  and 
east  of  longitude  99  degrees.  This  district 
embraces  the  upper  lakes,  including  Win- 
nipeg, and  also  the  Upper  Mississippi  and 
the  Red  river  valleys.  Only  the  hardier 
fruits  succeed,  but  fair  progress  has  been 
made  in  recent  years  in  developing  vari- 
eties adapted  to  this  region. 

.Vpples 

Highly  recommended  —  Kitchen  and 
market:  Wolf  River.    Market:  W^indsor. 

Recommended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Malinda;  Ogle  (Winter  Snow). 
Kitchen  and  market:  Antonovka;  Haas 
(Fall  Queen,  Gros  Pomier);  Hibernal; 
Kaump:  Livland  Raspberry  {Lowland 
Raspberry);  Maiden  Blush:  Milwaukee; 
Newell;  Northwestern  Greening;  Okabe- 
na; Patten  Greening;  Peter:  Trenton 
Early;  Yellow  Transparent.  Dessert  and 
market:  Anisim:  Charlamoff;  Golden  Rus- 
set (N.  Y.):  McMahon;  Peach  of  Montre- 
al; Plumb  Cider;  Saint  Lawrence;  I'tter. 
Dessert  and  kitchen:  Perry  Russet:  Sweet 


APPLES 


199 


Winesap.  Market:  English  Russet;  Peer- 
less; Tetofski:  Walbridge  {E(Jgar  Red- 
streak).    Kitchen:  Longfield;   Switzer. 

Recommended  for  trial — Dessert,  kitch- 
en and  market:  Garfield.  Kitchen  and 
market:  Borovinka;  Cross;  Green  Glass: 
Judson;  Perfection;  Raspberry;  Scott 
Winter.  Dessert  and.  market:  Mcintosh. 
Dessert  and  kitchen:  Christmas;  White 
Pigeon.  Market:  Gano.  Dessert:  Grimes 
Golden.    Kitchen:  Gideon. 

Apples,  Cral) 

Highly  recommended  —  Kitchen  and 
market:  Beach;  Hyslop. 

Recommended — Kitchen  and  market: 
Brier. 

DISTRICT   \0.   10 

Nebraska,  Kansas  and  Oklahoma  above 
2,000  elevation;  Texas  above  2,000  feet 
elevation  and  north  of  the  Red  river  and 
latitude  35  degrees;  also  Eastern  Colorado 
below  5,000  feet.  This  is  the  Central 
Plain  and  Foothill  district.  It  lies  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Continental  Divide. 
There  are  small  sections,  especially  in 
Eastern  Colorado,  where  the  apple  and 
other  hardy  fruits  are  very  successfully 
grown. 

Northwestern  Texas  above  1,000  feet 
in  elevation,  south  of  the  Red  river  and 
latitude  35  degrees  and  east  of  longitude 
103  degrees  and  the  Pecos  and  Rio  Grande 
rivers.  This  may  be  accepted  as  an  exten- 
sion southward  of  District  No.  10,  with 
very  similar  conditions,  but  a  warmer 
and  more  southern  climate. 

-Vpples 

Highly  recommended — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Jonathan;  Rome  Beauty; 
Wealthy;  Winesap.  Kitchen  and  market: 
Oldenburg,  Duchess  of;  Yellow  Transpar- 
ent. Dessert  and  market:  Paragon; 
Plumb  Cider;  Red  June,  Carolina;  York 
Imperial  (Johnson's  Fine  Winter).  Des- 
sert and  kitchen:  Roman  Stem.  Market: 
Ben  Davis;  Missouri  Pippin. 

Recommended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Gravenstein;  Rhode  Island 
Greening;  Yellow  Newtown  (Albemarle). 
Kitchen  and  market:  Arkansas  (Mam- 
moth Black  Twip) :  Baldwin;  Haas  (Fall 
Queen.  Gros  Pomier) :  Maiden  Blush; 
Northwestern  Greening;  Pewaukee;  Rams- 


dell  Sweet;  Red  Astrachan;  Smith  Cider; 
Wolf  River.  Dessert  and  market:  Bailey 
Sweet;  Chenango  Strawberry;  Fameuse 
(Sno%o);  Hubbardston  Nonsuch;  Hunts- 
man Favorite;  Lawver;  McMahon;  Port- 
er; Westfield  Seek-no-further;  White 
Pearmain  (W.  W.  Pearmain) ;  Wine, 
Hays.  Dessert  and  kitchen:  Early  Har- 
vest; Fall  Pippin;  Perry  Russet;  Ranibo. 
Market:  Cooper  Market;  Early  Cooper; 
English  Russet;  Fallawater  (Tulpehock- 
en)  ;  Fall  Jenneting;  Gano;  Limbertwig; 
Ralls  Genet  (Janet.  Xeverfail) :  Stark; 
Walbridge  (Edgar  Redstreak)  ;  Willow 
Twig.  Dessert:  Autumn  Bough:  Benoni; 
Esopus  Spitzenburg;  Grimes  Golden;  .lef- 
feris;  Late  Strawberry;  Sops  of  Wine; 
Swaar.  Kitchen:  Keswisk  Codling; 
Quince,  Cole. 

Recommended  for  trial — Kitchen  and 
market:  Mann;  Scott  Winter.  Kitchen 
and  market:  Arkansas;  Maiden  Blush; 
Wetsel;  Shockley.  Market:  Fanny;  Bled- 
soe; Gano;  Yates.  Dessert:  Carter  Blue; 
Summer   Pearmain. 

Apples,  Crab 

Highly'  recommended  —  Kitchen  and 
market:    Hyslop;    Transcendent. 

Recommended — Kitchen  and  market: 
Elgin;  Yellow  Siberian.  Cider,  kitchen 
and   7narket:    Montreal. 

Recommended  for  trial — Kitchen  and 
v\arket:   Minnesota. 

DISTRICT   ]V0.   11 

Texas  west  of  longitude  103  degrees 
and  the  Pecos  river,  and  New  Mexico 
south  of  latitude  35  degrees.  The  Pecos 
and  Rio  Grande  valleys  are  the  charac- 
teristic features  of  this  district.  Consid- 
era.ble  effort  at  growing  fruit,  especially 
the  apple  and  the  hardier  Vinifera  grapes, 
is  being  made  in  many  localities. 

Apples 

Highly  recommended — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Jonathan;  Winesap:  Yellow 
Bellflower;  Yellow  Newtown  (Albemarle). 
Dessert  and  market:  York  Imperial  (John- 
son's Fine  Winter).  Market:  Ben  Davis; 
Missouri  Pippin:  Ralls  Genet  (Janet, 
yei^erfail).     Dessert:   Grimes  Golden. 

Recommended  —  Des.iert.  kitchen  and 
market:    Rome  Beauty;    Wealthy.    Kitch- 


200 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


en  and  market:  Maiden  Blush;  Oldenburg, 
Duchess  of;  Red  Astrachan;  Twenty 
Ounce  (Cayuga  Redstreak) ;  Yellow 
Transparent.  Dessert  and  market:  Hunts- 
man Favorite;  Red  June,  Carolina; 
Shockley;  White  Pearmain  (W.  W.  Pear- 
main).  Dessert  and  kitchen:  Broadwell; 
Early  Harvest;  Fall  Pippin.  Dessert: 
Jefferis;   Romanite,  South. 

DISTRICT   NO.   12 

New  Mexico  and  Arizona  north  of  lati- 
tude 35  degrees:  Utah;  and  Western  Col- 
orado above  5,000  feet  elevation.  This 
district  embraces  the  Continental  Divide 
and  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  it  also  em- 
braces the  valley  and  canyon  of  the  Col- 
orado and  the  sources  of  the  important 
streams  south  of  the  Missouri  and  Yel- 
lowstone. It  affords  a  great  diversity  of 
soils  and  climatic  conditions,  and  hence 
a  wide  range  of  fruit  growing.  The 
species  successfully  grown  within  the 
boundaries  of  this  district  range  from 
the  Vinifera  grapes  to  the  hardy  ironclad 
apples. 

Apples 

Highly  recommended — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Bryan,  Mrs.;  Jonathan;  Peck 
Pleasant:  Rhode  Island  Greening;  Rome 
Beauty;  Wealthy;  Winesap;  Yellow  New- 
town (Albemarle).  Kitchen  and  market: 
Alexander;  Haas  (Fan  Queen.  Oros  Po- 
mier) ;  Maiden  Blush:  Oldenburg,  Duchess 
of;  Roxbury  Russet;  Smith  Cider;  Tol- 
man  Sweet;  Wolf  River;  Yellow  Trans- 
parent. Dessert  and  market:  Bailey 
Sweet;  Chenango  Strawberry;  Fameuse 
(Snow);  Fulton;  Hubbardston  Nonsuch; 
Lawyer;  McMahon;  Ortley;  Red  June, 
Carolina;  Wagener;  White  Pearmain  (W. 
W.  Pearmain);  White  Pippin;  Williams 
Favorite;  York  Imperial  (Johnson's  Fine 
Winter).  Dessert  and  kitchen:  Broad- 
well;  Early  Harvest;  Fall  Pippin;  Golden 
Sweet;  Jersey  Sweet;  Rambo;  Roman 
Stem.  Market:  Ben  Davis;  Domine;  Eng- 
lish Russet;  Fallawater  (Tulpehocken) ; 
Pink;  Gano;  Llmbertwig;  Missouri  Pip- 
pin; Ralls  Genet  (Janet,  Neverfail);  Te- 
tofski;  Walbridge  (Edgar  Redstreak); 
Willow  Twig.  Dessert:  Benoni;  Esopus 
Spitzenburg;     Grimes     Golden;     Jefferis; 


Sops  of  Wine;   Summer  Pearmain.    Kitch- 
en:  Gideon:   Keswick  Codling. 

Recomme.nded  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Gravenstein;  Northern  Spy;  Yel- 
low Bellflower.  Kitchen  and  market:  Bald- 
win: Clayton;  Danvers  Sweet;  Early  Pen- 
nock;  Hibernal;  Kirkbridge;  Lowell: 
Mann;  Northwestern  Greening;  Pewau- 
kee;  Ramsdell  Sweet;  Red  Astrachan; 
Red  Stripe;  Scott  Winter;  Summer 
Queen;  Titovka;  Twenty  Ounce  (Cayuga 
Redstreak) ;  Vandevere.  Dessert  and 
market:  Buncombe  (Red  Winter  Pear- 
main); Canada  Reinette;  Cannon  Pear- 
main; Early  Ripe;  Golden  Russet  (N. 
Y.);  Huntsman  Favorite;  Lady;  Para- 
gon; Plumb  Cider;  Porter:  Red  Canada; 
Saint  Lawrence;  Sutton  Beauty:  Tomp- 
kins King;  Washington  Strawberry: 
Westfleld  Seek-no-further ;  Wine.  Hays. 
Dessert  and  kitchen:  Dutch  Mignonne: 
Fall  Harvey:  Golding  (American  Golden 
Pippin)  ;  Lady  Sweet;  Wythe.  Kitchen 
and  cider:  Gilpin  (Little  Red  Romanite). 
Market:  Bietigheimer,  Red:  Cooper  Mar- 
ket; Early  Cooper;  Fall  Jenneting:  Lans- 
ingburg;  McAfee:  Minkler;  Nickajack: 
Stark;  Virginia  Greening:  Windsor; 
Yates.  Dessert:  Autumn  Bough,  Sweet; 
Bullock  (American  Golden  Russet);  Dyer 
(Famine  Royal);  Fall  Wine;  Family: 
Hightop  Sweet:  Late  Strawberry;  Man- 
gum  (Giilley);  Margaret,  Early  Red: 
Newtown  Spitzenburg;  Primate;  Roman- 
ite, South;  Summer  Rose;  Swaar.  Kitch- 
en: Ewalt;  Smokehouse:  Switzer.  Cider: 
Hewes. 

Recommended  for  tbial — Kitchen  and 
market:  Arkansas  (Mammoth  Black 
Twig). 

Apples,  Crab 

Recommended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Whitney.  Kitchen  market  and 
cider:  Montreal.  Kitchen  and  market: 
Brier;  Hyslop;  Martha:  Minnesota: 
Transcendent;  Yellow  Siberian.  Dessert: 
Van  Wyck.     Kitchen:   Red  Siberian. 

DISTRICT   NO.   13 

The  Dakotas  west  of  longitude  99  de- 
grees; Wyoming;  Montana  east  of  longi- 
tude 111  degrees;  and  the  British  prov- 
inces lying  between  longitude  99  degrees 
and  111  degrees.    The  Upper  Missouri  and 


APPLES 


201 


the  Yellowstone  valleys  are  the  distinctive 
features  of  the  district.  There  is  perhaps 
no  section  of  the  district  in  which  fruit 
growing  has  reached  a  very  high  state  of 
development.  Leading  causes  of  this  con- 
dition may  be  found  in  the  comparatively 
undeveloped  or  unsettled  state  of  the 
country  and  its  great  elevation. 

.\pples 

Highly  REC0M^rE^•DED — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Wealth.v.  Kitchen  and  mar- 
ket: Hibernal;  Oldenburg.  Duchess  of; 
Red  Astrachan;  Titovka;  Yellow  Trans- 
parent.    Kitchen:   Gideon;   Switzer. 

Recommended  —  Kitchen  and  market: 
Antonovka;  Mann;  Pewaukee;  Scott  Win- 
ter; Wolf  River.  Dessert  and  market: 
McMahon;  Plumb  Cider.  Market:  Tetof- 
ski:   Virginia  Greening. 

Recommended  for  tri.\l — Dessert,  kitch- 
en and  market:  Rhode  Island  Greening. 
Kitchen  and  market:  Northwestern  Green- 
ing. Market:  Ben  Davis;  Bietigheimer, 
Red. 

Apples,  Crab 

Recommended — Kitchen  and  market: 
Hyslop;  Martha:  Transcendent;  Yellow 
Siberian.  Dessert:  Van  Wyck.  Cider, 
kitchen  and  market:  Montreal. 
■  Recommended  for  trial — Kitchen  and 
market:   Minnesota. 

DISTRICT   3V0.   14 

That  part  of  British  America  lying  con- 
tiguous to  the  United  States  between  lon- 
gitude 111  degrees  and  122  degrees;  Mon- 
tana, west  of  longitude  111  degrees;  Ida- 
ho; Nevada,  and  Washington,  Oregon  and 
California  east  of  the  general  coast  con- 
tour line  of  1,000  feet  elevation,  com- 
mencing at  the  British  boundary  near 
longitude  122  degrees  and  extending 
southward  on  said  elevation  to  its  inter- 
section with  the  Southern  Pacific  Railway 
in  the  Upper  Willamette  valley;  thence 
along  the  line  of  said  railway  to  the  Sac- 
ramento valley;  thence  east  and  south  on 
the  eastern  rim  of  said  valley  and  that  of 
the  San  Joaquin  at  an  elevation  of  1,000 
feet  to  latitude  35  degrees;  thence  east  on 
said  latitude  to  the  Colorado  river.  The 
characteristic  features  of  this  district  are 
the  Upper  Columbia  valley  and  the  Sierra 


Nevada  mountains.  An  exception  to  the 
general  recommendation  will  appear  in 
certain  portions  of  Snake  river  valley, 
where  the  Vinifera  grapes  and  other  ten- 
der fruits  succeed. 

Apples 

Highly  isecom mended — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Gravenstein;  Jonathan; 
Northern  Spy;  Rhode  Island  Greening; 
Rome  Beauty;  Wealthy;  Winesap;  Yel- 
low Bellflower;  Yellow  Newtown  (Albe- 
marle). Kitchen  and  market:  Baldwin; 
Oldenburg,  Duchess  of;  Red  Astrachan; 
Yellow  Transparent.  Dessert  and  market: 
Lawyer;  Wagener;  White  Pearmain  (W. 
W.  Pearmain).  Dessert  and  kitchen: 
Early  Harvest:  Fall  Pippin.  Market: 
Ben  Davis:  Gano.  Dessert:  Esopus  Spitz- 
enburg;  Grimes  Golden;  Jefferis. 

Reco:mmended  —  Kitchen  and  market: 
Alexander;  Arkansas  (Mammoth  Black 
Twig):  Hoover:  Maiden  Blush;  Mann; 
Pewaukee;  Smith  Cider;  Wolf  River. 
Dessert  and  market:  Bailey  Sweet;  Blue 
Pearmain:  Mcintosh;  McMahon;  Mon- 
mouth (Red  Cheek  Pippin):  Ortley:  Port- 
er; Red  June,  Carolina:  Tompkins  King; 
White  Pippin;  York  Imperial  (Johnson's 
Fine  Winter).  Dessert  and  kitchen: 
Rambo.  Market:  Missouri  Pippin;  Wal- 
bridge  (Edgar  Redstreak)  ;  Willow  Twig. 
Dessert:  Autumn  Swaar;  Fall  Wine;  Late 
Strawberry;  Mother;  Newtown  Spitzen- 
burg;   Swaar. 

Recommended  for  trial — Dessert,  kitch- 
en and  market:  Shiawassee  Beauty. 
Kitchen  and  market:  Tolman  Sweet.  Des- 
sert and  market:  Buncombe  (Red  Winter 
Pearmain);  Hubbardston  Nonsuch;  Wine, 
Hays.  Dessert  arid  kitchen:  Dutch  Mig- 
nonne.  Market:  Bietigheimer,  Red.  Des- 
sert: Bough,  Sweet:  Summer  Rose.  Kitch- 
en :  Keswick  Codling. 

DISTRICT   3J0.    15 

The  coast  sections  of  British  Columbia 
west  of  longitude  122  degrees,  and  of 
Washington,  Oregon,  and  that  part  of  Cal- 
ifornia north  of  about  latitude  39  degrees, 
30  minutes,  and  bounded  on  the  east  by 
District  No.  14.  This  district  embraces 
the  highly  developed  fruit-growing  sec- 
tions on  Puget  Sound,  the  Lower  Colum- 
bia, and  the  Willamette. 


202 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Apples 

Highly  reco.msiexded — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Gravenstein;  Jonathan; 
Northern  Spy;  Rhode  Island  Greening; 
Yellow  Bellflower;  Yellow  Newtown  (.Al- 
bemarle). Kitchen  and  market:  Baldwin; 
Red  Astrachan.  Dessert  and  market: 
Tompkins  King.  Market:  Ben  Davis.  Des- 
sert: Esopus  Spitzenburg. 

Recommended  —  Kitchen  and  market: 
Oldenburg,  Duchess  of:  Y'ellow  Transpar- 
ent. Dessert  and  market:  Golden  Russet 
(N.  Y.) ;  Wagener;  White  Pearmain  (W. 
TV.  Pearmain).  Dessert  and  kitchen: 
Early  Harvest.  Dessert:  Belmont  (Wax- 
en). 

Reco.mmended  for  trial — Dessert,  kitch- 
en and  market:  Wealthy.  Kitchen  and 
Market:  Arkansas  mammoth.  Black 
Twig) ;  Wolf  River.  Dessert  and  market: 
Lawyer;  Red  June,  Carolina.  Dessert  and 
kitchen:  Golden  Sweet.    Market:  Gano. 

DISTRICT  XO.   16 

The  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  val- 
leys. The  diversified  fruit  and  nut  prod- 
ucts of  this  district  are  marvelous.  There 
are  some  localities  in  which  the  subtrop- 
ical species  are  grown  to  the  highest  per- 
fection, and  others  in  which  the  apple, 
pear,  and  other  hardy  fruits  and  nuts 
thrive  equally  well. 

Apples 

Highly  recommended — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Gravenstein;  Yellow  Bell- 
flower;   Yellow  Newtown    (Alhemarle). 

Recommended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Jonathan;  Rhode  Island  Green- 
.ing.  Kitchen  mid  market:  Alexander; 
rioover;  Red  Astrachan;  Smith  Cider. 
Dessert  and  market:  Red  June,  Carolina; 
t\Tiite  Rearmain  (W.  W.  Pearmain).  Des- 
sert and  kitchen:  Early  Harvest.  Dessert: 
Esopus  Spitzenburg;   Swaar. 

Recommended  for  tri.\l  —  Kitchen  and 


market:         Arkansas     i.ynmmoth     Black 
Twig);  Baldwin. 

DISTRICT   >0.    17 

The  coast  section  of  California  lying  be- 
tween latitude  3.5  degrees  and  about  39 
degrees,  30  minutes,  and  bounded  on  the 
east  by  District  No.  17.  Its  character- 
istics features  are  the  Coast  range  of 
mountains,  the  Russian  river,  the  Sonoma, 
the  Santa  Clara  and  the  Pajaro  valleys.  ("6 j 

.Vpples 

Highly'  recommended  —  Kitchen  and 
market:  Baldwin;  Red  Astrachan.  Mar- 
ket: Ben  Davis;  Yellow  Bellflower;  Yel- 
low Newtown  (Albemarle). 

Reco.mmended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Gravenstein;  Winesap.  Kitchen 
and  market:  Alexander;  Hoover.  Dessert 
and  market:  Red  June,  Carolina;  White 
Pearmain  (W.  W.  Pearmain);  White  Pip- 
pin.  Dessert:  Esopus  Spitzenburg;  Swaar. 

Recojimended  for  trial — Kitchen  and 
market:  Arkansas  (Mammoth  Black 
Twig). 

DISTRICT  >0.  18 

*  California  and  Arizona  south  of  lati- 
tude 35  degrees.  The  dominant  character- 
istics are  the  valleys  of  the  Gila,  the 
Colorado,  the  San  Gabriel,  and  the  Santa 
Ana.  and  the  Sierra  Madre  mountains. 
It  includes  the  celebrated  fruit  districts 
of  Santa  Ana,  Riverside,  Santa  Barbara, 
the  Salt  river  valley,  San  Diego,  and 
many  others. 


i)  Districts  I.t,  16.  17  and  18  are  pai-tieiilarly 
adapted  to  fruit  and  nut  culture.  Perhaps  no 
portion  of  the  earth's  surface  is  more  highly 
favored  in  climate  and  soil  and  affords  a  wider 
range  of  crop  products  than  that  lying  within 
the  boundaries  of  these  four  districts.  The 
commercial  value  of  the  fruit  and  nut  products 
of  this  section  is  recognized  the  world  oyer. 

•  No  recommendations  worked  out  for  Dis- 
trict No.  IS.  The  conditions,  howeyer,  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  extreme  southern  por- 
tion of  District  No.  16.  and  District  No.  17. 
The  apple  has  very  nearly  reached  its  southern 
limit  for  commercial  culture,  except  in  high 
altitudes. — Ed. 


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206 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Central  TVasliiiifffon  Dates 

The  dates  between  which  the  leading 
apples  of  North  Central  Washington  are 
in  prime  condition  in  common  storage  are 
as  follows: 

Rome  Beauty,  January  1  to  March  1. 

Jonathan,  December  15  to  February  1. 

Yellow  Newtown,  March  1  to  May  1. 

Spitzenburg,   Janary  1.5  to  March  15. 

Delicious,  December  1  to  February  15. 

Winesap,  February  15  to  June  1. 

Palouse,  November  1  to  January  1. 

Y'ellow  Bellflower,  December  1  to  Mar.  1. 

W.  W.  Permain,  February  1  to  Mar.  25. 

Winter  Banana.  December  15  to  Feb.  15. 
Eli.\s    Nelson 

DESCRIPTIONS   OF   VARIETIES 

The  following  descriptions  of  varieties 
are  some  of  them  from  the  personal 
observations  of  the  writer;  but  mainly 
they  are  taken  from  the  descriptions 
given  by  S.  A.  Beach  in  the  "Apples  of 
New  York."  The  conditions  in  New  York 
and  the  Pacific  Northwest  are  so  different 
that  it  often  makes  a  great  difference  in 
the  form,  size,  color  and  flavor  of  apples. 
Where  we  have  known  this  to  be  true  we 
have  modified  the  descriptions  of  fruits 
given  by  Beach.  With  the  information 
accessible  to  him  at  the  time,  his  work 
is  most  accurate  and  most  complete.  Due 
credit  is  given  him  in  this  connection. 
■  Gr.\nvii.le  Lowtheu 


Alexander 

The  Alexander  originated  in  Russia; 
was  introduced  into  England  in  1S17;  but 
the  exact  date  of  its  introduction  into  the 
United  States  we  are  not  able  to  deter- 
mine. 

The  fruit  is  very  large,  attractive,  red 
or  striped,  coarse  in  texture,  rather  good 
in  qualit.v,  better  for  culinary  purposes 
than  for  dessert.  It  is  large,  uniform  in 
size  and  shape,  roundish,  slightl.v  conical, 
symmetrical.  Skin  moderately  thick, 
tough,  smooth,  glossy,  somewhat  waxy, 
greenish  or  pale  yellow  deepening  to  or- 
ange in  the  sun.  In  the  arid  regions  of 
bright  sunshine,  it  is  often  of  a  deep  red 
color. 

The  tree  is  hardy,  vigorous,  moderately 
productive,  but  is  more  subject  to  blight 
than  some  other  varieties.  It  has  long 
branches,  upright,  spreading  to  roundish 
top,  twigs  stout  with  large  terminal  buds; 
bark  brown  mingled  with  olive  green. 

For  market  the  fruit  is  in  good  de- 
mand from  September  to  the  first  of  No- 
vember, although  it  inclines  to  crack  at 
the  stem  and  calyx,  and  there  is  consid- 
erable loss  by  premature  dropping. 

.Vrkansas  Black 

The  Arkansas  Black  has  sometimes  been 
called  the  Arkansas,  but  the  two  varieties 
are  unlike,  and  should  not  be  identified 
with  each  other.  The  Arkansas  belongs 
to  the  Winesap  family.     Both  originated 


Arkansas  Black. 


J'huto   bii   Maxtcd. 


APPLES 


207 


in  Arkansas,  but  they  are  differently  col- 
ored and  of  different  quality.  The  Arkan- 
sas Black  is  the  most  deeply  colored,  most 
polished  and  most  beautiful  of  the  apples 
grown  in  this  country.  On  account  of  its 
dark  red  color,  its  solid  flesh  and  superior 
keeping  and  shipping  qualities,  it  is  desir- 
able. It  looks  well  on  exhibition,  and  sells 
for  good  prices;  yet  it  is  not  a  good  ap- 
ple for  dessert  purposes  nor  is  it  a  heavy 
bearer. 

It  originated  in  Benton  county,  Arkan- 
sas, about  1870;  the  first  description  is 
given  by  Van  Deman  in  1886. 

Tree  moderately  vigorous;  branches 
long,  slender.  Form  upright,  spreading, 
rather  open.  Twigs  short,  stout;  inter- 
nodes  short.  Bark  dark  reddish  brown, 
mottled  with  scarf  skin,  pubescent.  Fruit 
as  grown  in  the  Middle  or  Eastern  states 
medium  or  rather  below  medium;  but  as 
grown  in  the  Pacific  Northwest,  it  is  me- 
dium or  above  medium.  Form  nearly 
round,  slightly  elongated.  Calyx  tube 
conical,  approaching  funnel  form.  Sta- 
mens marginal. 

Flesh  decidedly  tinged  with  yellow,  very 
firm,  rather  fine  grained,  crisp,  moderately 
juicy,  sprightly  subacid,  and  by  some  con- 
sidered good  to  very  good.  In  this  par- 
ticular we  would  differ  somewhat  from 
these  statements.  We  have  already  said 
"it  is  not  a  good  apple  for  dessert  pur- 
poses." Perhaps  this  may  be  a  little  over- 
stated, inasmuch  as  the  apple  is  so  late  in 
maturing  that  it  is  seldom  offered  for  sale 
in  its  proper  season.  Its  season  is  said 
to  be  "December  to  April,"  but  our  obser- 
vation is  that  it  is  never  fit  for  use  until 
April,  and  that  its  proper  season  is  April 
to  May. 

Baldwin 

The  Baldwin  is  preeminently  the  lead- 
ing variety  in  the  commercial  orchards 
of  New  York,  New  England  and  certain 
parts  of  Canada.  Also  it  is  one  of  the 
leading  varieties  of  Michigan  and  North- 
ern Ohio.  In  the  South  and  Southwest 
it  is  not  a  desirable  apple,  because  it  rip- 
ens too  early  to  be  a  good  winter  variety, 
and  because  it  does  not  attain  so  high  a 
quality  and  flavor  as  in  other  climates. 
It  does  fairly  well  in  the  Pacific   North- 


west, but  is  not  one  of  the  best  varieties, 
and  it  seems  to  be  conceded  that  it  can- 
not be  grown  successfully  in  these  dis- 
tricts in  competition  with  the  Northeast- 
ern states  where  it  reaches  its  highest  per- 
fection. 

The  tree  is  a  strong  grower,  long  lived 
and  vigorous.  It  is  somewhat  slow  in 
reaching  maturity,  but  when  mature  it 
bears  abundantly. 

Historical.  This  fruit  originated  as  a 
chance  seedling  on  the  farm  of  John  Ball. 
Wilmington,  Massachusetts,  about  1740, 
but  it  was  given  the  name  Baldwin  be- 
cause it  was  largely  propagated  by  Col. 
Baldwin. 

Tree  large,  ver.v  vigorous;  branches 
large,  strong.  Form  upright,  spreading, 
eventually  becoming  rather  round  and 
somewhat  dense.  Twigs  long,  straight  or 
somewhat  crooked,  moderately  stout; 
internodes  medium  to  long.  Bark  brown- 
ish red,  mingled  with  olive  green. 

Fruit  sometimes  large  to  very  large: 
usually  above  medium;  pretty  uniform  in 
size.  Form  roundish  to  conic,  varying  to 
roundish  oblong.  Skin  tough,  smooth, 
light  yellow  or  greenish,  blushed  and  mot- 
tled with  bright  red;  sometimes  approach- 
ing a  deep  red.  Flesh  yellow,  firm,  mod- 
erately coarse,  crisp,  tender,  juicy,  agree- 
able subacid,  very  good.  Season  March  or 
April;  November  to  December  in  the 
Northwest.     Later  in  cold  storage. 

Ben  Dan's 

The  Ben  Davis  is  perhaps  as  widely  dis- 
tributed as  any  other  variety  of  apples 
grown.  It  is  not  very  successful  in  the 
extreme  northern  part  of  the  United 
States,  but  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pa- 
cific, between  the  parellels  of  32  degrees 
and  42  degrees  it  is  the  most  important 
variety  grown.  It  is  preeminently  suc- 
cessful in  the  Virginias,  Kentucky.  Ten- 
nessee, Illinois,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and 
portions  of  the  adjoining  states.  Its  great 
popularity  seems  to  be  largely  on  account 
of  its  good  keeping  qualities,  its  good 
shipping  qualities,  the  vigor  of  growth  of 
the  tree  and  its  regular  heavy  bearing. 

Historical.  The  origin  of  this  apple  is 
not  definitely  known.  It  is  supposed,  how- 
ever, to  have  originated  about  the  begin- 


208 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Apple  Leaves,  Showing  the  Vanous  Types  of  Leaf  nf  C-;t-m  Standard  VaneHes^  is^  po^s^ 
Bible  for  those  familial-  with  these  characters  to  identify  >a^^e^t^f  •  w>^°^"  ^l  \-enow  Bellflower. 
nursery   row  and  before  the  trees  come  'nto  bearing       1     Ai  kansasJiia^K.^  Spitzenburg. 

3.   Ben   Davis.      T.Grimes.      S.Jonathan.      9.    King  David.      l-*'_i^°^^^,°f;  jj-Z^y    S     M^Lam. 
15,  Stayman  Winesap. 


APPLES 


209 


ning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  This  view- 
is  supported  by  the  fact  that  before  the 
Civil  War  it  had  spread  through  the 
states  of  Virginia.  Kentucky  and  Tennes- 
see, and  following  the  routes  of  migration 
had  been  carried  into  Southern  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Missouri  and   Arkansas. 

Tree  medium  size,  rather  rank  grower, 
especially  when  young,  forming  coarse 
strong  wood  which  seldom  breaks  under 
heavy  crops.  Branches  strong  with  num- 
erous rather  short  laterals  or  spurs,  often 
inclined  to  bend  or  droop.  Form  upright 
becoming  roundish,  and  in  old  trees  rath- 
er spreadin.g.  Bark  bright,  rather  dark 
brownish  red.  continuously  mottled  with 
fine  scarf  skin,  pubescent. 

Fruit  usually  above  medium  to  large. 
Form  roundish  varying  from  somewhat 
conical  to  somewhat  oblong,  broad,  round- 
ed at  the  base,  often  somewhat  elliptical  or 
slightly  irregular,  sides  somewhat  un- 
equal: rather  uniform  in  shape  and  in 
size.  Skin  tough,  waxy,  bright,  smooth, 
usually  glossy,  clear  yellow  or  greenish. 
Season  from  January  to  June. 


Biickiugliani 

This  variety  originated  in  the  South, 
some  say  in  Virginia  and  others  sa.v  in 
North  Carolina:  but  it  seems  not  well 
adapted  to  the  northern  sections  of  the 
United  States.  It  has  long  been  known 
in  New  Jersey.  Virginia  and  westward  in 
Southern  Ohio.  Southern  Indiana  and 
other  parts  of  the  Middle  and  Southern 
states. 

The  tree  is  a  moderate  grower,  twigs 
short  and  rather  slender;  bark  smooth, 
clear,  reddish  brown  mingled  with  olive 
green. 

Fruit  large:  form  oblate  to  roundish, 
somewhat  irregular,  sides  sometimes  un- 
equal. Skin  thick,  tough,  pale  yellow  or 
pale  green,  washed  and  mottled  with  red, 
striped  and  blushed  with  carmine.  Flesh 
tinged  with  yellow,  moderately  firm, 
coarse,  rather  tender,  crisp,  juicy  with  dis- 
tinct aroma,  mild  subacid,  fair  to  good. 
I?  is  a  good  keeper  for  use  from  November 
to  April. 

Dclicions 
The  Delicious  is  one  of  the  new  varieties 


Ben    Davis. 


Maxltd    Photo. 


2l0 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICL'LTURE 


not  yet  very  well  known,  and  its  market 
value  not  well  established.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  it  sells  for  higher  prices  than 
almost  any  other  apple  in  the  markets; 
but  the  fear  of  growers  is,  that  it  will  not 
continue  to  do  so.  Perhaps  nothing  but 
time  can  determine  this  question.  Yet  the 
apple  has  many  desirable  characteristics. 

The  tree  is  a  vigorous  grower,  an  early 
and  heavy  bearer.  The  apples  are  large, 
ranging  from  72  to  140  per  box.  The  color 
is  a  yellowish  red,  sometimes  striped  and 
sometimes  deep  red.  Form  oblong  conical,- 
with  the  calyx  end  irregular  in  form.  The 
flavor  is  a  mild  subacid,  very  pleasant  to 
the  taste  and  very  desirable  for  dessert. 
It  is  not  so  highly  regarded  for  cooking, 
although  it  is  a  very  good  baking  apple. 
For  market  its  standard  has  not  been  well 
established,  but  we  have  seen  them  in  the 
Eastern  and  Southern  markets  shipped 
from  the  Pacific  Northwest  and  received  in 
prime  condition. 

For  keeping  in  storage  the  same  lack 
of  unanimity  of  opinion  prevails  as  in  the 
case  of  marketing.  We  have  kept  them  in 
our  own  cellar  in  what  is  termed  "com- 
mon storage,"  in  good  condition  until 
March. 

It  originated  in  Iowa  and  has  been 
largely  propagated  in  Missouri,  and  the 
Pacific  Northwest.  It  varies  considerably 
in  size,  color  and  shape,  in  response  to 
Its   environment. 

Early  Harvest 

The  Early  Harvest  is  in  color  pale  yel- 
low, sometimes  with  a  faint  blush,  tender, 
sprightly  subacid,  and  very  good  in  qual- 
ity. It  is  desirable  as  an  early  variety 
for  home  use  and  is  excellent  either  for 
cooking  or  dessert.  It  is  not  desirable 
as  a  market  variety,  because  it  easily 
bruises;  fruit  keeps  but  a  short  time  and 
produces  a  considerable  percentage  of 
small,  undersized  and  unmarketable  fruit. 

Historical.  The  origin  of  the  variety  is 
unknown,  but  it  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  in  America,  and  is  known  to 
have  been  in  cultivation  for  more  than 
one  hundred  years. 

The  tree  is  a  medium  size,  moderately 
vigorous.  Form  upright,  spreading,  round- 
ish, open.    Twigs  moderately  long,  curved. 


rather  stout;  internodes  short.  Bark 
dark  brown,  with  some  olive  green,  lightly 
streaked  with  scarf  skin;  slightly  pubes- 
cent, or  hairy. 

Season  depending  on  the  latitude  and 
the  elevation,  but  generally  ripe  in  .Tuly 
and  August. 

Esopiis  S|)itzpnl)ure: 

The  Esopus  Spitzenburg,  commonly 
known  as  Spitzenburg,  is  the  standard  of 
excellence  for  all  apples  of  the  Baldwin 
class.  In  fact,  it  is  one  of  the  best,  if 
not  the  best  apple,  produced  in  America, 
when  all  of  its  qualities  and  uses  are 
considered. 

It  is  well  coloied  when  normally  devel- 
oped, unexcelled  in  flavor,  excellent  for 
dessert,  and  one  of  the  very  best  for  cul- 
inary purposes.  It  keeps  well  in  cold  stor- 
age, ships  well,  has  for  many  years  been 
one  of  the  very  best  market  varieties,  and 
is  often  packed  in  fancy  boxes  and  sold 
for  high  prices.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
fruit  is  susceptible  more  than  the  aver- 
age, to  attacks  of  scab  fungus,  as  are  the 
blossoms  and  the  foliage.  It  is  not  a 
heavy  bearer,  and  the  tree  is  tender;  but 
it  brings  such  good  prices  that  the  net 
profits  are  better  than  those  from  most 
other  varieties. 

The  Spitzenburg  originated  at  Esopus. 
Ulster  county.  New  York,  date  not  known, 
but  it  is  more  than  one  hundred  years 
old. 

The  tree  is  rather  a  slow  grower,  and 
comes  into  bearing  later  than  most  other 
varieties.  The  lateral  branches  are  slen- 
der and  somewhat  drooping.  Form  open 
and  spreading,  twigs  long  and  slender. 
Bark  dark,  rather  clear  reddish  brown 
and  dark  green,  finely  mottled  with  thin 
gray  scarf  skin;  leaves  inclined  to  be 
narrow;   foliage  not  dense. 

Fruit  medium  to  large;  form  rather 
broad  and  flat  at  the  base,  varying  from 
oblong  rounding  toward  the  cavity  to 
roundish  ovate,  or  roundish  inclined  to 
conic:  somewhat  irregular  and  obscurely 
ribbed.  Skin  tough,  sometimes  waxy, 
sli.ghtly  roughened  by  the  russet  dots. 
Flesh  tinged  with  yellow,  firm,  fine,  crisp. 
tender,  juic.v,  aromatic,  subacid.  Season 
from  November  to  February;  but  in  cold 
storage  may  be  held  until  June. 


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211 


Fall  Pippiu 

The  Fall  Pippin  has,  by  a  considerable 
number  of  persons,  been  called  the  Hol- 
land Pippin,  which  it  very  much  resem- 
bles, but  from  which  it  differs  mainly  in 
the  fact  that  its  fruit  ripens  from  the 
middle  of  September  until  about  the  first 
of  November,  while  the  fruit  of  the  Hol- 
land Pippin  ripens  almost  a  month  earlier. 

The  fruit  of  the  Fall  Pippin  is  large, 
tender,  rich,  very  good  in  quality  desir- 
able for  culinary  purposes,  and  when  fully 
ripe  is  an  attractive  yellow  color. 

The  tree  is  a  stron.2:  grower,  hardy  and 
long  lived,  eventually  becoming  very 
large.  It  is  spreading  or  roundish,  with 
long  branches,  twigs  moderately  long, 
curved,  stout  and  with  large  terminal 
buds.  Bark  dark  reddish  brown,  some- 
what tinged  with  green,  heavily  coated 
with  gray  scarf  skin. 

The  flesh  of  the  fruit  is  whitish,  tinged 
with  yellow,  moderately  firm,  rather  fine, 
tender,  very  juicy,  agreeable  subacid, 
somewhat  aromatic,  very  good.  The  skin 
is  thin,  smooth,  at  first  greenish  yellow 
but  becoming  a  clear  yellow,  and  in  the 


arid    regions   of   bright   sunshine,   having 
a  considerable  blush  of  red. 

In  the  northern  latitudes,  especially  in 
the  higher  altitudes,  the  fruit  will  keep 
nicely  until  January. 

Fameiise 

Fameuse  is  in  its  season  one  of  the 
most  desirable  of  dessert  apples.  It  is 
very  beautiful  in  appearance;  the  flesh  is 
white,  tender,  excellent  in  flavor  and 
a.uality  for  dessert.  But  it  is  decidedly 
inferior  to  other  varieties  in  its  season 
for  culinary  purposes.  Its  market  season 
in  the  Northern  states,  is  from  October 
to  the  holidays,  and  it  usually  sells  for 
good  prices.  It  is  more  susceptible  than 
most  other  varieties  to  apple  scab  fungus, 
but  since  the  adoption  of  spraying  meth- 
ods this  is  kept  well  under  control.  The 
tree  is  of  medium  size,  a  moderate  gi-ow- 
er,  hardy,  healthy,  rather  long  lived,  and 
a  reliable  cropper  yielding  good  to  heavy 
crops  biennially,  sometimes   annually. 

Historical.  The  history  of  the  Fameuse 
is  uncertain;  but  the  preponderance  of 
evidence  seems  to  be  that  it  originated  in 
Canada  among  the  French  colonists  on  the 


Esopus   Spitzenburg. 


212 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Apple  Leaves,  Showing  the  Various  Types  of  Leaf  of  Ceitain  Staudaid  Varieties.  It  is  pos- 
sible for  those  familiar  with  these  leaf  characters  to  identify  varieties  within  certain  limits.  In 
the  nursery  row  and  before  the  trees  come  into  bearing.  4.  Black  Ben.  n.  Delicious,  fi.  Graven- 
stein  in,' King.  n.  Mcintosh  Red.  12,  Red  Astrachan.  16,  Wagener.  li.  White  Winter 
Pearmain.      l.s,  Winesap.  —SclecWd  hii  11.  S.   McLam. 


APPLES 


213 


eastern  shores  of  Lake  Champlain.  It 
has  one  peculiar  characteristic,  which 
made  its  dissemination  more  rapid  than 
that  of  most  other  varieties,  and  that  is, 
it  produces  reasonably  true  to  type,  from 
the  planting  of  the  seed.  However,  there 
is  more  tendency  to  variation  by  planting 
from  seed  than  from  the  ordinary  method 
of  grafting  or  budding.  As  a  result  there 
have  been  a  number  of  varieties  origin- 
ated from  the  Fameuse,  among  which 
are  Bloom,  Brilliant,  Canada  Baldwin, 
Fameuse  Noire.  Fameuse  Sucre.  La  Vic- 
toire.  Louise,  Mcintosh.  Hilaire.  Shiawas- 
see. 

Fruit  small  to  medium  size,  roundish, 
sometimes  a  little  oblate,  regular,  uni- 
form symmetrical.  Cavity  acute,  moder- 
ately deep,  rather  wide,  often  gently  fur- 
rowed, sometimes  partly  russeted:  but 
generally  smooth  and  greenish  re;l.  In 
the  Northwest  it  is  often  a  deep  red. 

Gano 

The  Gano  belongs  to  the  Ben  Davis 
family,  which  the  tree  very  closely  re- 
sembles. It  is  more  highly  colored  than 
the  Ben  Davis,  and  is  slightly  better  in 
quality.  It  is  less  striped,  and  in  the 
arid  regions  is  a  beautiful  light  to  rather 
deep  red.  is  very  attractive  in  appearance, 
and  because  of  its  beauty  will  sell  from 
the  fruit  stands  for  much  higher  prices 
than  the  Ben  Davis.  It  is  a  good  keeper. 
a  good  shipper,  and  a  good  bearer. 


Hiatorival.  The  origin  of  this  apple  is 
unknown.  It  was  brought  to  notice  in 
.Missouri  about  1880,  and  disseminated 
under  the  name  Gano.  By  many  it  has 
been  regarded  the  same  as  the  Black  Ben 
Davis.  It  certainly  resembles  the  Black 
Ben  very  closely:  but  the  preponderance 
of  evidence  seems  to  be  that  these  are  two 
varieties  of  distinct  origin. 

The  tree  is  moderatel.v  vigorous, 
branches  long  moderately  stout,  inclined 
to  droop:  laterals  willowy,  short,  slender. 
Form  like  that  of  the  Ben  Davis,  upright, 
droopin.?,  rather  dense.  Bark  bright 
brownish  red,  mingled  with  olive  green, 
lightly  overcast  with  mottled,  and  streak- 
ed gray  scarf  skin:   pubescent. 

Fruit  medium  to  large.  Form  round- 
ish conic,  usually  regular,  symmetrical: 
uniform  in  size  and  shape.  Stem  medi- 
um to  long  slender.  Cavity  acute  deep, 
rather  broad,  symmetrical,  sometimes 
rather  furrowed  or  compressed. 

Flesh  whitish,  slightly  tinged  with  yel- 
low, firm,  moderately  tender,  rather 
coarse,  moderately  crisp,  juicy,  mild,  sub- 
acid. 

Season  about  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Ben  Davis,  extending  from  December  to 
May.  depending  on  the  latitude  and  alti- 
tude in  which  grown. 

Goal 

The  Goal  apple,  earlier  known  as  the 
Albany,    was    propagated   first   by   G.    W. 


Gloria  Mundi. 


I  Much    Reduced) 


Spokane  Beaut.v. 


ilaxted   Photo. 


214 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HOKTICULTURE 


Peniberton,  Albany,  Oregon.  It  is  some- 
thing lil^e  the  Gravenstein  in  flavor,  ex- 
cept that  is  not  so  acid.  This  tact,  ac- 
cording to  the  propagator,  makes  it  a  lit- 
tle better  than  the  Gravenstein.  How- 
ever, this  would  be  a  matter  of  taste,  and 
the  general  public  might  not  be  of  the 
same  opinion.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  the  original  tree  was  a  cross  between 
the  Gravenstein  and  the  King.  The  ap- 
ples are  large  like  the  King  and  the  young 
trees  resemble  those  of  that  variety.  The 
apples  sometimes  weigh  as  much  as  16% 
ounces;  but  in  general,  they  are  good 
four-tier  apples.  One  peculiar  character- 
istic of  this  variety  is,  that  it  begins  to 
ripen  fruit  along  in  the  early  part  of 
July,  and  from  that  time  on  until  De- 
cember. Any  time  between  .July  and  De- 
cember ripe  fruit  can  be  gathered,  and 
at  the  same  time  there  will  be  fruit  in  all 
stages  of  development.  The  tree  bears 
heavily,  is  very  hardy,  and  its  long  con- 
tinued blooming  period  is  an  important 
feature  where  there  is  danger  from  late 
frosts. 

A  very  interesting  account  is  given  by 
the  owners  of  this  tree  which  illustrates 
an  important  variation.  Going  out  into 
the  orchard  to  spray  at  about  the  usual 
time  in  the  spring  of  1913,  they  found 
this  tree  already  in  bloom.  It  was  spray- 
ed   however,    and    the    blossoms    all    died. 


Two  weeks  later,  the  tree  was  again  found 
in  full  bloom ;  and  that  year  it  produced 
a  heavy  crop  of  apples.  This  tree  was  dis- 
covered on  the  farm  of  David  E.  Junkin, 
Linn  county,  Oregon.  The  account  here 
given  is  by  the  proprietor  of  the  Albany 
Nurseries,  Oregon. 

Gravenstein 

The  Gravenstein  is  one  of  the  best  ap- 
ples in  its  season.  It  is  good  for  dessert 
and  has  no  superior  for  culinary  purposes. 
The  crop  ripens  continuously  during  a 
period  of  several  weeks,  and  for  that  rea- 
son should  have  two,  three,  or  perhaps 
four  pickings.  It  is  ready  for  use  from 
the  last  of  August  to  the  first  of  Novem- 
ber, depending  on  the  latitude  and  alti- 
tude in  which  it  is  grown.  Being  regarded 
the  best  apple  in  Its  season,  the  fruit  often 
sells  for  high  prices  in  the  markets.  The 
tree  is  not  especially  hardy;  but  comes 
into  bearing  early  and  is  quite  productive. 

Historical.  In  Hovey's  account  pub- 
lished in  18.51,  it  is  said.  "The  origin  of 
the  Gravenstein  remains  in  some  doubt." 
It  is  said  to  have  been  originally  found  in 
the  Duke  of  Augustinberg's  garden  at 
Gravenstein  in  Holstein,  and  that  the  orig- 
inal tree  was  growing  there  in  the  middle 
of  the  last  century  11750).  Another  state- 
ment is  that  it  derived  its  name  from 
being  found  in  the  garden  of  the  castle 
of  Grafenstein  in  Selswick;  and  Deil  says 


Quince  Apple. 


Apple  of  t'omnierce. 

Mamted  Photo. 


APPLES 


215 


that  it  was  supposed  by  some  to  have 
been  introduced  from  Italy.  Be  this  as 
it  may,  it  is  a  common  apple  thi'oughout 
Germany  and  Sweden,  and  was  received 
from  thence  into  the  English  colonies. 

Fruit  large  to  above  medium,  fairly  uni- 
form in  size  but  not  in  shape.  Form  ob- 
late to  roundish,  somewhat  irregular, 
broad  at  the  base,  slightly  angular  about 
the  basin.  Skin  thin,  tender,  slightly 
rough,  greenish  yellow  to  orange  yellow, 
overlaid  with  broken  stripes  of  light  and 
dark  red.  Dots  few.  small,  light.  Pre- 
vailing effect  yellow  striped. 

There  are  several  instances  where  bud 
sports  have  originated  highly  colored  red 
fruit  like  the  Gaucher,  Lei'oy,  Red  Graven- 
stein  and  Banks. 

Grimes   Golden 

The  Grimes  Golden  is  probably  as  well 
adapted  to  various  parts  of  the  apiJle 
growing  districts  of  the  United  States  as 
any  other,  with  perhaps  two  or  three  ex- 
ceptions. However,  it  does  better  in  the 
central  sections  than  in  the  extreme 
south  or  north. 

The  fruit  is  a  beautiful  golden  yellow, 
and  is  perhaps  the  very  best  yellow  va- 
riety in  its  season,  which  will  range  from 
the  middle  of  August  to  the  middle  of  Oc- 
tober, depending  on  the  latitude  and  alti- 
tude in  which  it  is  grown.  It  may  be 
kept,  however,  until  late  in  winter,  if 
grown  in  the  extreme  North,  or  kept  in 
cold  storage. 

It  originated  in  West  Virginia,  and  fruit 
from  the  original  tree  was  sold  to  New 
Orleans  traders  as  long  ago  as  1804. 

Tree  moderately  vigorous:  branches 
short,  stout,  curved,  crooked.  Form  up- 
right, spreading,  inclined  to  droop,  rather 
dense.  Bark  dull  brownish,  rather  lightly 
mottled  with  scarf  skin ;  pubescent  in 
spots  and  at  the  tips. 

Fruit  medium  to  large.  Form  roundish 
oblong,  often  flattened  at  the  ends,  some- 
times inclined  to  conic,  pretty  regular, 
sometimes  obscurely  ribbed,  symmetrical, 
uniform.  Stem  short  to  medium.  Cavity 
broad,  deep,  acuminate.  Skin  tough,  some- 
what rough,  clear  deep  yellow  with  scat- 
tering pale  yellow  or  russetted  dots. 
Flesh  yellow,  very  firm,  tender,  crisp,  mod- 


erately   coarse,    juicy,    subacid,    aromatic, 
sprightly,  very  good  to  best. 

Hibernal 

The  Hibernal  is  a  Russian  variety  that 
is  i)roving  valuable  in  the  Upper  Mississip- 
lii  valley  and  the  Middle  Northwest,  be- 
cause Of  its  ability  to  withstand  the  rigor- 
ous climatic  conditions  of  those  regions. 
Hansen  says  of  it:  "This  variety  repre- 
sents what  is  probably  the  hardiest  type  of 
the  Russian  race  of  apples.  There  are  sev- 
eral sorts  closely  resembling  or  almost 
identical  with  the  Hibernal.  Tree  vigorous, 
very  spreading,  productive.  The  strong 
spreading  growth  makes  it  especially  de- 
sirable as  a  stock  for  top-grafting,  prob- 
ably the  best  we  have  at  the  present  time. 
Fruit  large,  irregular,  oblate  to  roundish 
oblate  conical:  surface  greenish  yellow, 
with  a  dull  bronze  mixed  red  on  the  sunny 
side,  with  a  few  dull  crimson  splashes: 
dots  white,  minute,  obscure,  often  some 
large  russet  dots:  cavity  large,  regular, 
medium,  deep,  with  a  large  patch  of  russet 
radiating  out  irregularly  nearly  over  the 
entire  base;  this  is  a  marked  character- 
istic. Stem  medium,  often  short,  basin 
narrow,  rather  shallow,  wrinkled :  calyx 
half  open  or  open.  Core  closed,  meeting; 
tube  funnel  shaped,  stamens  median. 
Seeds  few;  flesh  acid  with  some  astring- 
ency,  juicy,  good  for  cooking.  Early  win- 
ter." 

Macoun  reports:  "Flesh  yellowish,  crisp, 
tender,  juicy,  acid;  core  small,  quality 
above  medium;  season  September  to  No- 
vember. Tree  very  hardy,  a  strong 
spreading  grower,  and  very  productive. 
Although  not  a  good  dessert  apple,  it  is 
fine  for  cooking;  on  account  of  its  great 
hardiness  and  productiveness  it  is  one  of 
the  best  of  the  Russian  apples." 

Hnbliardston 

The  Hubbardston  is  perhaps  as  varied 
under  different  conditions  as  any  variety 
grown.  It  is  therefore  difficult  to  describe 
because  a  description  suited  to  one  section 
would  not  be  suited  to  another.  These 
differences  are  particularly  manifest  in 
the  vigor  of  the  tree:  color  of  the  fruit: 
size  of  the  fruit:  degree  of  smoothness  or 
russeting  of  the  skin ;  flavor  and  keeping 
qualities.    Because  of  this  tendency  to  va- 


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riation  it  has  come  in  different  parts  of 
the  country  to  be  known  by  rliJterent 
names,  such  as  American  Blush.  Van  Vleet 
and  Orleans. 

It  is  a  heavy  bearer,  requires  thinning 
and  conies  into  bearing  at  an  early  age. 
The  tree  is  not  especially  hardy,  in  fact, 
it  is  rather  tender,  and  is  susceptible  to 
attacks  from  diseases,  especially  apple 
canker. 

Historical.  The  Hubbardston  had  its 
origin  in  Hubbardston.  Massachusetts.  As 
early  as  1S32  Kenrick  referred  to  it  as 
one  of  the  most  desirable  varieties  known 
in  Eastern  Massachusetts. 

Jeft'eris 

Fruit  of  medium  size,  yellow,  blushed 
and  splashed  with  red.  Flesh  tender, 
mild,  subacid,  delicious.  It  begins  to  ripen 
in  September  and  continues  in  season  till 
early  winter.  As  a  commercial  apple,  it  is 
not  good  later  than  the  last  of  October,  in 
the  Northern  states,  and  it  ripens  earlier 
in  the  Middle  and  Southern  states.  It  is  a 
good  variety  for  the  home  orchard,  but 
not  for  commercial  planting,  because  it 
ripens  unevenly,  is  likely  to  be  deficient 
in  size,  and  is  not  specially  attractive  in 
color.  The  tree  is  rather  a  vigorous  grow- 
er, hardy,  healthy,  comes  into  bearing 
moderately  early  and  is  a  reliable  cropper. 

Historical.  This  variety  originated  with 
Isaac  .Tefferis.  Newlin  township,  Chester 
county,  Pennsylvania.  It  was  named  after 
the   originator   by   the   committee   of   the 


Pennsylvania  Horticultural  Society  which 
awarded  this  variety  the  premium  tor  the 
best  seedling  apple  exhibited  in  1848. 

Jonntliaii 

The  .Jonathan  belongs  to  the  Spitzenburg 
class.  It  is  very  beautiful,  of  a  brilliant 
red  color,  highly  flavored  and  of  excellent 
quality  for  either  dessert  or  culinary  pur- 
poses. It  excels  the  Spitzenburg  in  pro- 
ductivity, hardiness  and  vigor  of  the  tree, 
and  is  adapted  to  a  wider  range  of  terri- 
tory. In  form  the  fruit  is  roundish  conic 
to  roundish  ovate,  often  somewhat  trun- 
cate, regular,  rather  uniform  in  shape  and 
size.  Skin  tough,  thin,  smooth,  pale  bright 
yellow  overlaid  with  a  lively  red,  striped 
with  carmine.  In  the  irrigated  regions 
it  often  takes  on  a  deep  or  dark  red 
color.  Flesh  whitish  or  somewhat  yel- 
low, sometimes  with  a  tinge  of  red,  firm, 
moderately  fine,  crisp,  tender,  juicy,  very 
aromatic,  sprightly  subacid,  very  good  to 
best. 

Its  season  is  from  September  to  first  of 
November  for  picking  and  marketing,  de- 
pending on  the  sections  in  which  grown, 
but  may  be  held  in  storage  until  .January 
and  February,  if  grown  in  the  colder 
higher  altitudes.  I  have  seen  Colorado 
Jonathans  in  the  markets  of  Texas  in 
prime  condition  in  February;  but  when 
grown  in  the  Ozarks.  they  could  not  be 
marketed  later  than  December, 

Historical.  The  first  published  account 
which  we  find,  is  that  given  by  Judge  J. 


Stayman   Winesap. 


Jonathan. 


Mad-liil  Plioto. 


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Buel  of  Albany  in  1826.  in  an  article  the 
"Utility  of  a  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  Or- 
chard Fruits."  He  listed  the  Jonathan 
as  "Esopus  Spitzenburg.  New."  with  the 
synonym  "Ulster  Seedling."  It  origin- 
ated on  the  farm  of  Mr.  Philip  Rick  of 
Woodstock.  Ulster  county.  New  York. 
The  name  .Jonathan  was  assigned  to  it  by 
Judge  Buel  in  honor  of  Jonathan  Has- 
brouck,  by  whom  his  attention  w-as  first 
called  to  the  variety. 

Loiigtield 

The  fruit  of  the  Longfield  is  below  the 
medium  in  size,  but  is  decidedly  attrac- 
tive in  appearance  for  a  yellow  apple,  be- 
ing clear  waxen  yellow,  lightly  blushed 
with  bright  red.  Its  flesh  is  crisp,  white, 
fine,  very  tender  and  of  pleasant  quality. 
It  is  classed  among  the  fancy  dessert  ap- 
ples and  is  good  for  cooking.  In  marketing 
this  fruit  it  is  necessary  to  handle  it  with 
more  than  ordinary  care,  because  its  tex- 
ture is  so  tender,  and  its  color  so  delicate, 
that  it  shows  bruises  very  readily.  Its 
season  is  September  and  October;  but  in 
cold  storage  it  is  sometimes  held  until 
winter,  especially  if  grown  in  the  North. 

The  tree  is  a  moderate  grower,  very 
hardy  and  very  productive,  and  requires 
much  care  in  thinning,  in  order  that  the 
fruit  may  not  be  deficient  in  size.  Form 
roundish  or  spreading,  dense,  rather  low. 
Twigs  medium  to  stout,  large  terminal 
buds,  internodes  short.  Bark  dark  brown, 
lightly  streaked  with  scarf  skin;  pubes- 
cent. 

Historical.  The  Longfield  was  imported 
from  Russia  by  the  United  States  depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  in  1870.  Later  it 
was  imported  from  various  European 
sources  for  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. It  is  now  frequently  listed  by 
nurserymen,  and  is  being  planted  to  a 
limited  extent  in  most  of  the  Northern 
States. 

Maiden  Blnsli 

The  Maiden  Blush  is  one  of  the  very 
best  apples  for  use  in  September  and 
October.  It  is  pale  yellow,  with  crimson 
cheeks,  flesh  white,  sprightly  and  good 
in  flavor  when  fully  ripe.  It  is  a  good 
market  variety,  especially  good  for  cook- 
ing, and   usually  sells  above  the  average 


of  apples  in  its  season.  It  does  not  ma- 
ture uniformly,  and  requires  several  pick- 
ings to  get  the  best  results. 

The  tree  is  moderately  vigorous, 
form  spreading,  twigs  long  and  curved,  in- 
ternodes short,  bark  brown  or  reddish 
brown,  lightly  mottled  with  scarf  skin. 

Fruit  medium  or  above  in  size,  form 
oblate,  inclined  to  conic,  regular  and 
symmetrical.  Stem      short,      medium, 

rather  slender.  Cavity  large,  acute  to 
obtuse,  medium  to  wide,  moderately  deep 
to  shallow.     Calyx  medium  sized,  closed. 

Historical.  Coxe  described  this  variety 
in  1817  as  very  popular  in  the  Philadel- 
phia market,  and  the  best  variety  of  its 
season  for  evaporating.  In  the  American 
Pomological  Society's  Catalogue  of  Fruits 
it  is  reported  as  either  wholly  success- 
ful or  successful  in  nearly  all  the  im- 
portant apple  growing  districts  of  the 
United  States. 

Mcintosh  Red 

This  fruit  is  a  bright  red  color  and 
very  attractive  in  appearance.  It  belongs 
to  the  Fameuse  group,  but  is  adapted  to 
a  wider  range  of  localities  than  the  other 
varieties  of  this  group.  The  fiesh  is  very 
tender,  perfumed  and  delicious.  Skin 
smooth,  readily  separating  from  the 
fiesh,  clear  whitish  yellow  or  greenish 
washed  and  deeply  blushed  ^with  bright 
red  and  striped  with  carmine.  In  the 
Rocky  Mountains  States  and  in  the  Pa- 
cific Northwest  it  becomes  in  many  cases 
a  deep,  dark  red,  overspread  with  a  thin 
lilac  bloom.  Form  roundish  to  some- 
what oblate,  regular  or  faintly  ribbed, 
obscurely  angular.  Stem  short,  moder- 
ately slender.  Cavity  large  acuminate  or 
somewhat  acute.  Calyx  small,  closed  or 
partly  open.  This  variety  originated  on 
the  Mcintosh  homestead,  Matilda  town- 
ship, Dundas  county,  Ontario,  where 
Allen  Mcintosh  began  its  propagation  in 
the  nursery  about  1870.  It  originated  as 
a  seedling,  and  is  now  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  northern  half  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  very  good  for  dessert, 
sells  well  in  the  markets,  and  brings 
good  profits. 

Season,  October  to  December  or.  when 
grown  on  high  altitudes,  may  be  market- 
ed  until   January. 


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Missouri  Pippin 

The  Missouri  Pippin  Is  one  of  the  well 
known  market  apples  in  the  middle 
states.  It  originate,-!  in  Missouri  on  the 
farm  of  Brinkley  Hornsby,  Kingsville, 
Johnson  county,  Missouri,  from  seed 
planted  about  1840.  Shortly  after  the 
Civil  War  it  began  to  be  disseminated 
outside  of  the  locality  of  its  origin,  and 
its  cultivation  spread  with  such  rapidity 
that  in  a  few  years  it  had  been  planted 
in  Missouri,  Kansas,  Illinois  and  adja- 
cent states.  The  good  degree  of  hardi- 
ness and  vigor  which  it  possesses,  the  ease 
with  which  it  is  propagated  In  the  nur 
sery,  and  particularly  the  habit  of  bear- 
ing early  and  abundantly,  were  the  qual- 
ities which  recommended  it  to  the  grow- 
ers of  this  section.  However,  the  fruit 
is  not  first-class  for  dessert,  and  when 
commercial  fruit  growing  came  to  be  an 
important  industry  it  was  found  that  it 
was  not  a  profitable  variety  as  com- 
pared with  other  commercial  fruits.  It 
was  also  discovered  that  the  tree  was 
short  lived,  and  would  seldom  bear  a 
good  quality  of  fruit  after  the  age  of  20 
years.  The  popularity  of  the  Missouri 
Pippin,  therefore,  rapidly  waned,  and  at 
this  date  comparatively  few  of  this  vari- 
ety are  being  planted. 

Tree  moderately  vigorous  with  long, 
slender,  curved  branches,  characteristic 
on  account  of  its  numerous  slender  twigs 
and  general  crab-like  appearance.  Form 
upright,  becoming  roundish  or  rather 
spreading.  Bark  dark  brown,  mottled 
with  heavy  scarf  skin,  pubescent.  Fruit 
medium  in  size.  Form  roundish,  some- 
what inclined  to  conic.  Stem  medium  in 
length,  rather  slender.  Cavity  acute  to 
nearly  acuminate,  moderately  wide, 
rather  deep,  faintly  russeted.  Calyx 
medium  in  size,  closed  or  nearly  so. 

Skin  thick,  tough,  rather  glossy,  thinly 
coated  with  grayish  bloom.  The  color 
ranges  from  a  greenish  or  pale  yellow, 
to  red  striped  and  deep  red.  Season  Oc- 
tober to   January. 

Xortliern  Spy 

The  Northern  Spy  is  perhaps  the  very 
best  apple  for  Michigan,  being  peculiarly 


adapted  to  the  soils  of  that  region.  In 
New  York  it  ranks  third,  being  super- 
seded by  the  Baldwin  and  Rhode  Island 
Greening.  When  it  is  grown  where  it  is 
best  adapted  it  is  a  first-class  apple.  In 
the  Pacific  Northwest  it  does  not  do  so 
well  as  in  some  other  sections  of  the  coun- 
try. The  fruit  is  large,  red,  tender, 
juicy,  crisp  and  good  for  dessert  or  for 
culinary  purposes.  It  has  a  well  estab- 
lished reputation,  and  because  of  its  high 
quality  often  sells  for  good  prices.  Its 
season  is  November  and  December.  It 
is  susceptible  to  the  attack  of  blue  mold, 
if  kept  in  storage,  and  is  easily  bruised 
in   handling. 

Tree  very  hardy  and  healthy,  grow- 
ing to  a  large  size,  with  large  vigorous 
branches,  long  and  stout,  curved.  Form 
upright,  roundish,  slender  laterals,  some- 
what inclined  to  droop.  Bark  dark 
brownish  red  mingled  with  olive  green 
lightly  streaked  with  thick  scarf  skin, 
heavily  pubescent. 

Historical.  The  Northern  Spy  origi- 
nated in  a  seedling  orchard  at  East  Bloom- 
field,  New  York.  The  trees  were  planted 
by  Herman  Chapin  about  1800,  but  at- 
tracted very  little  attention  until  about 
1840,  when  it  began  to  be  more  widely 
recognized  as  a  valuable  variety,  and  to 
be  more  extensively  cultivated. 

There  are  the  following  peculiarities  of 
the  tree  that  should  be  considered  in  se- 
lecting commercial  varieties.  First,  it  is 
more  than  ordinarily  susceptible  to  "apple 
scab  fungus."  Second,  it  comes  into 
bloom  remarkably  late,  and  this  fact 
often  prevents  It  from  being  injured  by 
spring  frosts,  when  earlier  blooming  va- 
rieties are  killed.  Third,  it  often  pro- 
duces many  small  apples  which  are  seed- 
less, the  result  of  improper  fertilization 
of  the  blossoms.  The  tree  is  resistant 
to  woolly  aphis. 

Oldeiiburir 

The  Oldenburg,  generally  called  the 
Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  is  a  Russian  ap- 
ple. In  European  nurseries  is  called 
Charlmowsky  and  Borowitsky.  It  was 
brought  to  this  country  from  England, 
and    because    of    its    extreme    hardiness 


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221 


became  popular  with  the  settlers  on  the 
prairies  of  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  other  north 
central  states  where  the  winters  are  se- 
vere. It  is  of  good  size,  attractive  in  ap- 
pearance, and  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
Russian  varieties  ever  brought  to  this 
country.  It  ripens  in  the  northern  states 
about  the  last  of  August  and  the  first  of 
September,  and  is  generally  highly  es- 
teemed for  home  use  on  account  of  being 
a  good  cooker.  The  fruit  is  perishable 
and  does  not  stand  shipment  well,  but 
when  carefully  handled  it  may  be  consid- 
ered a  fair  commercial  variety  for  its 
season. 

The  tree  is  vigorous  and  hardy,  but  in- 
clines to  slow  growth  with  age.  Its  form 
is  at  first  upright,  spreading;  but  later 
becomes  roundish:  twigs  moderately 
long,  curved,  slender,  with  dark  brown 
bark. 

Fruit  medium  to  large,  average  above 
medium,  uniform  in  size  and  shape.  Form 
roundish  to  oblate,  regular,  symmetrical. 
Skin  moderately  thick,  tender,  smooth, 
pale  greenish  yellow  or  pale  yellow,  al- 
most covered  with  irregular  splashes  and 
stripes  of  bright  red  mottled  and  shaded 
with  crimson:  prevailing  effect,  red 
striped.  The  flesh  is  tinged  with  yellow, 
rather  firm,  moderately  fine,  crisp,  ten- 
der, juicy,  sprightly  subacid,   aromatic. 


Rambo. 


Itiiiiiier 

Historical. — The  original  54  trees  were 
planted  some  30  years  ago  by  a  man  now 
dead  and,  after  a  very  thorough  inves- 
tigation, no  information  was  found  that 
would  lead  to  a  knowledge  of  the  source 
of  the  original  scions  or  nursery  stock. 
Up  to  the  time  the  present  owner,  W.  W. 
Scott,  came  into  possession  of  the  orchard 
the  fruit  was  marketed  under  various 
names.  The  gentleman  owning  the  or- 
chard at  that  time  had  decided  to  graft 
over  the  trees  to  Spitzenburgs,  and  when 
Mr.  Scott  moved  on  to  the  place  he  found 
that  the  Spitzenburg  scions  had  been 
grafted  in.  When  it  came  time  to  prune 
Mr.  Scott  was  undecided  whether  to  leave 
the  Spitzenburg  scions  or  the  original 
trees  but,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  would 
take  several  years  for  the  scions  to  come 
into  bearing  and  that  Mr.  Scott  was  no 
longer  a  young  man,  he  at  last  made  up 
his  mind  to  leave  the  original  trees  and 
take  a  chance  on  the  fruit.  The  name 
■■Rainier"  was  selected  as  being  suggest- 
ive of  the  locality. 

Tree. — The  tree  is  a  vigorous  grower 
and  is  inclined  to  be  spreading,  there- 
fore, capable  of  bearing  a  heavy  crop. 
Twigs  quite  long  and  slender.  Bark  light 
and  showing  a  few  dots. 

Fruit. — The  fruit  is  oblong  and  slightly 
inclined  to  conical.  Flesh,  yellowish  with 
practically  no  grain.  Probably  better  de- 
scribed as  "buttery."  Skin,  yellowish 
green  underneath  with  an  over-coloring 
of  dark  red.  Slightly  streaked.  Quality, 
much  resembling  the  Delicious,  but  a 
much  better  cold  storage  apple.  Fruit 
picked  during  October,  1912,  was  placed 
on  the  table  at  the  banquet  of  the  Inter- 
national Refrigerator  Congress,  Chicago, 
in  September  of  1913,  in  perfect  condi- 
tion. The  Government  pomologists  say  it 
is  the  one  apple  which  does  not  show 
some  defect  from  cold  storage.  Scald  is 
unknown,  decay  practically  so.  Eating 
quality  seems  to  improve  rather  than  de- 
teriorate. Should  also  say  in  regard  to 
the  shape  of  the  fruit  that  it  shows  the 
five  distinct  points  at  the  blossom  end 
which  is  so  distinctive  of  the  Delicious. 


222 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICILTURE 


Rainier. 


Season. — In  common  storage  from  Octo- 
ber to  February.  In  cold  storage  from 
October  to  October. 

Red  Astracban 

This  is  an  early  summer  apple,  me- 
dium size,  yellowish  red,  some  parts  be- 
ing a  dark  red,  and  causing  the  apple  to 
present  a  striped  appearance,  and  is  also 
overspread  with  a  bluish  bloom.  It  is 
good  for  culinary  purposes  before  it  be- 
comes fully  ripe,  so  that  it  is  valued  for 
home   use. 

The  tree  is  of  medium  size,  a  good 
grower,  moderately  long  liveti.  comes  into 
bearing  young  and  produces  well.  The 
crop  matures  unevenly  and  in  order  to 
save  the  fruit  it  is  important  to  give  sev- 


eral pickings.  The  fruit  is  tender  and 
perishable,  and  for  this  reason  not  well 
adapted  to  commercial  purposes. 

Historical.  Hogg  states  that  the  Red 
Astracban  was  imported  into  England 
from  Sweden  in  1816.  It  was  one  of 
the  first  Russian  apples  imported  into 
America,  and  was  received  by  the  Massa- 
chusetts Horticultural  Society  from  Lon- 
don, England,  about  1S35;  but  this  was 
not  the  first  importation,  for  the  same 
.year  fruit  of  this  variety  grown  in  Mas- 
sachusetts was  exhibited  at  the  meeting 
of  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  So- 
ciety. 

Red  June 

The  Red  June  is  a  deep  red  apple,  and 
derives  its  name  because  in  North  Caro- 


APPLES 


lina.  where  it  originatetl.  it  ripened  in 
June.  It  has  a  subacid  flavor,  flesh  ten- 
der. 

The  fruit  is  small  to  medium,  roundish, 
ovate,  rather  inclined  to  be  oblong,  sides 
unusually  unequal,  cavity  small,  accumi- 
nate  to  acute,  calyx  medium  to  large, 
leafy,  closed  or  sometimes  a  little  open. 
The  skin  is  tender,  smooth,  and  variable 
in  color.  In  some  sections  of  the  East 
the  color  is  a  yellowish  or  greenish  red. 
in  others  it  is  a  deep  red.  In  the  irri- 
gated regions  of  the  Northwest,  it  is  al- 
ways  red. 

Rhode  Island  Greenina: 

The  Rhode  Island  Greening  does  not 
do  the  best  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  and 
the  Rocky  Mountain  states,  but  is  at  home 
In  New  England,  New  York  and  Penn- 
sylvania. In  the  northeastern  and  north 
central  states  it  is  probably  unsurpassed 
as  an  apple  for  dessert  and  culinary  pur- 
poses. As  its  name  indicates,  the  apple 
is  green  in  color:  is  generally  a  deep 
grass-green  in  early  autumn,  but  later  as 
it  ripens  develops  a  more  or  less  yellow- 
ish color.  In  some  sections  of  the  coun- 
try it  has  a  dull  blush  and  occasionally 
develops  a  rather  bright  red  cheek,  but 
never  striped.  Generally  it  is  productive 
and  an  annual  bearer.  The  fruit  has  a 
recognized  standard  in  both  domestic  and 
foreign  markets  and  sells  at  good  prices. 


The  tree  is  long  lived  and  eventually 
l)ecomes  large,  although  it  is  not  an  ex- 
ceptionally rapid  grower.  It  is  hardy, 
strong,  vigorous,  and  usually  pretty 
healthy,  but  unless  thorough  preventive 
treatment  is  given,  both  foliage  and  fruit 
are  often  injured  by  apple  scab  fungus. 
The  form  of  the  tree  is  wide-spreading, 
somewhat  drooping,  rather  dense.  Twigs 
medium  to  long,  often  somewhat  crooked, 
rather  stocky,  internodes  usually  short. 
Bark  olive  green  with  reddish  brown, 
thinly  covered  with  lines  of  gray  scarf 
skin,  pubescent.  Leaves  rather  large, 
broad,  foliage  rather  dense.  Fruit  is 
above  medium  to  large  or  very  large,  quite 
uniform  in  size  and  shape.  Form  round- 
ish, oblate  or  sometimes  inclined  to  conic, 
regular  or  a  little  inclined  to  elliptical, 
somewhat  obscurely  ribbed,  symmetrical 
or  sides  slightly  unequal.  Skin  moder- 
ately thick,  tough,  smooth,  waxy,  grass- 
green  varying  to  rather  yellow. 

Originated  in  Rhode  Island,  and  in  the 
town  of  Foster,  in  Rhode  Island,  is  a 
tree  supposed  to  be  nearly  200  years  old. 
(1914.) 

Komc  Beauty 

The  Rome  Beauty  originated  in  Ohio,  by 
H.  N.  Gillett  of  Lawrence  county,  and 
was  first  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  pub- 
lic in  the  Ohio  Fruit  Growers'  Conven- 
tion in   1848.     It  is  coming  to  be  widely 


Delaware  Red. 


Red  Astrachan. 

Ma-xted  Photo. 


224 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


lUiode   Island   Greening 


Black   Ben  Davis. 

Maxted  Photo. 


distributed  over  the  middle  and  western 
states,  although  Stinson  says  it  is  not 
well  adapted  to  Missouri.  It  is  growing 
into  favor  in  the  Pacific  Northwest,  as 
one  of  the  most  profitable  varieties,  being 
considered  an  early  bearer,  a  good  bearer, 
and  perhaps  the  best  baking  apple  in  the 
markets.  It  is  better  adapted  to  the  mid- 
dle section  of  the  United  States  than  to 
the  northern  or  southern  sections. 

Tree  not  a  very  vigorous  grower  as  it 
appears  in  the  nursery,  but  in  the  orchard 
it  attains  to  greater  vigor  and  good  me- 
dium size.  Form  at  first  upright,  but 
later  it  is  roundish  to  somewhat  spread- 
ing, and  drooping  with  rather  slender 
lateral    branches. 

Fruit  medium  to  very  large,  usually  av- 
eraging about  medium.  In  the  Pacific 
Northwest  it  is  much  above  medium.  Form 
roundish  conic  or  slightly  oblong,  regu- 
lar or  faintly  ribbed,  usually  symmetri- 
cal with  sides  sometimes  unequal. 

Skin  thick,  tough,  smooth,  yellow  or 
greenish,  more  or  less  iliorttled  with  bright 
red,  sometimes  with  a  general  red  color. 

See  Red  Rome  Beauty. 

Flesh  white,  or  nearly  white  with  slight 
tinge    of    yellow,     firm,    moderately    fine 


grained,  rather  crisp,  juicy,  slightly  aro- 
matic, agreeable  mild  subacid,  commonly 
good  but  not  high  in  quality. 

Season  from  November  to  April  or  May. 

Red  Rome  Beauty 

The  'Red  Rome  Beauty"  was  one  that 
I  discovered  in  my  orchard  a  number  of 
years  ago.  I  noticed  in  one  of  the  rows  of 
Rome  Beauties  a  tree  the  fruit  of  which 
was  much  redder  than  on  any  of  the  oth- 
ers. This  particular  tree  has  the  charac- 
teristics of  a  Rome  Beauty  except  in  the 
coloring  of  the  apple.  The  shape  of  the 
tree,  the  manner  of  growth,  the  shape  of 
the  twigs  and  leaves  are  all  of  the  Rome 
Beauty.  In  fact  when  the  fruit  is  off  the 
trees  there  is  no  difference  that  any  one 
can  detect. 

The  apple  is  the  same  in  shape  and  size 
as  the  ordinary  Rome  Beauty  but  has  a 
solid  red  color.  This  coloring  makes  it 
a  very  desirable  apple  for  early  market. 

The  trees  in  which  this  tree  appeared 
were  purchased  from  Mr.  C.  L.  \Yhitney 
of  Walla  Walla,  Wash.,  in  1S9.5.  Nine 
years  ago  I  grafted  a  number  of  trees 
from  this  tree,  and  after  these  came  into 
bearing  I  found  that  they  were  the  same 
as  of  the  parent   tree.     Three  years  ago 


APPLES 


225 


I  took  scions  from  these  and  grafted  other 
trees  with  the  same  result.  Last  spring 
I  grafted  from  the  third  generation  and 
while  these  have  not  borne,  yet  I  do  not 
fear  but  that  I  shall  get  the  same  "Red 
Rome  Beauty." 

J.  Howard  Wright 
N.nth  Yakima.   Wash..  November  26.   1912. 


Red    Rome    Beauty. 


Maxtcil   Phoio. 


Another  tree  of  this  same  variety,  and  to  all 
appearances  identical,  is  owned  by  Mr.  Harry 
Masted  near  North  Yakima.  The  original  stock 
seems  to  have  come  from  the  same  nurser.v  and 
about  the  same  time  as  that  of  Mr.  Wright's, 
described  above. — Ed. 


Fruit  medium  size,  round,  oblate,  red 
with  specks  of  yellow  and  an  occasional 
light  colored  spot,  as  if  shaded  by  a 
leaf.  Skin  rather  tough,  flesh  tender, 
juicy,  sweet  or  a  very  mild  subacid.  It 
keeps  well  in  common  storage,  and  has 
been  kept  out  of  cold  storage  in  an  ordi- 
nary cellar,  until  May  or  June.  Is  a  good 
shipper,  good  for  baking,  and  good  for 
dessert,  for  persons  who  like  the  sweet 
varieties. 

It  is  so  much  like  the  Jonathan  in  ap- 
pearance that  if  it  were  not  for  i.ts  keep- 
ing qualities  and  decidedly  different  fla- 
vor, it  might  be  easily  mistaken  for  that 
variety.     Matures  from  November  on. 

SpiTZENBi'Rii.     See  Esopus  Hpitzenhiirg. 


Ross  Morris 

This  apple,  which  we  call  the  Ross 
Morris,  came  from  the  orchard  of  Mr. 
Ross  Morris  of  Zillah,  Washington,  and 
seems  to  be  a  variation  from  the  Jona- 
than. It  was  bought  in  1898  with  Jona- 
than stock,  from  a  nursery  in  Walla 
Walla,  Washington.  Tne  tree  is  inclined 
to  dwarf,  being  only  a  little  more  than 
half  as  large  as  the  Spitzenburg  and  Jon- 
athan of  the  same  age.  The  top  and  limbs 
are  very  like  those  of  the  .Jonathan  but 
a  little  more  slender.  Bark  yellowish: 
leaves  much  like  those  of  the  Jonathan, 
but  not  quite  so  broad.  Bears  at  about 
the  age  of  eight  years,  or  two  years  later 
than  the  Jonathan;  but  when  its  bearing 
period  begins  it  bears  heavily,  and  re- 
quires thinning. 


Ross   Jlorris. 

Seedless  .Vpples 

Within  the  last  few  years  there  has 
been  in  several  places  discovered  what  is 
called  the  "seedless  apple."  In  Washing- 
ton, Oregon,  California  and  Colorado 
there  have  been  accounts  published  in 
the  papers  of  apples  without  seeds,  and 
without  cores.  Also  word  comes  from 
Scotland,  Conn.,  through  the  Connecticut 
Experiment  station,  that  a  seedless  apple 
has  been  produced  there. 

In  some  parts  of  the  Pacific  coast,  per- 
sons have  undertaken  the  propagation  of 
the  seedless  apple,  claiming  for  it  supe- 
rior qualities  in  various  ways.  Julian  A. 
Dorrance,   of   Scotland.   Conn.,   claims   for 


226 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Apple  Leaves,  Showing  Different  l^pes.  Those  who  are  familiar  with  these  different  char- 
acters are  able  to  tell,  within  certain  limits,  the  variety  to  which  a  tree  belongs  before  it  comes 
Into  bearing.     19,  Wealthy.     20,  Yellow  Newtown.     21,  Yellow  Transparent.     22,  Winter  Banana. 

— Selected  l>u  W.  8.  McLain. 


APPLES 


227 


his  seedless  apples  superior  keeping  qual- 
ities, as  compared  with  apples  of  the 
same  variety  bearing  seeds.  He  says: 
"The  apples  which  were  of  the  Porter 
variety,  were  picked  from  a  tree  which 
produced  six  bushels.  Some  of  tliese 
differed  in  shape  from  the  others,  and  in 
picking  out  those  of  different  shape,  and 
examining  some  of  them,  it  was  discov- 
ered they  had  no  seeds.  He  says  they 
have  the  same  flavor  as  the  others,  but 
the  meat  is  much  more  solid;  and  that 
while  those  with  seeds  are  practically  all 
gone,  those  without  seeds  are  in  perfect 
condition." 

At  present  there  is  not  sufficient  in- 
formation obtainable  to  recommend  the 
propagation  of  any  variety  of  seedless 
apple,  except  as  an  experiment.  We  may 
be  on  the  way  to  the  discovery  of  some- 
thing of  considerable  value,  but  it  is  yet 
to  be  proven. 

Gr.^xville  Lowther 

Stajman  Winesap 

Van  Deman  calls  this  the  best  variety 
of  the  Winesap  class  for  general  cultiva- 
tion. Taylor  remarks  that  the  only  par- 
ticular in  which  it  does  not  equal  its 
parent  is  in  its  color,  which  is  somewhat 
less  brilliant  than  that  of  the  Winesap, 
and  adds  that  it  appears  to  be  adapted  to 
a  wider  range  of  soils  and  climate. 

Historical.  This  variety  was  originated 
from  seed  of  Winesap  in  1866  by  Dr.  J. 
Stayman  of  Leavenworth.  Kansas,  and 
bore  its  first  fruit  in   187.5. 

Tree  nioderatel.v  vigorous.  Form  spread- 
ing and  somewhat  open.  Twigs  below 
medium  to  rather  long,  irregularly 
crooked,  moderately  stout,  with  large  ter- 
minal buds;  internodes  medium  to  long. 
Bark  dark  brown  or  reddish  brown  with 
some  olive  green,  heavily  coated  with 
scarf  skin,  pubescent  near  the  tips. 

Fruit  medium  to  large,  uniform  in  size 
and  shape.  Form  roundish,  conic  to  glob- 
ular, flattened  at  the  base  and  rounding 
toward  the  basin;  sides  sometimes  slight- 
ly unequal.  Stem  medium  to  short.  Skin 
smooth,  rather  tough,  thick,  green  becom- 
ing yellowish,  often  nearly  covered  with 
rather  dull  mixed  red  and  rather  indis- 
tinctly striped  with  dull  carmine.     In  the 


Pacific  Northwest  in  the  arid  sections, 
the  color  is  red,  sometimes  approaching  a 
deep  color.  Flesh  tinged  with  yellow  or 
slightly  greenish,  firm,  moderately  fine 
grained  tender,  moderately  crisp,  juicy, 
aromatic,  sprightly,  pleasant  to  subacid. 

In  this  section  it  does  not  rank  with 
tha  old  Winesap  as  a  commercial  apple, 
and  in  this  respect  has  proved  rather  dis- 
api)ointing.  Season  from  December  to 
May. 

Tompkins   King: 

This  apple  is  commonly  called  King. 
Less  frequently  it  is  called  Tompkins 
Countj^  King,  or  King  of  Tompkins 
County. 

The  fruit  varies  in  color  from  striped 
to  a  beautiful  red  with  enough  contrast- 
ing yellow  to  make  it  an  attractive  ap- 
pearance. It  is  symmetrical,  uniformly 
large,  and  excellent  in  quality,  either  for 
dessert,  or  culinary  purposes.  It  is  well 
adapted  for  marketing  in  fancy  packages, 
and  is  in  good  demand  for  the  special  or 
general  trade.  Its  season  is  from  late 
September  to  early  December.  It  is  prob- 
ably better  adapted  to  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  LTnited  States  than  in  any  other 
part  but  it  does  fairly  well  in  some  other 
parts.  In  the  Pacific  Northwest  it  does 
not  reach  that  high  degree  of  perfection 
that  makes  it  one  of  the  most  desirable 
in  New  York.  While  in  this  section  the 
tree  is  a  ver.v  vigorous  grower,  and  the 
fruit  well  developed  and  of  good  quality, 
it  is  not  relatively  as  desirable  as  some 
other  varieties. 

Historical.  It  is  supposed  to  have  origi- 
nated near  Washington,  Warren  county. 
New  .Jersey,  and  to  have  been  brought 
from  that  place  to  Tompkins  county.  New 
York,  in  1804,  by  .Jacob  Wycoff,  who  gave 
it   the   name   of   King. 

Form  of  tree  spreading,  open;  lateral 
branches  rather  slender  and  somewhat 
drooping.  Twigs  long  to  above  medium, 
curved  or  irregularly  crooked,  moderately 
stout  with  thick  tips;  internodes  long  to 
below  medium.  Bark  dark  brownish  red, 
mingled  with  yellowish  green.  Skin 
smooth,  somewhat  roughened  with  russet 
dots,  fine  yellow  mottled  and  washed  with 
orange  red,  often  shading  to  lively  deep 


228 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


red.  splashed  and  striped  with  bright 
carmine.  Dots  rather  numerous,  con- 
spicuous, white  or  russet.  Flesh  attrac- 
tive, yellowish,  rather  coarse,  crisp,  ten- 
der,  aromatic,   juicy   subacid,   very   good. 

Wagener 

The  Wagener  is  grown  in  certain  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  and  at  its  best  is  an 
excellent  apple.  The  color  is  a  beautiful 
red  with  some  contrasting  pale  yellow; 
it  has  a  fine  texture,  high  flavor  and  ex- 
cellent quality. 

Fruit  medium  to  large.  Form  oblate 
to  roundish  oblate,  broadly  ribbed  or  ir- 
regularly elliptical;  sides  often  unequal. 
Skin  thin,  tough,  smooth,  glossy,  bright, 
pinkish  red  striped  with  bright  carmine 
and  mottled  and  streaked  with  thin  whit- 
ish scarf  skin  over  a  pale  yellow  clear 
background.  Flesh  whitish,  slightly 
tinged  with  yellow,  moderately  firm, 
rather  fine-grained,  crisp,  tender,  juicy, 
subacid,  aromatic,  sprightly,  very  good. 

Tree  dwarfish,  at  first  moderately  vig- 
orous, but  soon  becoming  a  slow  grower; 
branches  short,  stout,  and  filled  with 
spurs.  Form,  as  described  in  the  "Apples 
of  New  York,"  roundish  to  spreading 
open.     However,  as  it  grows  in  Washing- 


ton. It  is  an  upward  grower,  and  branches 
shaped  more  like  those  of  the  Bartlett 
pear.  Twigs  dark  to  medium,  often 
somewhat  curved,  moderately  stout,  usu- 
ally quite  blunt,  internodes  medium  to 
short.  Bark  clear  dark  reddish  brown, 
mingled  with  olive  green,  lightly  streaked 
with  scarf  skin;  pubescent  near  the  tips. 
It  comes  into  bearing  at  an  early  age; 
but  the  tree  is  rather  short  lived. 

Historical.  The  first  historical  refer- 
ence to  the  Wagener  is  that  given  in  the 
report  of  the  New  York  State  Agricul- 
tural Society  for  1847,  in  which  it  was 
said  that  it  was  awarded  second  per- 
mium  as  a  seedling  of  great  merit.  In 
1848  it  was  entered  again  and  took  first 
I)rize.  It  is  said  to  have  originated  from 
seed  sown  by  George  Wheeler  of  Dover, 
Duchess  county.  New  York.  In  1848 
Abraham  Wagener  propagated  it  so  large- 
ly that  it  was  given  his  name. 

Wealthy 

The  AVealthy  is  well  adapted  to  north- 
ern climates  because  the  tree  is  very 
hardy  and  resistant  to  cold.  It  is  some- 
what dwarfish  to  medium  in  size,  short, 
moderately  stout,  curved  branches.  Form 
upright,  spreading  or  roundish,  open  and 
somewhat    drooping.      Bark    dark   brown, 


^Vai;ener. 


Muxttd   Photo. 


APPLES 


229 


lightly  streaked  with  scarf  skin,  pubes- 
cent. 

Fruit  bright  reti.  above  medium  to 
large,  but  inclines  to  be  small  and  to 
ripen  irregularly  on  old  trees.  Form 
roundish  conic,  slightly  flattened  at  the 
base,  regular,  symmetrical.  Stem  usually 
short  to  medium,  cavity  decidedly  acu- 
minate, rather  deep.  Calyx  medium 
sized,  closed  or  partly  open.  Skin  thin, 
tough,  pale  yellow  or  greenish,  blushed 
and  marked  with  narrow  stripes  and 
splashes  of  red,  deepening  in  highly  col- 
ored specimens  to  a  brilliant  red  that  is 
ver.v  attractive.  In  almost  all  parts  of 
the  arid  sections  where  it  is  grown  it 
takes  on  a  rich  color.  Flesh  is  whitish, 
sometimes  stained  with  red,  moderately 
fine,  crisp,  tender,  very  juicy,  agreeable 
subacid,  sprightly,  somewhat  aromatic, 
.good  to  very  good.  Season  from  October 
to   January. 

Historical.  Originated  by  Peter  M. 
Gideon,  Excelsior,  Minnesota,  from  the 
seed  of  the  Cherry  Crab,  which  he  ob- 
tained from  Albert  Emerson,  Bangor, 
Maine,  in  1860.  The  fruit  was  first  de- 
scribed  in  the  Western   Farmer,   in   1869. 

White  Pearmain 

-The  White  Pearmain  is  the  same  as 
White  Winter  Pearmain  and  is  a  very 
excellent  apple  in  some  sections  of  the 
country.  It  is  well  adapted  to  the  con- 
ditions of  the  southern  sections  of  the 
middle  states,  such  as  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illi- 
nois, Missouri  and  Kansas.  It  is  also  a 
good  apple  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  but 
does  not  bring  the  highest  prices. 

Warder  says:     "This  fruit  was  brought 


to  Indiana  by  some  of  the  early  pomol- 
ogists,  in  the  days  of  the  saddle-bag  trans- 
portation. In  a  lot  of  grafts,  two  vari- 
eties having  lost  their  labels,  they  were 
propagated  and  fruited  without  name. 
Bein.g  considered  Pearmain-shaped,  they 
were  called  respectively  Red  and  White 
Pearmains.  The  former  proved  to  be  the 
Esopus  Spitzenburg,  the  latter  has  not 
yet  been  identified."  In  1858  it  was  cat- 
alogued by  the  American  Pomological  So- 
ciety, as  White  Winter  Pearmain.  In 
1897  it  has  been  listed  as  White  Pearmain, 
but  the  old  name  still  clings  to  it,  and  is 
that  by  which  it  is  generally  known. 

Tree  vigorous,  form  spreading.  Twigs 
short,  stout,  blunt  at  the  tips,  generally 
straight.  Internodes  var.v  from  short  to 
long.  Bark  reddish  brown  overlaid  with 
heavy  scarf  skin,  quite  pubescent. 

Fruit  medium  to  large,  mainly  uniform 
in  size  and  shape.  Form  roundish  ovate, 
or  roundish  oblong  conic,  varying  to 
roundish  conic,  somewhat  ribbed,  pretty, 
symmetrical.  Calyx  medium  to  large,  us- 
ually closed:  lobes  long,  acute.  Flesh 
slightly  tinged  with  yellow,  firm,  fine 
grained,  crisp,  tender,  juicy,  mild  sub- 
acid, sprightly,  very  pleasant  aromatic, 
very  good  for  dessert  and  for  culinary 
purposes. 

Season    December    to    March. 

Wiiiesap 

The  Winesap  is  one  of  the  oldest  and 
one  of  the  most  popular  apples  in  Amer- 
ica. It  is  known  in  all  the  principal  apple 
growing  sections  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  Winesap  has  evolved  many 
seedlings  which  partake  more  or  less  of 


Belmont   Waxen. 


Hooer. 


King   David. 

Maxted  Photo. 


230 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the  characters  of  the  parent.  Among 
them  are  the  Stayman  Winesap,  the  Para- 
gon. Arkansas  and  Arkansas  Black. 

The  tree  is  rather  vigorous,  though  not 
a  rank  grower,  comes  into  bearing  early 
and  is  a  remarkably  regular  cropper.  It 
does  best  on  rather  light,  rich,  deep  soils 
and  does  not  succeed  well  on  heavy  clays 
or  in  damp  locations.  The  difBculty  with 
the  Winesap  is  its  tendency  to  grow 
small.  However,  there  are  a  tew  sections 
in  the  United  States  where  it  reaches  a 
good  size,  and  it  is  one  of  the  best  com- 
mercial apples.  Notably  among  them  are 
the  Piedmont  region  in  Virginia,  and  the 
Pacific  Northwest.  In  sections  where  it 
tends  to  grow  small  this  may  be  obviated 
somewhat  by  fertilizing  the  soil,  or  by 
heavily  pruning  the  tree. 

Form  roundish,  spreading,  rather 
straggling  and  open.  Bark  very  dark  red- 
dish brown  with  thin  gray  scarf  skin, 
somewhat  pubescent.  Foliage  thin,  leaves 
rather  small  and  narrow. 

Fruit  rather  small  but  uniform  in  shape 
and  size.  Form  roundish  conical,  nearly 
truncate  at  the  base.  Skin  medium  in 
thickness,  tough,  smooth,  glossy,  bright 
deep     red.       Flesh    tinged    with     yellow. 


veins  somewhat  red,  very  firm,  rather 
coarse,  moderately  crisp,  very  juicy, 
sprightly  subacid,  good  to  very  good. 

Historical.  Nothing  definite  is  known 
of  the  origin  of  the  Winesap.  Coxe  speaks 
of  it  as  being  the  most  favored  cider 
fruit  in  New  Jersey.  From  this  it  has 
been  inferred  l:y  some  that  it  originated 
in   that  state  but  this   is  not  proven. 

Winter  Banana 

The  Winter  Banana  has  not  been  very 
extensively  planted,  although  it  is  a  very 
beautiful  apple  in  its  appearance.  The 
fruit  is  large,  clear,  pale  yellow  with 
beautiful  contrasting  pinkish  red  blush, 
aromatic,  of  good  dessert  quality,  but  too 
mild  in  flavor  to  excel  for  culinary  uses. 
The  tree  is  a  good  grower,  comes  into 
bearing  young,  and  bears  heavy  crops. 
In  ordinary  storage,  the  fruit  is  good  for 
use  from  December  to  the  first  of  April. 

It  is  not  highly  regarded  as  a  market 
variety  on  account  of  the  tender  flesh 
and  color  which  shows  bruises  very  read- 
ily. It  is  so  easily  bruised  and  shows  its 
bruises  so  clearly  that  in  picking,  pack- 
ing and  marketing  it  must  be  handled 
with  very  great  care. 


Pennsylvania   Red   Streak. 


Maxted   Photo. 


APPLES 


231 


Historical.  The  Winter  Banana  origi- 
nated on  the  farm  of  David  Flory,  near 
Adamsljoro,  Cass  county,  Indiana,  about 
1876.  It  was  introduced  by  Greening 
Brothers.  Monroe.  Michigan,  in  1890. 
However,  it  has  not  been  largely  planted 
in  that  state,  and  probabl.v  is  not  well 
adapted.  In  the  Pacific  Northwest  it  is 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful  ap- 
ples grown,  but  not  likely  to  become  a 
favorite  for  the  markets  on  account  of 
its  susceptibility  to  bruises. 

TelloTT  BelUlower 

The  Yellow  Bellflower  belongs  to  a 
group  of  apples,  most  of  which  have  fruit 
predominantly  yellow.  The  fruit  of  the 
group  is  characteristically  oblong  or 
roundish  oblong  and  often  markedly 
ovate  or  conic,  with  the  core  large  and 
abaxial.  cells  wide  open  and  carpels  elon- 
gated,  rather  narrow  and   much   concave. 

The  group  is  represented  by  the  follow- 
ing varieties:  Dickinson.  Flory,  Kirk- 
land,  Mason  Orange,  Minister,  Moyer. 
Newman,  Occident,  Ortley,  Titus.  Pippin, 
Yellow  Bellflower. 

The  fruit  of  the  Yellow  Bellflower  is 
large,  but  is  somewhat  variable  in  size 
so  that  there  is  often  a  large  per  cent  of 
the  aiiples.  especially  when  grown  where 
the  rainfall  is  scarce  during  the  growing 
season,    that    do     not     reach     marketable 


size.  At  the  time  of  picking  it  is  gener- 
ally a  greenish  yellow,  but  as  it  ripens 
it  comes  to  be  a  light  golden  yellow.  It 
is  rather  acid  until  well  ripened  when  it 
is  pleasant  and  luscious.  It  is  tender  and 
easily  bruised,  yet  when  grown  in  some 
sections,  if  carefully  handled,  it  keeps 
well,  while  in  others  it  deteriorates  rap- 
idly. In  California  it  is  one  of  the  best 
apples  when  grown  upon  the  highlands 
or  mountain   sides. 

It  originated  in  New  .Jersey,  and  the 
first  account  we  have  of  it  is  in  1817,  but 
it  soon  came  to  be  largely  propagated  in 
all  the  eastern  and  middle  states  and  is 
now  fairly  well  distributed  throughout 
the  United   States. 

The  tree  is  from  medium  to  large,  vig- 
orous, upright,  with  spreading  branches, 
bark  dull  brownish  red  with  shades  of 
green,  uniformly  overlaid  with  moderately 
thick  scarf  skin,  more  or  less  pubescent. 

Yellow  »wtown 

The  Yellow  Newtown  is  one  of  the  best, 
if  not  the  best,  commercial  yellow  apples. 
In  pomological  literature  it  is  often  called 
Newtown  Pippin,  Yellow  Newtown  Pip- 
pin and  Albemarle  Pippin.  There  is  also 
a  Green  Newtown,  which  resembles  the 
Yellow  Newtown  so  closely  in  all  except 
color  that  it  is  difficult  if  not  impossible 
to  distinguish  between  them  in  any  other 


Rome  Beauty. 


Yellow  Newtown. 


ilaxtid  Photo. 


232 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


way.  As  its  name  indicates,  ttie  Green 
Newtown  is  not  so  deep  a  yellow  as  the 
Yellow  Newtown,  especially  at  the  time  of 
picking,  but  later  it  takes  on  a  rather 
deep  yellow.  It  is  impossible  with  the  in- 
formation we  have  to  tell  which  was  the 
original.  Beach  says:  "It  is  now  believed 
that  Albemarle  Pippin  is  Yellow  New- 
town, and  Brooke  Pippin  is  identical  with 
Green  Newtown."  Both  varieties  differ 
greatly  in  size,  color  and  quality  in  dif- 
ferent locations.  The  Yellow  Newtown 
has  been  most  successful  in  the  Piedmont 
section.  Virginia,  in  the  high  lands  of 
California.  Rogue  River,  Oregon,  Hood 
River,  Oregon,  and  Yakima  and  Wenatchee 
valleys,  Washington.  There  are  doubt- 
less other  sections  where  it  can  be  as 
successfully  grown  as  in  the  places 
named,  but  in  these  se"tions  it  has  been 
tested  and  proven  commercially  very  suc- 
cessful. 

Tree  rather  a  slow  grower.  Form 
spreading  or  roundish,  rather  dense. 
Twigs  medium  in  length  and  thickness, 
pubescent  near  the  tips.  Bark  clear,  dark, 
brownish  red,  lightl.v  streaks  1  with  scarf 
skin.  Fruit  medium  to  very  large,  pretty 
uniform  in  size  but  rather  variable  in 
coloring.  This  rule,  however,  does  not 
apply  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  where  the 
coloring  is  more  uniform.  Form  of  fruit 
roundish  oblate  and  more  or  less  angular. 
Skin  rather  tough,  smooth,  yellowish  at 
harvest  with  a  tendency  to  a  pink  blush 
on  the  sunny  side.  Season  from  February 
to  May. 


Yellow  Transparent 

This  is  one  of  the  best  early  apples, 
ripening  in  July  and  August,  depending 
on  the  latitude  in  which  it  is  grown.  It 
is  very  good  for  culinary  purposes  and 
acceptable  for  dessert.  It  is  a  good  bearer, 
and  the  tree  a  vigorous  grower,  but  on 
account  of  its  delicate  color  and  tender 
skin,  it  is  not  a  good  shipper.  It  is  gen- 
erally believed  that  this  tree,  more  than 
most  other  varieties,  is  subject  to 
"blight,"  "fire  blight"  or  "pear  blight." 

Historical.  This  variety  was  imported 
from  Russia  by  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  In  1870.  It  first 
became  popular  by  the  attention  given  it 
by  Dr.  T.  H.  Hoskins,  Newport,  Vermont, 
and  has  been  more  or  less  propagated  in 
all  the  apple  growing  regions  of  the 
United   States. 

The  fruit  is  medium  or  above  medium, 
sometimes  large,  and  generally  uniform 
in  shape.  Form  roundish  ovate  to  round- 
ish conic  or  oblate,  conic,  slightly  ribbed, 
sides  unequal.  Stem  medium  to  long, 
rather  thick.  Cavity  acute  or  approach- 
ing obtuse,  medium  to  deep,  rather  nar- 
row, somewhat  abrupt,  furrowed  and 
slightly  wrinkled.  Skin  thin,  tender, 
smooth,  waxy,  pale  greenish  yellow, 
changing  to  an  attractive  yellowish 
white  as  it  approaches  the  ripening  period. 
Dots  moderately  numerous,  greenish  and 
light  colored,  often  submerged.  Calyx 
tubes  conical.  Stamens  marginal.  Core 
medium  to  small.  Flesh  white,  moder- 
ately  firm,     fine    .grained,    crisp,    tender. 


Yollow   Transparent. 


Roxbury    Russet. 

Alaxted  Photo. 


APPLES 


233 


juicy,    subacid    with    a    pleasant   but    not 
high  flavor. 

York  Imperial 

The  York  Imperial  is  an  important  ap- 
ple which  Is  grown  commercially  in  the 
middle  Atlantic  states  and  over  a  belt  of 
country  extending  from  these  states  west- 
ward into  Missouri  and  Kansas.  The 
tree  is  a  thrifty,  vigorous  grower,  and 
pretty  regular  annual  or  biennial  bearer. 
It  seems  to  prefer  rather  heavy  clay  soils 
and  seldom  does  well  on  soils  that  are 
light  or  in  any  way  thin  or  leachy.  When 
properly  developed  the  fruit  is  large, 
finely  colored  and  of  good  quality.  There 
are  some  objections  to  it  on  account  of 
the  shape  of  the  fruit,  which  is  oblique 
or  lop-sided,  and  consequently  difficult  to 
pare  with  a  machine.  Storage  men  give 
its  season  in  cellar  storage  as  extending 
to  December,  and  in  cold  storage  to  Feb- 
ruary. It  stands  heat  fairly  well  before 
going  into  storage,  but  often  scalds  badly 
and  when  it  begins  to  deteriorate  goes 
down  rather  quickly.  It  seems  not  well 
adapted  to  the  northern  sections  of  the 
apple  districts  of  the  United  States,  as 
it  does  not  color  well.  However,  in  the 
Pacific  Northwest,  where  the  sunshine  is 
bright,  this  would  not  be  true. 

Historical.  It  originated  at  York, 
Pennsylvania,  about  the  year  1830.  It 
soon  became  a  leading  market  variety  of 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland  and  Virginia,  and 
was  exhibited  at  the  State  Pomological 
Society  of  Ohio  in  1855. 

Tree  vigorous  or  moderately  vigorous. 
Form  upright,  spreading  or  roundish, 
rather  dense.  Twigs  short,  above  me- 
dium, straight  or  nearly  so,  stout  or  mod- 
erately stout  and  tapering  at  the  tips; 
internodes  medium  to  long:  bark  dull 
brownish   red. 

Fruit  rather  uniform  in  size  and  shape, 
medium  to  large,  roundish,  oblate  or 
truncate,  usually  wath  an  oblique  axis. 
Flesh  yellowish,  firm,  crisp,  somewhat 
breaking,  a  little  coarse,  moderately  ten- 
der, moderately  juicy,  subacid  to  nearly 
sweet. 

TEXDE>TY    TO    FEWER   VARIETIE.S 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  va- 
rieties  to  plant,   it   is   well   to   remember 


that  for  commercial  orcharding  the  tend- 
ency is  toward  the  planting  of  a  few  well- 
adapted  varieties.     G.  B.  Brackett  says: 

"Owing  to  the  greatly  diversified  soil 
and  climatic  conditions  that  exist  through- 
out the  territory  of  the  United  States,  it 
would  not  be  safe  to  attempt  to  give  more 
than  general  advice  on  the  subject  of  va- 
rieties to  plant.  Among  the  very  extended 
list  of  cultivated  varieties  of  merit  there 
are  few,  if  any,  sections  where  the  apple 
will  grow  for  which  varieties  may  not  be 
found  that  will  give  satisfaction  if  they 
have  a  fair  trial.  But  it  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  but  few  of  the  many  varieties 
can  be  safely  recommended  for  a  special 
locality.  There  are  certain  varieties  that 
have  a  wider  range  of  adaptability  than 
others.  Instances  of  this  character  may 
be  found  in  the  Ben  Davis,  which  has  a 
wide  range  of  adaptability,  while  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Yellow  Newtown  or  Albemarle 
is  confined  to  a  few  localities. 

"Then,  again,  a  variety  may  succeed  in 
widely  separated  regions,  while  in  the  in- 
tervening sections  it  may  be  an  entire 
failure.  This  fact  is  well  established  in 
the  case  of  the  Yellow  Newtown,  which 
reaches  its  highest  state  of  perfection  in 
certain  sections  of  the  Pacific  coast  fruit 
regions  and  in  the  Piedmont  sections  of 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  while  in 
most  of  the  widely  diversified  intervening 
territory  it  is  nearly  worthless. 

local  Conditions 

"With  these  facts  before  the  reader  he 
will  readily  see  how  unwise  it  would  be 
to  attempt  to  offer  in  this  connection  other 
than  general  advice  on  the  subject.  A 
comparatively  safe  guide  for  the  planter 
to  follow  or  to  be  governed  by  is  to  study 
well  his  immediate  environs  and  to  take 
counsel  of  those  of  his  neighbors  who  have 
had  practical  experience  in  growing  va- 
rieties on  soils  and  exposures  quite  sim- 
ilar to  his  own.  In  this  way  he  may  be 
able  to  obtain  valuable  information  in  re- 
gard to  varieties  that  have  been  tested 
and  found  to  succeed  in  his  neighborhood. 

Present  Demand 

"In  the  pioneer  days  of  fruit  culture, 
especially  in  the  Mississippi  valley  sec- 
tion of  our  country,  the  great  aim  and  oh- 


234 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


ject  of  the  enterprising  planter  seem  to 
have  been  to  secure  and  plant  all  of  the 
numerous  varieties  within  his  reach  with- 
out considering  the  question  of  the  adapt- 
ability of  the  variety  to  the  conditions  of 
soil  and  climate.  For  a  time  at  least, 
while  the  soil  was  new  and  diseases  and 
insects  were  less  numerous,  his  efforts 
gave  fairly  satisfactory  results.  Now, 
however,  conditions  have  changed  and 
many  of  the  sorts  that  were  once  popular 
and  profitable  are  considered  valueless. 
So  that,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
list  of  desirable  varieties  is  greatly  in- 
creased, growers  find  themselves  com- 
pelled to  study  more  carefully  the  adapt- 
ability of  the  varieties  suited  to  their 
special  conditions  and  purposes." 

CULTIVATION 

Keasons  for  Cnltivation 

We  cultivate  the  apple  orchard  much  as 
we  cultivate  any  other  crop  and  for  the 
following  reasons: 

It  improves  the  physical  condition  of 
the   soil. 

It  tends  to  drain  the  soil,  which  is  im- 
portant if  the  soil  is  wet.  or  is  likely  to 
become  so. 

It  breaks  up  the  compact  particles  of 
soil  and   releases  new  plant  food. 

It  tends  to  mix  more  thoroughly  the 
fertilizers  that  are  in  the  soil  with  the 
soil   itself. 

It  conserves  the  moisture  by  forming  a 
dust  mulch  on  the  top  which  lessens  evap- 
oration. 

It  kills  the  weeds  that  sap  the  moisture 
and   fertility  of  the  soil. 

Deep   Plowing 

In  the  beginning  it  is  not  possible  to 
break  the  ground  too  deeply.  Deep  plow- 
ing is  the  best  in  preparation  of  the  land 
for  planting  an  orchard,  and  it  is  the 
best  later  if  it  does  not  interfere  too 
much  with  the  roots  of  the  trees.  By 
this  means  the  hard  substances  of  the 
soil  are  broken  up  and  the  land  aerated; 
it  enables  the  soil  to  absorb  more  of 
the  water  coming  from  rains  and  snows; 
it  brings  to  the  surface  stores  of  plant 
food  not  generally  drawn  upon;  it  turns 
under  the  humus  in  the  surface  soil,  plac- 


ing it  within  easy  access  of  the  roots  of 
the  trees;  it  hastens  growth  during  the 
bearing  period  and  increases  the  size  and 
capacity  of  the  trees. 

Illinois  Experiment 

These  principles  herewith  set  forth 
have  been  learned  by  experience  and  ob- 
servation through  generations  of  trial.  In 
Illinois,  for  instance,  we  discovered  that 
trench  plowing  was  better  in  case  of 
drouth  and  better  in  case  of  extreme  wet 
weather  which  we  often  had  in  that  coun- 
try. Trench  plowing  is  what  in  some 
sections  is  called  "sub-soiling,"  but  it  is 
properly  distinguished  from  sub-soiling  in 
that  in  sub-soiling  one  team  hitched  to 
a  plow  turns  a  furrow,  another  team 
hitched  to  another  plow  called  a  "sub- 
soil plow"  follows  and  loosens  up  the 
soil  in  the  same  furrow,  and  without 
throwing  it  out  upon  the  surface  leaves 
it  to  be  covered  by  the  next  furrow. 

This  method  is  intended  to  break  up 
the  lower  stratum  of  soil  which  may  have 
been  hardened  by  years  of  cultivation  of 
the  surface  or  from  other  causes.  Trench 
plowing  is  the  same,  except  that  the  sub- 
stratum is  turned  out  upon  the  surface 
and  on  top  of  the  first  furrow.  At  first 
it  was  doubted  whether  this  was  better 
in  case  of  extremes  of  wet  or  dry  weather, 
but  later  all  doubts  were  dispelled  by 
comparison  of  the  quantities  of  crops  that 
grew  on  soils  that  had  been  subsoiled. 
It  was  discovered  that  trench  plowing 
tended  to  drain  the  soil  in  case  of  ex- 
cessive rain  and  to  hold  the  moisture  by 
preventing  rapid  evaporation  in  case  of 
drouth. 

Kansas  Experiment 

In  Kansas  we  met  new  conditions.  The 
question  in  that  state  was  not  so  much 
how  to  drain  the  soil  of  the  water  that 
fell  upon  the  surface,  but  how  to  con- 
serve the  moisture.  I  made  several  ex- 
periments which  determined  the  value  of 
deep  plowing  as  a  check  to  rapid  evap- 
oration. Near  Dodge  City,  Kansas,  I  had 
40  acres  of  land  in  what  was  called  the 
semi-arid  belt.  A  controversy  arose 
among  the  farmers  in  regard  to  the  depth 
of  plowing  best  suited  to  the  growth  of 
corn,    wheat,   millet    and   other   crops.     I 


APPLES 


235 


selected  a  strip  of  about  10  acres  as  an 
experiment,  plowing  five  acres  as  deeply 
as  possible  by  the  trench  method.  The 
other  five  acres  I  plowed  according  to 
the  usual  method  of  turning  a  furrow 
about  four  or  five  inches  deep.  I  then 
planted  corn,  potatoes,  pumpkins,  melons, 
sorghum,  kaffir  corn  and  millet.  We 
planted  across  the  field,  making  the  rows 
run  the  short  way  so  that  each  kind  of 
product  would  grow,  half  of  it  on  the 
deep  plowing  and  half  on  the  shallow. 
In  every  case  the  deep  plowing  was  bet- 
ter, and  in  some  cases  it  produced  more 
than  twice  what  the  shallow  plowing  pro- 
duced. I  therefore  proved  that  by  proper 
cultivation  it  was  profitable  to  grow  crops 
where  often  the  efforts  would  otherwise 
end  in  failure.  It  was  not  unusual  for 
travelers  passing  that  field  to  stop  and 
inquire  what  made  the  difference  in  the 
apparent  size,  health  and  vigor  of  the 
same  kind  of  products  grown  so  closely 
together  Our  answer  was  that  we  were 
making  experiments  like  Dr.  Franklin, 
who  believed  that  a  certain  kind  of  plas- 
ter would  greatly  improve  the  land  for 
the  production  of  wheat  but  had  some 
difficulty  in  convincing  his  neighbors.  He 
therefore  placed  it  on  the  land  in  the 
form  of  large  letters  which  read.  "This 
has  been  plastered."  As  the  traveler 
passed  by  he  could  see  the  white  plaster 
and  read  the  letters.  When  the  wheat 
grew  the  soil  on  which  the  letters  had 
been  placed  produced  greener,  more  vig- 
orous and  taller  wheat  than  the  other. 
As  the  traveler  passed  by  he  could  see 
and  read  from  the  field  of  growing  wheat. 
"This  has  been  plastered." 

Another  experiment  of  a  similar  kind, 
but  with  reference  to  trees,  occurred  at 
.Tetmore.  Kansas.  A  farmer  in  that 
county  for  some  offense  had  been  placed 
in  jail  to  languish  during  the  summer 
until  the  autumn  or  winter  term  of  court, 
awaiting  trial.  Being  accustomed  to  hard 
labor,  the  confinement  of  the  jail  was 
very  irksome  and  he  obtained  permission 
from  the  sheriff  to  cultivate  the  trees 
that  grew  in  the  courthouse  block.  When 
I  visited  that  town  I  saw  that  the  trees 
in  the  community  lacked  vigor  and  most 
of  them  were  dying,  but  the  trees  in  the 


courthouse  block  were  green  and  vigor- 
ous and  making  rapid  growth.  When  I 
asked  the  reason  I  was  told  that  this  man 
had  been  given  a  horse,  cultivator  and 
hoe.  and  that  he  spent  half  of  every  day 
cultivating  the  trees,  going  over  the 
ground  once  or  more  each  week  during 
the  summer  and  autumn.  The  soil  was 
as  fine  as  ashes,  but  little  moisture  es- 
caped by  evaporation;  the  roots  of  the 
trees  absorbed  the  retained  moisture  and 
with  it  the  plant  food  that  was  contained 
in  the  soil. 

Tampbell  System 

About  the  same  time  the  government 
established  a  branch  experiment  station 
at  Dodge  City  and  obtained  results  simi- 
lar to  those  described.  The  Campbell  sys- 
tem of  dry  farming  is  simply  another 
name  for  the  system  recommended  by  the 
government  experimenters,  and  which  has 
been  proven  by  varied  experiences  to  be 
the  system  best  adapted  to  semi-arid  re- 
gions. This  system  simply  means  deep 
plowing,  then  cultivating,  harrowing,  roll- 
ing, harrowing  again,  and  repeating  this 
process  at  certain  periods  during  the  crop 
season,  and  more  especially  after  every 
shower  of  rain.  By  this  process,  vast 
wheat  fields  are  now  yielding  their  mil- 
lions of  bushels  of  grain,  homes  and  or- 
chards and  groves  are  seen  by  thousands 
where  once  was  desert,  and  millions  of 
acres  of  land  which  were  once  nothing 
but  waste  are  producing  wealth. 

Good  cultivation  causes  the  soil  to  ab- 
sorb moisture.  This  is  seen  when  we  com- 
pare a  well  plowed  field  with  the  roadway 
by  its  side.  We  pass  along  the  roadway 
as  a  heavy  rain  is  falling  and  we  see  that 
the  water  which  falls  upon  the  plowed 
field  is  being  absorbed  by  the  mellow 
earth,  while  the  hard  surface  of  the  road 
is  absorbing  it  very  slowly,  so  slowly 
that  the  ditches,  trenches  and  wheel 
tracks  are  full,  carrying  it  away.  That 
which  we  see  in  the  road  during  the  rain 
is  true  in  some  degree  on  the  hard  surface 
soil  of  an  uncultivated  field,  and  in  a  de- 
gree also,  in  a  field  of  shallow  plowing. 

MTiat  CnltiTation  Does 

Cultivation  makes  plant  food  available 
by  breaking  up  the  harder  chunks,  clods 


236 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


and  particles  of  earth  that  the  roots 
would  not  penetrate  unless  broken  up. 
For  instance,  a  rock  contains  many  con- 
stituents necessary  to  plant  growth,  but 
as  rock  it  is  not  available  as  food.  Pul- 
verize the  rock  and  moisten  its  particles 
and  the  roots  will  drink  in  their  chemi- 
cals. The  same  is  true  of  clods  and  of 
fertilizers.  The  breaking  up,  the  eroding, 
the  mixing  of  the  harder  substances  un- 
til they  are  fully  pulverized,  render  them 
soluble  and  make  it  possible  for  the  roots 
to  take  their  food  in  solution  very  much 
as  human  beings  take  food  in  the  form 
of  soup. 

Weeds — Weeds  also  absorb  moisture, 
and  because  they  compete  with  the  trees 
for  something  to  eat  they  should  be  de- 
stroyed and   the  food  given  to  the  trees. 

Irrigated  Sections 

In  irrigated  districts,  where  abundant 
water  is  supplied,  the  question  of  mois- 
ture is  not  so  important.  However,  irriga- 
tion does  not  pulverize  the  soil  and  does 
not  keep  down  the  weeds.  In  fact,  it 
cannot  be  profitably  substituted  for  culti- 
vation however  much  it  may  render  un- 
necessary cultivation  to  conserve  mois- 
ture. Our  motto  is.  Drainage  for  wet 
lands  and   dust  mulch   for   dry   lands. 

I»eei»  Plowing  for  Large  Trees 

The  question  of  deep  plowing  for  large 
trees  in  the  orchard  has  been  a  mooted 
question.  We  have  taken  both  sides  of 
this  question. 

First,  we  favored  deep  plowing,  think- 
ing that  it  would  be  better  to  turn  under 
a  coating  of  barnyard  manure  and  throw 
up  the  hard  sub-soil.  We  did  this,  and 
tore  up  so  many  of  the  little  roots  of 
the  trees  that  we  believed  we  had  in- 
jured the  orchard.  It  seemed  to  us  im- 
possible for  the  tree  to  have  its  root 
system  thus  disturbed  without  injury. 
However,  we  had  pruned  rather  heavily 
that  year,  and  the  breaking  of  the  roots 
did  not  correspond  in  amount  to  the 
cutting  away  of  the  tops.  We  watched 
the  trees  carefully,  and  for  the  first  year 
saw  nothing  to  indicate  that  they  had 
been  either  helped  or  injured.  The  sec- 
ond year  they  seemed  to  take  on  new 
vigor   and    the   fruit  was   especially   fine. 


This  was  doubtless  due  in  part  to  the 
coating  of  barn  yard  manure,  but  we 
also  think  that  the  deep  plowing  where 
the  soil  is  deep  and  the  roots  can  pene- 
trate it  easily  may  be  beneficial.  By 
observation  in  other  orchards,  we  have 
reached  the  conclusion  that  when  the 
surface  roots  are  broken,  generally  the 
lower  roots  will  sink  more  deeply  into 
the  sub-soil,  and  that  deep  plowing  is  a 
kind  of  root  pruning.  But  often  the  roots 
will  not  get  sufficient  moisture  at  the 
greater  depth,  or  the  soil  is  so  hard  that 
they  cannot  penetrate,  and  more  or  less 
injury  is  done  by  deep-  plowing.  The 
latest  demonstrations  have  proven  that 
a  great  percentage  of  the  feeding  rootlets 
are  near  the  surface,  and  that  most  of 
them  are  from  one  to  two  feet  in  depth. 
The  consensus  of  opinion  is  therefore 
shifting  in  the  direction  of  shallow  in- 
stead of  deep  cultivation  for  bearing  or- 
chards. At  this  writing  the  question  is 
a  debatable  one,  and  the  probabilities 
are  that  in  some  cases  it  is  helpful  but 
in  others  injurious.     (See  Thee  Roots.) 

Cover  Crops 

What  we  have  said  in  favor  of  cultiva- 
tion is  not  intended  to  disparage  or  to 
discourage  the  use  of  cover  crops  in  or- 
chards. In  fact,  experience  has  shown 
that  after  an  orchard  has  had  clean  cul- 
tivation until  the  trees  are  reaching  the 
bearing  period,  the  very  best  cultivation 
they  can  have,  provided  there  is  sufficient 
water,  is  the  breaking  up  of  the  sub-soil 
by  the  strong  vigorous  roots  of  alfalfa. 
It  is  common  for  these  roots  to  penetrate 
the  soil  to  a  depth  of  25  feet,  and  in  some 
places  in  a  loose  porous  soil,  as  proven 
by  the  Arizona  Experiment  Station,  they 
have  gone  to  depth  of  50  feet.  They  are 
much  more  vigorous  than  the  roots  of 
fruit  trees,  and  in  breaking  up  the  hard 
sub-stratum,  they  lead  the  water  to 
greater  depth,  and  open  up  a  new  world 
of  plant  food  for  the  roots  of  the  trees. 
In  the  arid  regions  where  irrigation  is 
practiced,  and  where  the  soil  lacks  hu- 
mus, alfalfa,  according  to  the  best  infor- 
mation available  now,  is  the  very  best 
treatment  for  orchards  set  to  apples  and 
pears. 


APPLES 


237 


It  has  been  about  as  clearly  demon- 
strated that  alfalfa  and  clover  are  not 
good  for  peaches,  as  that  it  is  good  for 
apples  and  pears.  Just  why  this  is  true 
is  not  with  certainty  decided.  Some  sug- 
gest that  it  is  because  they  furnish  the 
soil  with  too  much  nitrogen.  Others 
that  it  is  because  of  the  different  root- 
ing habits  of  peaches,  the  roots  being 
nearer  the  surface  and  tending  to  grow 
laterally.  Whatever  may  be  the  reasons, 
it  seems  sure  that  peaches  do  not  do 
well   in   orchards   sown   to   alfalfa. 

Gr.\xvii.i:.e  Lowther 


CULTURE   VERSUS  SOD   MULCH 
West  Tirsinia  View  Point 

There  are  strong  advocates  of  both 
cultivation  and  mulching  as  methods  of 
orchard  management,  and  strong  argu- 
ments may  be  advanced  in  favor  of  each. 
As  a  result  of  personal  observation,  ex- 
tending over  a  period  of  more  than  ten 
years,  the  writer  would  favor  cultiva- 
tion upon  those  lands  which  are  sus- 
ceptible of  culture,  without  unnecessary 
expense,  and  mulching  upon  all  other 
lands.  What  that  cultivation  shall  be. 
and  what  that  mulch  shall  be  will  of 
course  be  determined  by  local  conditions. 

By  the  advocates  of  "sod-culture"  it  is 
claimed  that,  by  setting  free  too  much 
nitrogen,  cultivation  renders  the  wood 
spongy  and  the  fruit  soft.  It  is  also 
claimed,  and  not  without  apparent  rea- 
son, that  certain  varieties,  like  Alexan- 
der and  Yellow  Transparent,  which  are 
subject  to  blight,  exhibit  a  marked  in- 
crease of  this  blight  tendency  under  cul- 
tivation. This  condition  is  supported  by 
Mr.  George  T.  Powell,  himself  an  advo- 
cate of  high  culture. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  fruit  from  trees 
not  under  cultivation  is  of  higher  color, 
and  usually  of  firmer  texture.  That  it 
will  always  keep  better  in  storage,  how- 
ever, has  not  been  fully  proved.* 

The  general  principles  involved  in  the 
two    methods    are    very    simple.      In    the 


•  See   Bulletin    122.    Maine   Agricultural    Ex- 
periment  Station,    p-    200.      1903. 


mulching,  the  aim  is  to  accumulate  all 
of  the  vegetable  matter  possible  in  the 
soil;  thus  not  only  feeding  the  plant, 
but  holding  the  moisture  as  well.  Under 
cultivation,  the  organic  matter  is  used  as 
rapidly  as  possible  and  more  is  added  in 
the  way  of  cover  crops  and  green  manures. 

W.  M.  Muxsox, 
Morgantown,    W.    Va. 

TILLAGE  VERSUS  SOD  MULCH 

>'ew  York  View  Point 

Early  in  the  history  of  orcharding  in 
New  York  it  had  been  the  custom  dur- 
ing the  first  six  or  eight  years  to  grow 
crops  with  tillage  between  the  trees,  after 
which  the  orchard  was  seeded  down  to 
grass  and  used  for  pasture  or  hay.  The 
orchards  were  in  many  cases  unproduc- 
tive and,  the  owners  despairing  of  the 
method,  a  reaction  set  in  toward  "tillage 
and  cover  crops. '  During  the  last  decade, 
however,  some  excellent  results  in  "sod 
mulch"  orchards  led  to  a  second  reaction 
to  the  latter  method  with  a  wide  dis- 
cussion of  the  problems  involved. 

The  New  York  State  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  at  Geneva  secured  in 
1904  the  use  of  an  apple  orchard  at  South 
Greece,  near  Rochester,  in  order  to  throw 
some  light  upon  this  question  and  to  dem- 
onstrate the  comparative  value  of  the  two 
methods  under  the  conditions  existing  in 
those  places,  and  to  discover,  if  possible,  the 
reasons  for  the  results  that  might  appear. 
The  experiment  was  to  run  for  10  years 
in  order  to  secure  fair  average  results. 
Five  years  have  now  passed  and  it  may 
be  of  interest  to  note  the  progress  of  the 
work   to  the  present  time    (1910). 

The  orchard  at  South  Greece,  seven 
miles  west  of  Rochester,  is  owned  by  Mr. 
W.  D.  Auchter.  It  consists  of  nine  and 
one-half  acres  of  Baldwins  set  in  1877,  the 
trees  standing  40  feet  apart  each  way. 
The  surface  soil  is  a  medium  heavy  clay 
loam.  The  subsoil  is  of  heavier  loam 
yet  containing  enough  sand  or  gravel  to 
make  it  porous  so  that  the  trees  do  not 
suffer  from  lack  of  under-drainage.  The 
surface  is  nearly  level.  This  orchard  is 
typical    of   many    of   the    commercial    or- 


238 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


chards     scattered     throughout     Western 
New  York. 

Plan  of  Experiment — The  orchard  was 
divided  into  two  equal  divisions,  one- 
half  kept  in  sod — the  other  half  plowed 
early  in  the  spring,  receiving  from  four 
to  six  cultivations  during  the  summer 
until  the  last  of  July  or  early  in  August, 
at  which  time  a  cover  crop  of  clover  or 
oats  was  sown.  The  grass  on  the  sod 
half  of  the  orchard  was  cut  once  or  twice 
each  year  as  occasion  required  and  was 
allowed  to  rot  where  it  fell.  The  spray- 
ing, pruning  and  fertilizing  treatments 
were  same  on  each  plat. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  some 
of  the  results  obtained  with  both  tree 
and   fruit. 

The  average  annual  yield  on  the  sod 
plat  for  the  five  years  was  72.9  barrels 
per  acre;  for  the  tilled  plat  109.2  barrels 
— a  difference  of  36.3  barrels  In  favor  of 
the  tilled  plat. 

There  was  a  marked  difference  in  size 
of  fruit,  requiring  an  average  of  434 
apples  per  barrel  for  the  fruit  from  sod 
and  309  apples  for  the  fruit  from  the 
tilled  trees;  the  fruit  from  sod  trees 
averaged  5.01  ounces  and  the  fruit  from 
cultivated  trees  7.04  ounces. 

The  fruit  from  the  sod  mulch  plat  was 
of  better  color  than  that  on  the  tilled 
plat — it  matured  from  one  to  three  weeks 
earlier;  it  was  inferior  in  crispness,  in 
juiciness,  in  flavor  and  in  quality. 

The  average  gain  in  diameter  of  trunk 
for  the  trees  in  sod  was  1.1  inches;  for 
the  trees  under  tillage,  2.1  inches. 

The  average  annual  growth  of  twigs  of 
the  trees  in  sod  was  3.4  inches;  of  the 
tilled  trees,  6.7  inches.  The  total  weight 
of  240  twigs  from  sod  trees  was  7.2 
pounds;  from  trees  under  tillage,  21.3 
pounds. 

The  leaves  on  the  sod  trees  were  yel- 
lowish— on  the  tilled  trees  a  dark,  rich 
green. 


Financial  Statement 

The  average  annual  cost  per  acre,  not 
including  harvesting,  was  $17.92  for  sod, 
and  $24.47  for  tillage — a  difference  of 
$6.55  in  favor  of  sod. 

The  average  net  income  per  acre  from 
sod  was  $71.52,  and  from  tillage,  $110.43, 
thus  giving  an  increase  due  to  tillage  of 
54  per  cent. 

Causes  of  Difference 

Moisture — The  soil  to  the  depth  of  one 
foot  showed  as  the  average  of  120  mois- 
ture determinations  156.24  tons  water  for 
sod;  235.98  tons  water  for  tillage — an  in- 
crease of  nearly  80  tons  in  favor  of  till- 
age. 

Temperature — At  a  depth  of  12  inches 
the  average  temperature  for  sod  was  65 
degrees;  for  tillage,  67  degrees — differ- 
ence of  two  degrees  in  favor  of  the  soil 
under  cultivation. 

Humus — The  amount  of  humus  in  the 
soil  to  a  depth  of  six  inches  was  19.98 
tons  per  acre  for  the  sod  plat  and  21.78 
tons  for  the  tillage — an  increase  of  1.8 
tons   in   the   soil   under   cultivation. 

The  facts  presented  include  the  essen- 
tial features  of  what  happened  in  an  apple 
orchard  under  a  tillage  system  and  under 
a  system  of  sod  mulch.  The  soil,  the 
trees  and  the  fruit  have  each  in  turn  told 
their  story,  and  the  evidence  is  before 
you.  Yet  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that 
the  results  do  not  prove  that  tillage  under 
all  conditions  is  the  only  proper  method 
of  procedure.  Every  orchard  has  its 
special  problems  and  every  apple  grower 
has  a  problem  of  his  own.  Any  method 
to  succeed  must  be  adapted  to  local  con- 
ditions. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  rela- 
tive values  of  the  two  methods  of  sod  and 
clean  cultivation.  It  will  be  seen  that  in 
all  but  two  instances  in  each  case  the 
average  yield  and  average  income  is 
greater  in  the  case  of  "tilled"  than  of 
"sod"  orchards  where  the  method  of  cul- 
ture has  extended  over  the  same  number 
of  years. 


APPLES 


239 


Axerage  Yield  In  Bnsbels  and  Average  Income  Per  Acre  of  Sod  and  Tilled  Orcliards 


1902 

METHOD  OF  TREATMENT 

Number 
orchards 

Number 
acres 

Average 
yield 

Average 
income 

Tilled  ten  years  or  more 

Tilled  five  years  or  more 

Tilled  at  least  three  years 

57 
22 
10 
8 
4 
14 

645 

185 

88 

93 

44 

144 

186 
139 
165 
157 
145 
181 

$134 

88 

104 

Sod  at  least  three  years 

58 

Sod  five  years  or  more 

83 
105 

1903 

Tilled  ten  vears  or  more 

100 
40 
27 
18 
18 
31 

1,040 
405 
368 
353 
292 
281 

408 
326 
214 
278 
280 
264 

S148 

Tilled  five  years  or  more 

117 

Tilled  at  least  three  vears. 

141 

Sod  at  least  three  years 

82 

Sod  five  vears  or  more 

127 

Sod  ten  years  or  more 

103 

19 

1,203 
573 
239 
767 
566 
338 

[)4 

Tilled  ten  vears  or  more. . . 

117 
55 
44 
53 
20 
38 

282 
224 
230 
174 
171 
160 

$126 

Tilled  five  years  or  more 

125 

Tilled  at  least  three  years 

131 

Sod  at  least  three  vears 

87 

Sod  five  years  or  more 

83 

Sod  ten  years  or  more 

84 

1905 

Tilled  ten  vears  or  more 

28 
20 
18 
48 
35 
13 

406 
179 
182 
577 
450 
146 

258 
312 
300 
271 
218 
192 

$71 

Tilled  five  vears  or  more 

91 

Tilled  at  least  three  years 

49 

Sod  at  least  three  years 

53   ■ 

Sod  five  vears  or  more 

37 

Sod  ten  vears  or  more 

35 

1906 

Tilled  ten  vears  or  more 

34 
22 
16 
38 
37 
29 

342 

309 
240 
434 
338 
332 

261 
270 
285 
165 
170 
165 

$121 

Tilled  five  vears  or  more 

80 

Tilled  at  least  three  vears 

60 

Sod  at  least  three  years 

57 

Sod  five  vears  or  more 

51 

Sod  ten  years  or  more 

48 

The  results  for  Orleans  county   (New  York  Bui.  No.  229)   furnish  an  interesting 
comparison  (four  of  the  calendar  years  are  the  same  in  the  two  cases) : 

Average  Yield  in  Busliels  and  Income  Per  Acre  of  Tilled  and  Sod  Orchards 
All  Orchards  Five-year  Average  Per  Acre 

Method  of  Treatment  Bushels  Income 

Tilled  ten  years  or  more 327  $182 

Tilled  five  years  or  more 274  138 

Tilled  over  half  of  preceding  five  years 225  113 

Sod  over  half  of  preceding  five  years 222  107 

Sod  five  years  or  more 204  108 

Sod  ten  years  or  more 176  87 


240 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Average  Yield  in  Bushels  and  lueonie  Per  Acre  of  Tilled  and  Sod  Orchards 
Orchards  All  Well  Cared  For  Five-jear  Arerage  Per  Acre 

Method  of  Treatment                                                                                 Bushels  Income 

Tilled  ten  years  or  more 337  $189 

Tilled  five  years  or  more 296  148 

Tilled  over  half  of  preceding  five  years 234  121 

Sod  over  half  of  preceding  five  years 242  118 

Sod  five  years  or  more 258  134 

Sod  ten  years  or  more 232  117 


Cultivation  from  the  Oregon  View  Point 

We  must  study  this  important  subject 
from  the  point  of  view  of  soil,  season, 
age  of  tree,  general  climatic  conditions, 
etc.  The  tools  that  are  used  also  differ 
according  to  conditions.  Plow,  corrugated 
roller,  float,  disc  harrow,  Kimball  weeders, 
and  many  other  tools  all  have  their  places. 
Our  particular  object  in  the  spring  prep- 
aration is  to  form  a  reservoir  for  mois- 
ture, and  make  plant  food  available  so  as 
to  maintain  a  large  root-feeding  system 
in  order  that  we  may  develop  strong 
trees,  with  vigorous  wood  and  abundance 
of  good  sized  fruit.  With  most  of  our 
clay  soils  annual  spring  plowing  will  be 
necessary;  with  the  heavier  soils  harrow- 
ing should  follow  close  on  the  plowing, 
as  the  heavy  soils  tend  to  become  packed 
and  cloddy.  They  will  need  discing  and 
pulverizing  and  should  be  put  into  as 
good  condition  as  ijossible.  The  sticky 
soils  upon  which  many  of  the  orchards 
are  planted  are  exceptionally  hard  to  han- 
dle. If  they  are  plowed  in  the  fall  the 
soil  runs  together  during  the  winter  and 
they  need  replowing  in  the  spring.  These 
soils  will  have  to  be  watched  closely  to 
catch  them  at  just  the  right  time.  If  an 
attempt  is  made  to  plow  while  they  are 
too  wet,  they  are  so  sticky  as  to  be  al- 
most impossible  to  handle.  If  you  attempt 
to  plow  them  when  they  are  a  little  dry, 
they  plow  up  in  large  lumps  and  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  do  anything  with 
them.  Occasionally  these  soils  have  been 
simply  disced  and  thoroughly  harrowed 
in   place   of  plowing. 

The  free  soils  and  the  sandy  and  silt 
loams  work  up  very  nicely.  On  the  lighter 
of  these  soils,  and  especially  with  light 
rainfall,  the  problem  is  not  so  much  in 
the  spring  to  loosen  these  soils  as  it  is 
to  compact  them.     They  are  often  rolled 


and  floated,  a  drag  is  used,  and  when 
this  is  done,  light  shallow  harrowing 
should  always  follow.  Our  main  object 
in  the  spring  is  then  to  get  the  ground 
into  as  good  conditions  for  growth  as  pos- 
sible. After  the  rains  have  ceased  great 
care  must  be  taken  to  maintain  as  much 
of  the  moisture  as  possible  under  the  soil 
conditions.  This  will  mean  frequent  culti- 
vations during  the  growing  season.  One 
of  the  best  tools  to  use  in  such  cases  is 
the  Kimball  weeder;  this  stirs  the  soil 
freely,  will  pulverize  the  top  soil,  and 
prevents  drying  or  packing.  It  forms  a 
dust  mulch  which  aids  in  retaining  the 
moisture  in  the  soil. 

The  number  of  times  one  will  cultivate 
during   the   summer   will   vary    with   the 


§1         i 


Fig.  :. 


Corrugated  Roller.     One  of  Best  Tools 

to    Use    on    Clay    Loams. 


soil,  type  of  fruit,  season,  and  the  age 
of  the  trees.  With  young  trees  it  is  well 
to  practice  deep,  thorough  preparation  in 
the  spring  so  as  to  encourage  the  roots  to 
strike  deeply.  It  is  not  only  a  problem 
of  holding  the  moisture  but  one  of  form- 
ing deep  rooted  trees.  As  soon  as  suf- 
ficient growth  has  been  obtained  the  sum- 
mer cultivation  should  cease:  this,  in 
some  regions,  may  be  as  early  as  July, 
while  in  some  locations  it  will  be  about 
the  first  of  August,  hut  rarely  later  than 
the  middle  of  August.  The  aim  should 
be  to  throw  the  young  trees  into  dor- 
mancy so  that  they   will   not  be   injured 


APPLES 


241 


by   premature   fall   frosts  or  suffer   need- 
lessly from  cold  winter  weather. 

Bearing  apple  trees,  on  the  other  hand, 
will  need  cultivation  in  most  cases  up  to 
the  time  the  fruit  is  picked,  since  the 
trees  draw  ver.v  heavily  upon  the  soil  as 
the  fruit  is  maturing.  The  time  for  ceas- 
ing cultivation  with  bearing  trees  will  be 
determined  by  the  .general  condition  of 
the  tree  and  fruit.  Cultivation  influences 
the  color  and  size  and  often  the  form  of 
the  fruit,  the  amount  of  juice,  and  has  a 
marked  influence  on  the  percentage  of 
drop  of  the  fruit. 

C.   I.   Lewis 

CultiTation  from  a  IVashinston  View 
Point 

Sod  Mulch — The  grass,  clover,  weed  or 
alfalfa  sod  mulch  system  is  a  relic  of 
primitive  horticulture  handed  down  to  us 
like  many  other  relics,  to  be  taken  as  it 
is  without  investigation. 

It  is  an  outgrowth  of  neglect  rather 
than  a  development  of  thought,  and  comes 
through  such  reasoning  as  this:  If  Ore- 
gon fir  and  Washington  pine  have  grown 
to  such  size  on  these  lands  without  cul- 
ture, why  shouldn't  fruit  trees  do  the 
same?  The  difference  is  that  nature  takes 
hundreds  of  years  and  millions  of  trees 
to  produce  a  few  big  trees,  while  man 
takes  a  few  years  and  a  handful  of  small 
switches  to  develop  an  orchard.  We  can- 
not afford  to  pattern  after  nature  in  this 
matter,  but  must  assist  her  by  conserving 
moisture,  making  plant  food  available 
and  removing  the  offenders,  whether  they 
be  weeds  or  other  trees. 

The  grass  mulch  system  has  merits  for 
certain  conditions,  and  while  it  is  occa- 
sionally good,  is  a  much  abused  practice. 
This  abuse  in  our  state  shows  most 
stron,ely  on  the  west  side  of  the  Cascades, 
but  it  is  not  wholly  lacking  on  the  east. 
Under  various  conditions  the  grass  mulch 
system  takes  on  varied  modifications. 

Some  growers  permit  weeds  and  grass 
to  grow  at  will  in  the  orchard  all  sum- 
mer long,  only  to  be  mashed  down  in 
spring  with  harrow,  light  disc  and  clod 
masher.  The  only  remarkable  feature 
about  these  orchards  is  that  some  of  them 
are    giving    fair    returns.      The    probable 


reason  for  the  returns  is  that  available 
plant  food  and  moisture  are  only  sec- 
ondary considerations  in  these  soils.  On 
other  soils  the  method  would  be  an  ab- 
solute failure. 

Another  group  of  growers  permit  this 
mulch  to  grow  until  mid-summer,  when 
it  is  mowed  down  and  placed  around  the 
trees  to  act  as  a  mulch,  in  the  true  sense, 
to  conserve  moisture,  ameliorate  the  soil 
and  add  plant  food.  The  grass  mulch 
system  as  practiced  in  this  manner  on 
rich,  deep,  moist  soil  will  prove  a  suc- 
cess in  orchard  work,  provided  the  trees 
are  fairly  well  established  before  the  sys- 
tem is  put  into  operation.  Remember 
again,  however,  that  the  moisture  prob- 
lem is  taken  care  of  by  plenty  of  rain 
or  frequent  irrigation. 

A  third  group  of  growers  cut  the  mulch 
and  use  it  for  hay  or.  worse  still,  pasture 
the  orchard  without  practicing  fertilizer 
returns.  A  friend  recently  sold  from  one 
acre  of  ground  $1,200  worth  of  apples  and 
four  tons  of  alfalfa  hay.  In  addition  he 
pastured  a  cow  and  50  chickens  for  three 
months  on  the  same  acre. 

flover  Versus  .\lfalfa  Mulch 

Considerable  discussion  has  arisen 
lately  relative  to  the  comparative  merits 
arid  demerits  of  the  two  plants,  alfalfa 
and  clover,  which  are  most  commonly 
used  as  grass  mulch  plants  in  the  West. 
Each  has  a  strong  following  amongst  our 
best  fruitgrowers,  and  consequently  must 
have  merits  of  note  under  favorable  con- 
ditions. 

Those  championing  clover  attribute  the 
following   advantages   to    its   growth: 

1.  Being  a  comparatively  shallow 
rooted  plant,  its  roots  do  not  feed  in  the 
same  plane  as  the  roots  of  bearing  trees. 

2.  It  adds  more  fiber  and  plant  food 
to  the  first  18  inches  of  the  soil. 

3.  It  is  an  easy  plant,  as  compared 
with  alfalfa,  to  destroy  when  the  time 
comes  to  remove  the  mulch. 

Those  championing  the  use  of  alfalfa 
contend  that  it  is  best  because  it  has  the 
following  characteristics: 

1.  Being  a  naturally  deep-rooted  plant 
it  goes  below  the  apple  root  plane. 

2.  While  it  adds  a  small  amount  of 
fiber,    its   roots   work   deep   into   the   soil 


242 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


and  thereby  extend  the  feeding  area,  es- 
pecially  in   hard,   impenetrable  soil. 

3.  It  is  a  greater  tonnage  producer 
under   irrigation    than    the   clover. 

My  own  experiences,  while  confined  to 
a  few  fields,  have  been  very  much  in  fa- 
vor of  clover  so  far  as  removing  the 
mulch  and  tree  growth  was  concerned, 
but  favorable  to  alfalfa  from  the  stand- 
point of  tonnage  and  subdividing  and  pre- 
paring the  soil  for  orchard  purposes.  I 
would  not  seed  alfalfa,  or  clover  for  that 
matter,  if  I  seeded  at  all,  closer  than 
four  feet  from  the  young  trees  and  then 
preserve  thorough  tillage  between  the 
alfalfa  and  the  trees.  As  the  trees  grow 
older  I  should  extend  the  area  of  culti- 
vation from  one  to  two  feet  each  year, 
until  the  whole  was  receiving  clean  till- 
age. 

Mulch  Lessons  From  the  Season  of 
1910 — Between  April  1.5th  and  September 
15th  we  had  less  than  one-half  an  inch 
of  rainfall  in  Eastern  Washington.  The 
weather  otherwise,  while  dry,  was  not 
seriously  hot,  and  there  were  very  few 
strong  winds.  In  the  grass  mulch  experi- 
ments we  had  a  great  number  of  the  more 
common  varieties  of  apples.  But  inas- 
much as  the  Ben  Davis  is  probably  bet- 
ter known  than  any  other  variety  I  de- 
sire to  use  it  as  an  illustration.  Kindly 
remember  that  the  soil  was  uniform  and 
that  no   irrigation   was   used. 

Plot  1 — Old  alfalfa  plot,  14-year-old 
trees,  fruit  one  inch  in  diameter,  poorly 
colored  and  badly  wilted  at  harvesting 
time. 

Plot  2 — Ben  Davis  variety,  but  in  grass 
and  weed  plot;  fruit  one  and  one-half 
inches  in  diameter,  of  fair  color,  but 
poorly  developed;  not  wilted. 

Plot  S — Ben  Davis  variety,  old  clover 
field,  trees  14  to  15  years  of  age,  fruits 
two  inches  in  diameter,  well  colored, 
fairly  good  texture  and  fair  crop. 

Plot  // — Ben  Davis,  11-year-old  trees, 
given  first-class  care,  clean  tillage;  fruit 
three  and  one-half  tier,  well  colored  and 
good  texture.  As  good  a  crop  as  one 
could  desire. 

While  this  little  experiment  proves 
much  for  Eastern  Washington,  it  does  not 
settle  the  problem  for  other  parts  of  the 


Northwest;  yet  it  does  show  that  where 
summer  moisture  is  the  main  factor,  we 
must  practice,  almost  if  not  entirely,  noth- 
ing  less   than   clean   culture. 

After  visiting  hundreds  of  orchards  last 
year  in  Western  Washington  during  the 
dry  season  I  am  convinced  that  our  prob- 
lems of  fruit  culture  are  identical  so  far 
as  cultivation  is  concerned;  yet  there  are 
conditions  under  which  it  is  advisable  to 
use  a  grass  mulch  of  some  sort  or  other, 
and  I  would  enumerate  as  possible  con- 
ditions  the   following: 

1.  Where  the  soil  is  so  rich  as  to  cause 
the  trees  to  produce  wood  at  the  expense 
of  the  fruit.     Pears,  cherries. 

2.  Where  the  soil  is  otherwise  too 
wet. 

3.  In  loose,  shifting  soils  that  must 
be   held    down    to   prevent   blowing. 

4.  On  rocky  soils  that  cannot  be  cul- 
tivated. 

5.  And  finally  when  the  owner  is  too 
lazy  to  cultivate  and  wants  a  feasible 
reason   for  not   doing  so. 

Absolutely  Clean  Tillacje — This  is  the 
direct  reaction  of  no  tillage,  and  comes 
as  all  reforms  do  at  the  swing  of  the  pen- 
dulum to  the  opposite  pole.  It  is  very 
valuable  in  certain  soils  where  everything 
is  sacrificed  for  moisture,  but  needs  care- 
ful guarding,  as  it  is  more  liable  to  in- 
jure the  soil  than  any  other  method  of 
tillage. 

The  constant  working  of  the  soil  and 
never  permitting  anything  to  grow  upon 
it.  while  valuable  for  the  conservation 
of  moisture,  materially  fines  it,  thereby 
making  it  wash  and  gully  on  sloping 
land,  and  exposes  a  bare  surface  to  the 
hot  summer  sun.  This  destroys  the 
humus,  causing  the  soil  to  cement  and 
puddle  much  more  readily  than  it  nor- 
mally  should. 

The  loss  of  the  organic  content  of  soil 
in  four  distinct  ways,  i.  e. : 

1.  Destroys    granulation    or    friability. 

2.  Lessens  water  holding  capacity. 

3.  Lowers  the  temperature  in  spring, 
and   raises   it   in   the   summer. 

4.  Makes  it  impossible  for  the  air  to 
permeate  the  soil,  thereby  hinders  nitri- 
fication and  prevents  the  escape  of  car- 
bon dioxide. 


APPLES 


243 


Treatment  of  this  kind  injures  the  soil 
both  chemically  and  physically  and  can 
never  be  classed  as  practical  agriculture. 

The  evil  effect  upon  orchards  planted 
on  shallow  soil  and  treated  in  this  man- 
ner is  still  more  perceptible  to  the  trained 
eye  than  upon  most  other  crops.  We  have 
learned  that,  by  repeatedly  cutting  off 
the  surface  roots  of  young  bearing  trees, 
as  is  done  by  the  cultivator  on  soil  that 
is  underlaid  with  hardpan,  we  produce  a 
yellow  starved  growth  commonly  known 
as  winter  dessication  or  fruit  tree  rosette. 

Clean,  Early  Tillage,  with  Cover  Crops 
Latei — Clean,  early  tillage,  with  cover 
crops  later  is  the  type  of  tillage  that  we 
hold  out  as  the  practical,  progressive 
tillage.  It  has  all  advantages  of  the  clean 
culture  and  the  grass  mulch  systems  and 
none  of  the  undesirable  features.  It  con- 
serves the  early  spring  moisture  at  a 
season  when  it  is  plentiful,  prepares  and 
makes  available  the  plant  food  when  the 
tree  most  needs  it,  causes  early  develop- 
ment of  leaf  and  fruit  buds,  thereby 
hardening  the  tree  for  winter,  and  brings 
the  fruit  to  a  good  size  early  in  the 
season  in  order  that  it  raav  have  a  longer 
time  to  color  and  put  on  the  finish.  Many 
of  our  orchardists  do  not  start  culture 
early  enough  in  the  spring,  thereby  caus- 
ing a  check  in  the  growth  of  the  fruit 
or  twigs  when  there  should  be  no  check. 
The  growing  period  of  most  bearing  trees 
is  decidedly  short  as  compared  with  an- 
nual plants,  and  recognition  of  this  fact 
should  be  taken  into  consideration  in 
the  working  out  of  our  culture  scheme. 

The  thorough  tillage  of  the  early  spring 
and  summer  months  should  cease  as  soon 
as  the  fruit  has  attained  sufficient  size 
to  insure  good,  marketable  specimens  by 
fall.  The  exact  time  cannot  be  stated, 
but  it  varies  from  the  first  of  August  to 
the  first  of  September.  At  this  time  some 
form  of  a  cover  crop  should  be  sown  at 
least  three  years  out  of  five.  The  nature 
of  this  crop  will  be  governed  entirely 
by  the  condition  of  the  trees.  On  soil 
where  trees  are  vigorous  and  have  dark 
green  foliage  a  non-nitrogen  gathering 
crop,  such  as  fall  rye  or  wheat,  may  be 
used,  while  on  soil  where  the  trees  are 
less    vigorous    and    the    foliage    more    or 


less  yellow,  a  nitrogen-storing  crop,  such 
as  Canada  peas,  vetch  or  clover,  should 
be  used. 

Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid 
upon  the  use  of  cover  crops  in  our  or- 
chards. They  will  do  more  toward  keep- 
ing the  orchard  up  to  a  high  standard 
than  any  other  single  thing  that  we  can 
use.  I  consider  the  use  of  cover  crops 
in  orchards  the  highest  type  of  orchard 
tillage  for  the  Pacific  Northwest.  This 
is  good  agriculture,  and  will  never  wear 
out  a  soil,  and  when  those  growers  who 
practice  it  are  through  using  their  land 
the  soil  will  be  better  physically,  chemi- 
cally, and  in  every  way  than  it  was  when 
they  started,  even  though  they  have  taken 
a  big  crop  off  every  year. 

The  practical  questions  of  when  and 
how  to  till  can  best  be  solved  upon  each 
farm.  However,  the  same  general  scheme 
can  profitably  be  carried  out  in  all  dis- 
tricts. 

Just  as  soon  as  the  surface  of  the  soil 
is  dry  enough  to  work  without  slicking 
or  sticking,  the  disc  or  cut-away  harrow 
should  be  run  over  the  surface  to  pre- 
vent crusting  and  heavy  loss  of  moisture. 
This  can  be  followed  by  deeper  discing  or 
plowing,  as  the  case  may  be,  but  under 
no  circumstances  should  the  surface  be 
permitted   to   crust  and   bake. 

Where  no  cover  crop  is  used,  fall  plow- 
ing may  be  practiced  to  advantage,  pro- 
viding the  plowing  is  shallow  close  to 
the  trees  and  deep  between  them,  and 
the  soil  is  left  rough  to  winter-catch  and 
hold  as  much  snow  and  rain  as  possible. 
It  will  require  a  minimum  amount  of 
labor  in  spring  to  put  this  soil  in  first- 
class  condition  and  keep  it  that  way  dur- 
ing the  year. 

The  time  to  plow  that  part  of  the  or- 
chard seeded  to  cover  crop  must  be  gov- 
erned almost  entirely  by  the  amount  of 
moisture  obtainable  after  the  first  of  May 
of  each  year.  If  there  is  an  abundance 
to  be  depended  upon,  permit  the  crop  to 
grow  as  tall  as  possible  without  becom- 
ing woody,  and  then  turn  it  under.  If 
there  is  danger,  as  there  is  in  all  non- 
irrigated  sections,  of  a  shortage,  leave 
as  late  as  consistent  with  safety  and  then 
plow.     In   either  case,  the  plowing  must 


244 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


be  followed  by  thoroughly  working  clown 
the  surface  with  disc  or  similar  tool  to 
chop  lip  the  crop  and  pack  the  soil  down 
to  preserve  the  moisture.  Continue  the 
surface  tillage  from  now  on  until  August, 
and  seed  again  to  cover  crop  if  necessary. 
The  depth  at  which  the  surface  work- 
ing tool  should  run  has  been  carefully 
tested  out  both  in  the  laboratory  and  in 
the  orchard.  As  a  result  of  these  tests 
we  find  that  from  three  and  a  half  to 
four  inches  of  dust  mulch  is  as  effective 
to  conserve  moisture  as  10  or  12  inches. 

W.   S.  TlIORXBER 

From  a  Connecticut  Vieir  Point 

Where  Rainfall  Is  Light — Under  the 
system  of  clean  culture,  cultivation  com- 
mences as  soon  as  the  soil  may  be  worked 
in  the  spring  and  continues  till  about 
the  middle  of  August.  It  is  recommended 
especially  for  sections  where  the  rainfall 
is  light  during  the  growing  season.  By 
maintaining  a  loose  dust  mulch  on  the 
surface  the  system  is  very  effective  in 
conserving  moisture.  On  the  other  hand 
the  continuous  cultivation  tends  to  de- 
plete the  supply  of  plant  food  and  humus, 
or  decaying  vegetable  matter.  To  main- 
tain the  fertility  of  the  soil  under  this 
system  requires  liberal  applications  of 
stable  manure  or  some  substitute.  This 
system,  as  practiced  by  some  growers,  is 
very  similar  to  tillage  with  cover  crops, 
and  gives  fairly  good  results.  These 
growers  cease  cultivating  about  the  mid- 
dle of  July  or  the  first  of  August  and 
allow  the  weeds  to  grow  up  and  cover 
the  ground.  The  weeds  here  assume  the 
function  of  a  cover  crop.  Clean  culture 
alone  not  recommended.  The  clean  cul- 
ture system,  pure  and  simple,  is  not 
recommended  for  Connecticut. 

Time — The  early  spring  plowing  should 
be  followed  by  repeated  cultivations.  The 
aim  should  be  to  keep  a  deep,  loose  soil- 
mulch  on  the  surface.  The  most  success- 
ful apple  growers  harrow  their  orchards 
every  eight  or  ten  days  during  this  period, 
and  oftener,  if  rains  occur  in  the  interim. 
This  treatment  liberates  plant  food,  saves 
moisture,  and  keeps  the  weeds  down.  Any 
tool   that  will   keep  the   surface   loose   is 


suitable  for  this  purpose.  About  July 
1.5th  cultivation  should  cease  and  the 
ground  be  sown  to  some  good  cover  crop, 
to  be  plowed  under  in  the  following 
spring. 

A  good  cover  crop  should  make  suffi- 
cient growth  to  protect  the  ground  during 
the  winter  and  spring  and  to  sui)ply 
abundant  vegetable  matter,  which,  when 
turned  under,  will  improve  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil  and  will  contribute 
plant  food.  The  clovers  and  winter 
vetches  are  very  suitable  for  this  pur- 
pose. These  crops  are  nitrogen  gatherers 
and  if  a  large  growth  is  produced  and 
turned  under  each  year,  there  should  be 
no  need  for  the  application  of  nitrogenous 
fertilizers.  On  the  contrary,  by  repeated 
cover  cropping  it  is  possible,  especially  in 
later  years,  to  produce  too  much  wood 
growth.  In  which  case,  instead  of  plow- 
ing under  the  cover  crop,  it  may  be 
mowed  and  left  on  the  ground.  The  ob- 
ject should  be  to  produce  a  normal  and 
uninterrupted  annual  growth.  Trees  that 
grow  too  fast  are  more  likely  to  be  in- 
jured by  severe  winters,  to  have  a  weak 
root  system,  and  to  form  a  structure  that 
is  not  sufficiently  strong  to  bear  the 
weight  of  large  crops  of  fruit.  Most  fruit 
growers,  however,  are  more  likely  to  err 
in  the  other  direction  and  allow  their 
trees  to  become  stunted,  from  which  con- 
dition they  nia3'  never  recover. 

Grass   Mnlcli   on   Hillsides 

On  rugged  hillsides  where  there  would 
be  danger  of  washing,  the  necessity  for 
retaining  a  sod  cover  is  undisputed.  In 
view  of  the  difficulty  of  conducting  the 
spraying  and  harvesting  operations  on 
steep  hillsides,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether 
such  land  should  ever  be  chosen  for  or- 
chard purposes.  It  is  probable  that  a  com- 
bination of  the  mulch  and  tillage  sys- 
tems will  be  found  most  useful  for  New 
England  conditions.  The  important 
thing  to  remember  at  this  time  is  that, 
regardless  of  what  system  the  grower  in- 
tends to  follow,  the  preparation  of  the 
land  is  essentially  the  same.  On  steep 
hillsides,  however,  where  cultivation  is 
not  feasible,  the  trees  may  be  set  in  the 
sod   and   small   circles   cultivated   around 


APPLES 


245 


them  with  a  grubbing  hoe.  Even  in  such 
cases  it  would  be  better  to  break  up  the 
sod  over  the  whole  area  and  immediately 
reseed  the  land  to  clover. 

Sod  Culture  for  Jfew  Eugrlaiid 

This  system  in  its  most  ruinous  form 
is  the  one  commonly  practiced  in  New 
England,  and  is  largely  responsible  for 
the  unproductive  condition  of  the  ordi- 
nary farmer's  orchard.  The  apple  spec- 
ialists, as  a  rule,  favor  the  tillage  sys- 
tem, yet  there  are  many  commercial 
growers  who  hold  to  some  form  of  sod 
culture.  The  special  advantage  of  sod 
culture  is  the  possibility  of  producing 
fruit  of  better  color,  but  this  is  probably 
offset  by  the  possibility  of  increasing  the 
yield  by  means  of  tillage.  It  is  remark- 
able that  fruit  from  sod  orchards  has 
carried  off  many  of  the  premiums  at 
recent  fruit  exhibitions  in  the  East.  This 
is  especially  true  at  fall  fairs  that  are 
held  too  early  for  winter  varieties  grown 
under  cultivation.  The  main  purpose  of 
growing  apples,  however,  is  not  to  win 
premiums  and  the  man  who  tills  his  or- 
chard must  get  his  reward  in  higher 
profits.  The  questions  for  the  grower  to 
settle  are,  which  system  is  best  suited 
to  his  conditions — his  location,  his  soil, 
his  markets,  and  his  other  interests — 
and  which  will  give  him  the  best  return 
for  the  capital  invested. 

There  are  probably  many  orchards  in 
New  England  situated  upon  washy  slopes 
where  some  form  of  sod  culture  is  the 
only  feasible  method.  It  is  probable,  also, 
that  many  more  of  the  rugged  and  washy 
hillsides  will  eventually  be  planted  to 
apples.  This  need  not  concern  us  now. 
however,  for  there  are  thousands  of  acres 
of  ideal  orchard  land  available  in  every 
state  of  New  England,  and  so  long  as 
this  condition  prevails,  it  would  seem  ad- 
visable to  select  for  orcharding  land  upon 
which  the  regular  operations  may  be  most 
conveniently  and  expeditiously  performed. 
There  is  often  more  or  less  washing,  how- 
ever, on  some  of  the  gentle  slopes,  es- 
pecially where  the  soil  is  of  an  imner- 
vious  nature.  Serious  trouble  from  this 
cause  usually  may  be  prevented  by  cover 
propping  or  by  leaving  strips  of  sod  along 


or  between  the  rows  of  trees  and  at  right 
angles  to  the  slope. 

C.  D.  Jarvi.s, 
Storrs,   Cuun. 

TOOLS  FOR  ORCHARD   CULTIVATION 

Steel  Plow — One  of  the  first  tools  which 
the  orchardist  needs  is  the  ordinary 
steel  turning  plow.  This  is  needed  es- 
pecially in  breaking  up  the  hard  soil  at 
a  greater  depth  than  any  other  plow 
will  break  it:  it  is  needed  in  turning 
under  a  coating  of  manure.  If  cover 
crops  are  grown  it  is  needed  in  turning 
them  under,  and  for  cutting  roots  there 
is  no  other  implement  used  in  the  orchard 
with  which  the  work  can  be  done  so  well. 


Fig.  1.  A    Single    Disc    of    the    Spade    of    Cut- 
away Type. 

Disc — Another  implement  is  the  disc, 
which  does  not  turn  the  soil,  but  cuts 
it,  loosens  and  stirs  it.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  discs  in  use — one  of  these,  which 
is  called  the  spade  or  cut-away  disc,  is 
cut  into  several  sections  and  acts  on  the 
soil  much  after  the  manner  of  the  hand 
spade.  This  implement  is  considered  bet- 
ter on  hard  soils  than  the  other,  which 
is  called  the  concave  disc  and  cuts  away 
the  soil  as  it  rolls  over  the  ground  in- 
stead of  spading  it.  This  is  perhaps  bet- 
ter on  light,  loose  soils  where  there  are 
no  obstructions,  but  it  is  not  good  on 
rocky  land,  or  on  land  where  there  is 
brush,  weeds,  pruning,  or  such  like  things 
on  the  surface,  or  on  lands  that  are  hard 
and    compact.      These    discs    are    now    so 


246 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig. 


Discers  at  Work  in  Young  Orchard. 


arranged  that  they  may  be  made  to 
project  at  a  considerable  distance  under 
the  trees.  This  enables  the  orchardist, 
even  where  there  are  overhanging 
branches  reaching  nearly  to  the  ground. 
to  cultivate   all  the  soil. 

Tools  for  Low-headed  Trees — We  advo- 
cate low  heading.  We  do  it  with  the 
knowledge  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  cul- 
tivate in  an  orchard  of  this  kind  than 
where  the  head  of  the  tree  is  three  or 
four  feet  from  the  ground,  but  we  know 
furthermore   that   low   heading   is   better 


Extension    Disc.    Convenient    for 
tivating  Under  Low  Trees. 


for  the  tree  and  makes  it  easier  to  pick 
the  fruit,  prune  and  spray,  also  that  the 
fruit  bruises  less  in  falling,  and  we  ad- 
vocate it  notwithstanding  the  difficulties 
in  cultivation,  knowing  that  machinery 
can  be  so  built  and  arranged  as  to  make 
cultivation   practicable. 

Gr-^nville  Lowther 

COVER  CBOPS 

There  has  been  a  great  deal  of  discus- 
sion on  the  question  of  growing  cover 
crops  in  orchards.  I  confess  that  tor  the 
sake  of  neatness,  and  to  meet  our  ideal 
of  beauty  in  the  orchard,  I  like  clean 
cultivation.  The  main  question,  however, 
is.  "Does  it  produce  better  fruit,  and  does 
it  in  general  improve  the  soil,  thereby 
bringing  better  results,  than  does  the  use 
of  some  kind  of  cover  crop?"  For  cover 
crop  we  generally  use  some  leguminous 
plant.  In  some  states  blue  grass,  or  what 
is  called  orchard  grass,  is  used  as  a  cover 
crop.    Sometimes  buckwheat  or  timothy  is 


APPLES 


247 


used,  but  these  will  not  be  considered  in 
our  discussion,  because  I  do  not  favor 
the  growing  of  any  crop  in  the  orchard 
that  competes  with  the  trees  for  moisture 
and  plant  food,  unless  in  so  doing  they 
put  more  into  the  orchard  than  they  take 
out.  The  leguminous  plants  are  preferred 
because  they  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air 
and  deposit  it  in  the  soil.  The  rotting  of 
the  top  adds  humus,  and  the  decaying  of 
the  roots  improves  the  soil. 

Needs  of  Soil   Considered 

The  kind  of  crops  that  should  be  grown 
depends  largely  on  the  character  of  the 
soil.  For  instance,  a  sandy  soil  that  has 
little  or  no  humus  would  be  greatly  im- 
proved by  the  growing  of  some  crops  that 
would  add  plant  food.  We  have  seen  sandy 
soils  on  which  nothing  would  grow  but 
sand  burrs.  After  these  had  rotted  for 
a  few  years  and  been  mixed  with  the 
surface  soil  the  character  of  the  soil  was 
changed  and  then  grass  and  vegetables 
could  be  grown.  Any  of  these  soils,  in 
the  sandy  or  volcanic  ash  regions,  in  an 
arid  or  semi-arid  climate,  will  be  greatly 
improved  by  a  mixture  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter. Other  soils  are  rich  in  humus  and 
could  scarcely  be  improved  by  the  addition 
of  more,  therefore  leguminous  crops  are 
not  needed  for  the  humus  which  they 
will  deposit  in  this  kind  of  soil;  yet  the 
soil  might  be  improved  by  the  nitrogen 
which  they  would  deposit,  for  generally 
where  there  is  a  large  amount  of  humus 
there  has  been  a  large  amount  of  rainfall 
which  has  washed  out  of  the  soil  many 
of  the  substances  that  are  necessary  for 
the  production  of  the  best  fruits. 

Why  Cover  Crops  Are  Grown 

Perhaps  it  is  well  to  consider  the  rea- 
sons why  cover  crops  are  grown  and  then 
each  one  may  decide  for  himself  what 
crop  is  best  adapted  to  his  circumstances: 

First:  They  are  grown  to  check  the 
growth  of  the  trees  in  the  late  summer 
and  autumn  so  that  they  will  mature  their 
wood  sufficiently  to  endure  the  cold  freez- 
ing of  the  winter  without  being  winter- 
killed. 

Second :  They  are  grown  to  keep  the 
soil  from  washing  or  leeching  away  by 
the    autumn,    winter    and    spring    rains. 


This  is  especially  important  where  there 
is  much  rain  during  the  winter  season, 
and  where  the  land  is  uneven  or  hilly. 

Third:  They  are  grown  to  add  humus 
to  the  soil,  and  this,  as  we  have  already 
shown,  is  very  important  tor  soils  of  a 
certain   character. 

Fourth:  They  are  grown  to  add  nitro- 
gen to  the  soil.  A  chemical  analysis  of 
soils  made  by  the  experiment  station  will 
show  what  any  particular  soil  needs. 

Fifth;  They  are  grown  to  break  up 
the  hard  subsoil  so  that  the  roots  of  the 
trees  may  have  a  larger  extension  from 
which  to  draw  plant  food. 

Sixth;  They  are  grown  to  aerate  the 
soil,  lead  the  water  down  to  a  greater 
depth  and  thus  make  a  larger  amount 
of  plant  food  available. 

Seventh;  It  is  now  claimed  that  these 
leguminous  crops,  especially  alfalfas  and 
clovers,  are  the  best  curatives  for  what 
is  called  apple  rosette,  a  disease  that 
is  attacking  the  trees  in  some  sections 
of  the  country   (See  Rosette.) 

Much,  therefore,  depends  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil  and  other  conditions  as 
to  what  should  be  grown,  and  much  de- 
pends on  the  intelligence  and  good  judg- 
ment of  the  grower  as  to  the  degree  of 
success  that  may  be  reached  by  the  grow- 
ing of  such  crops.  For  Instance,  if  there 
is  a  hard  substratum  that  needs  to  be 
broken  up  in  order  that  the  roots  of  the 
trees  may  penetrate  more  deeply,  alfalfa 
is  doubtless  the  very  best  leguminous 
crop,  because  it  has  the  largest,  the  most 
vigorous  root  system  of  any  of  the  legu- 
minous plants,  penetrating  sometimes  to 
a  depth  of  20  feet  below  the  surface.  In 
loose,  deep,  gravelly  or  sandy  soils  the 
breaking  up  is  not  necessar.v:  and  some- 
thing with  a  smaller  root  system  would  do 
just  as  well  as  alfalfa  and  perhaps  have 
a  larger  top  system  and  therefore  fur- 
nish more  humus.  Where  humus  is 
needed  and  not  the  breaking  up  of  the 
subsoil,  clover  or  vetch  would  be  better 
than   alfalfa. 

B«nioTiMff    the    Crop 

The  question  is  often  asked.  "Is  it  per- 
missible to  cut  the  hay  or  pasture  the 
orchard,    if   cover   crops   are   grown?"     I 


248 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


see  no  possible  objection  to  this,  provided 
an  equivalent  in  the  form  of  barnyard 
manure  or  some  other  kind  of  fertilizer 
is  placed  on  the  land.  In  the  growing 
of  cover  crops  the  trees  get  the  benefit 
of  the  root  system  of  the  cover  crop,  no 
matter  whether  the  top  is  fed  to  stock 
or  allowed  to  rot  on  the  ground.  It  may 
just  as  well  be  fed  to  stock  as  allowed 
to  decay  for  the  purpose  of  adding  humus 
to  the  soil,  provided  barnyard  manure  is 
used  to  add  the  same  amount  of  humus 
that  the  top  system  would  have  added, 
and  there  is  this  advantage,  that  an  acre 
of  alfalfa  or  clover  in  an  orchard  should 
yield  something  like  three  or  four  tons 
per  annum  worth  from  $5  to  $10  per  ton. 
while  its  equivalent  in  manure  can  be 
placed  on  the  soil  for  about  $1  per  ton. 

Therefore,  a  considerable  difference  in 
profit  would  grow  out  of  the  use  of  the 
alfalfa  or  clover,  while  during  the  winter 
season  when  not  much  else  could  be  done 
in  the  orchard  the  barnyard  manure  could 
be  hauled  and  put  on  the  land. 

Wliat  Xot  to  Grow 

Among  the  crops  which  should  not  be 
grown    in     orchards    are    timothy,     corn. 


wheat  and  oats.  I  have  watched  with 
considerable  interest  the  effects  of  certain 
crops  upon  the  growing  trees.  In  one 
orchard  I  noted  that  for  four  successive 
years  wheat  had  been  grown  between  the 
rows,  and  at  the  age  of  four  years  these 
trees  were  not  as  large  as  trees  three 
years  old  across  the  road  and  growing 
under  similar  conditions,  but  without 
wheat.  I  have  noted  similar  results  with 
corn.  Corn  and  wheat  do  not  take  from 
the  soil  more  of  the  substances  needed 
by  the  trees  than  do  vegetable  crops,  but 
the  latter  require  more  cultivation  and 
are  usually  rotated. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount 
of  niti'ogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
said  to  be  removed  from  the  soil  by  the 
various  crops  in  one  year.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  these  are  three  of  the  ele- 
ments which  the  apple  tree  very  much 
needs,  and  that  the  reason  why  alfalfa, 
clover,  vetch,  beans,  peas  and  other  legu- 
minous plants  are  said  to  be  good  for  the 
soil  is  largely  because  they  gather  nitro- 
gen from  the  air  in  excess  of  what  they 
use   from   the   soil. 

Gk.vnville  Lowtiier 


Table  Showing  Amount  of  Nitrosreii,  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash  Removed  from  the 

Soil  by  Certain  Crops 

Phosphoric 
Name  of  Crop  Nitrogen       Acid        Potash 

Barley  . 78 

Buckwheat  63 

Cabbage   (white)    213 

Cauliflower  , 202 

Cattle  turnips  187 

Carrots    166 

Clover,  green  (trifolium  pratense) 171 

Clover   (trifolium  pratense) 37 

Clover,  scarlet  (trifolium  incarnatum) 95 

Clover  (trifolium  repens) 89 

Cow  pea 254 

Corn  146 

Corn  fodder  (green) 122 

Cotton   iiO 

Cucumbers 142 

Esparsette 239 

Hops 200 

Hem|)  

Lettuce    -- 41 

Lucern    (alfalfa)    289 

Lui)ine,  green   (for  fodder) 219 

Lupine,  yellow    (lupinus  luteus) 80 

Meadow  hay 166 

Oats                                                                89 

Onions                                  96 


35 

62 

40 

17 

125 

514 

76 

265 

74 

426 

65 

190 

46 

154 

18 

29 

17 

57 

29 

58 

64 

169 

69 

174 

66 

236 

32 

35 

94 

193 

36 

103 

54 

127 

34 

54 

17 

72 

65 

181 

46 

63 

37 

155 

53 

201 

35 

96 

49 

96 

APPLES 


249 


Peas    (pisum   sativum)  153 

Poppy    87 

Potatoes 119 

Rape    154 

Rice  39 

Rve : 87 

Seradella  : 128 

Sojy  bean  297 

Sugar  cane  518 

Sorghum  (sorghum  saccharatum) 446 

Sugar   beet    (beet-root) 95 

Tobacco  127 

Vetch  ( visia  sativa) 149 

Wheat  Ill 


39 

G9 

30 

87 

55 

192 

79 

124 

24 

45 

44 

76 

57 

196 

62 

87 

37 

107 

90 

561 

44 

200 

32 

148 

35 

113 

45 

58 

Co^er  Crops  as  Adapted  to  Missouri 
Soils 

Cover  crops  are  highly  essential  to  the 
present  success  of  the  orchard,  but  espec- 
ially to  its  future  success — the  lack  of  it 
may  explain  failure. 

The  more  we  learn  of  cover  crops  the 
more  we  appreciate  their  importance.  We 
have  had  more  or  less  experience  in  our 
plants  in  Missouri  and  other  states.  We 
have  observed  the  cover  crops  used  in 
the  peach  orchards  of  Georgia  and  other 
southern  states,  of  the  Lake  Shore  country 
of  New  York,  of  Michigan,  Ohio.  Mary- 
land. Delaware,  etc.,  and  throughout  our 
own  state  and  particularly  the  cover  crops 
— and  too  often  the  lack  of  them — in  the 
West  and  Northwest.  We  often  hear  the 
orchardists  explain  that  we  don't  get  the 
crops  of  the  old  times  when  this  was  a 
virgin  country.  To  repeat  such  crops 
one  essential  is  to  put  the  soil  in  as  near 
the  fertile  condition  it  was  following  the 
removal  of  the  forests.  The  mineral  ele- 
ments of  the  soil  remain  but  the  humus 
has  been  "burned  out."  Too  many  or- 
chards are  starving,  actually  starving — 
and  especially  is  this  true  of  our  Ozark 
regions. 

We  have  heard  the  advocation  of  weeds 
as  a  cover  crop.  Perchance  weeds  may 
be  better  than  nothing,  but  is  that  good, 
up-to-date  teaching? 

The  average  soil  on  chemical  analysis 
shows  a  fair  to  a  large  amount  of  potash, 
phosphate  and  other  necessary  elements. 
It  is  not  a  question  of  buying  a  carload 
of  fertilizer  and  wondering  if  it  will  pay. 
Commercial  fertilizer  may  pay  and  often 
does:  and  it  is  sometimes  necessary  when 
the    soil    has    been    worn    out    but    where 


soil  contains  the  necessary  minerals,  and 
the  air  the  necessary  nitrogen,  the  ques- 
tion should  be  only  one  of  making  use 
of  what  you  already  have,  by  putting  it 
into  an  available  form,  and  not  of  buying 
a  few  tons  of  fertilizer.  The  nitrogen 
will  be  supplied  from  the  atmosphere  by 
the  leguminous  crops.  The  organic  mat- 
ter which  is  also  added  by  these  legumi- 
nous crops  tends  to  make  the  mineral  of 
the  soil  more  available,  and  with  proper 
management  most  soils  will  furnish  all 
the  necessary  potash,  etc.  A  little  green 
manure  should  be  added  every  year, 
which  will  increase  the  nitrogen.  This 
is  the  cheapest  method  as  it  can  be  done 
by  means  of  cover  and  catch  crops  at  the 
end  of  the  growing  season  when  other 
crops  have  been  removed. 

Where  any  cover  crop  or  manure  is 
turned  under,  it  forms  humus,  which 
makes  the  soil  darker,  and  by  test  it 
has  been  shown  that  a  dark  soil  is  some 
degi'ees  warmer  than  the  same  soil  when 
lighter  in  color,  when  under  the  same  con- 
ditions. 

Humus  in  the  soil  makes  it  act  like  a 
sponge.  It  makes  the  soil  more  porous 
and  able  to  hold  more  water  and  retain 
it  longer.  It  makes  a  stiff  clay  soil  of 
lighter  tilth  by  separating  and  loosening 
the  soil  particles  rendering  cultivation 
easier. 

There  are  a  number  of  bacteria  work- 
ing in  the  soil.  They  must  all  have  food, 
and  the  beneficial  ones  are  dependent, 
more  or  less,  on  humus  and  the  decaying 
organic  matter  from  which  it  is  formed. 
When  these  bacteria  work,  or  "digest" 
the  humus,  they  set  free  carbon  dioxide. 
The    carbon    dioxide    is    a    gas    which    is 


250 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


taken  up  by  the  soil  water.  This  solu- 
tion is  then  able  to  dissolve  many  in- 
soluble minerals  from  the  soil  which  are 
necessary  as  plant  food.  Such  substances 
as  rock  phosphate  and  limestone,  which 
are  practically  insoluble  in  pure  water, 
are  made  soluble  and  available  as  plant 
food  by  the  action  of  this  carbon  dioxide 
in   water. 

Humus  is  partially  decomposed  vege- 
table matter.  When  the  vegetable  matter 
forms  humus,  or  the  humus  breaks  down 
to  form  still  simpler  compounds,  heat  is 
liberated.  Whether  a  pile  of  leaves  is 
burned  or  allowed  to  rot,  the  same  amount 
of  heat  is  given  off  in  either  case.  This 
means  that  the  decaying  organic  matter 
in  the  soil  makes  it  warmer  and  drier  in 
the  spring.  Thus  growth  will  start  ear- 
lier and  be  faster  throughout  the  entire 
season. 

Bacteria  working  in  the  soil,  especially 
during  warm  weather,  are  continually 
setting  free  food  in  the  form  of  nitrates. 
and  other  minerals  are  also  changing  to 
soluble  form.  The  nitrates,  unless  used 
immediately,  are  liable  to  be  lost  by 
leaching  away  in  the  drainage  water. 
There  are  some  minerals  also  more  or 
less  soluble  that  may  be  lost  by  washing 
away  in  drainage  water.  However,  their 
loss  is  not  so  great  as  that  of  nitrogen. 
To  avoid  this,  a  crop  is  necessary  dur- 
ing the  whole  growing  season.  At  the 
first  of  the  season,  the  orchard  while 
growing  can  handle  and  use  all  of  this 
available  plant  food.  Later  on.  when 
the  orchard  growth  is  less  active,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  cover  crop  of  some 
sort  to  use  this  food  and  get  it  in  a  form 
that  can  be  carried  over  until  the  next 
season  without  loss.  Such  crops  as  clover 
are  especially  good.  They  not  only  use 
all  the  available  nitrogen  in  the  soil,  but 
they  add  more  from  the  air.  and  in  the 
spring  they  decay  readily,  liberating  their 
contents  to  be   used   by   the   trees. 

The  ideal  cultivation  for  orchards  in 
the  Central  West  is,  we  believe,  inten- 
sive, clean  culture  from  early  spring  to 
June,  then  seed  to  cow  peas — either  drill- 
ing and  cultivating  or  broad  casting.  In 
this  connection,  the  Western  Fruit  Grower 
says: 


"Regarding  cover  crops  for  the  Middle 
West,  will  say  that  we  agree  with  you 
that  nothing  is  better  than  cow  peas,  ex- 
cept that  lots  of  orchards  are  on  hills  so 
steep  that  it  will  not  do  to  give  them  cul- 
tivation in  early  spring,  during  the  rainy 
season.  We  think  that  very  soon  we  shall 
have  to  adopt  a  plan  of  cultivating  two 
rows  and  leaving  the  next  two  rows  in 
clover  and  alternating  this  treatment." 

There  are  numerous  and  various  vari- 
eties of  cow  peas  adapted  to  the  different 
orchard  regions.  Occasionally,  we  have 
followed  a  crop  of  cow  peas  with  a  crop 
of  corn.  During  the  last  cultivation  of 
the  corn  more  peas  are  sown  or  hairy 
vetch.  The  vetch  supplies  a  fine  crop 
for  plowing  under  in  the  spring.  Vetch 
also  becomes  a  profitable  pasturage  crop 
for  hogs  when  their  age  and  size  will  per- 
mit pasturing  them  without  injury  to 
young  trees.  On  this  subject  of  hairy 
vetch,  Agrostologist  F.  Lamson  Scribner 
in   1895   reported: 

"Hairy  vetch  sown  in  autumn  will  cover 
the  ground  and  prevent  washing  during 
the  winter.  It  is  one  of  the  best  crops  to 
turn  under  as  green  manure.  Do  not 
commence  to  feed  hairy  vetches  until  they 
have  begun  to  bloom.  Like  most  of  the 
bean  and  clover  family  they  are  some- 
what diuretic  if  fed  in  large  quantities 
before  mature.  Use  caution  in  feeding 
until  the  animals  have  become  accustomed 
to  the  change  of  feed." 

Peas  may  be  utilized  in  the  same  way 
— just  as  you  would  clover.  We  have  occa- 
sionally used  a  crop  of  red  clover  but  its 
use  is  too  familiar  to  need  further  com- 
ment here.  We  have  also  used  alsyke 
clover,  which  in  some  cases  is  better  than 
red  clover. 

Some  sort  of  cover  crop  throughout  the 
winter  not  only  prevents  washing,  which 
is  so  disastrous,  but  holds  the  winter 
snows,  and  lessens  the  depth  of  alter- 
nate freezing  and  thawing.  Also  in  gath- 
ering the  crop  in  the  fall,  it  makes  pick- 
ing and  hauling  of  fruit  a  much  cheaper 
and  cleaner  job. 

The  rapid  growth  induced  by  cultiva- 
tion through  the  first  of  the  season  is 
inclined  to  make  the  new  wood  of  the 
trees  soft  and  tender.  To  check  this 
growth  and  harden  the  wood  for  winter, 
a  cover  crop  is  necessary.  The  weeds 
or  volunteer  grasses  might  be  allowed  to 


APPLES 


251 


fulfill  the  same  purposes,  but  they  do  not 
add  the  same  amount  of  fiber  to  the  soil, 
and  they  certainly  add  absolutely  noth- 
ing in  the  way  of  nitrogen  from  the  air. 

During  several  years  I  have  traveled 
over  considerable  country,  particularly 
the  Ozark  region  of  Missouri  and  Arkan- 
sas, and  I  may  be  pardoned  for  stating 
that  the  strongest,  healthiest,  most  vig- 
orous growth  I  saw  on  these  trips  was  in 
our  Rolla  orchard  thus  cultivated.  And 
I  believe  that  in  a  generous  use  of  cover 
crops  in  orchards  throughout  the  state, 
particularly  on  the  thinner  soils,  the  value 
of  the  crops  may  be  continually  increased. 
Also  the  life  and  productive  age  of  the 
orchard  materially  increased. 

Rye  has  been  used  to  a  limited  extent, 
but  it  has  not  been  so  successful  a  crop 
in  the  Rolla  country  as  peas,  vetch  and 
clover.  When  the  trees  are  getting  too 
much  nitrogen,  the  growth  is  rank  and 
succulent;  cover  crops  are  just  as  neces- 
sary but  rye  or  some  other  non-legumi- 
nous crop  should  be  used.  It  gives  humus 
and  protection  without  adding  more  nitro- 
gen, and  also  serves  as  a  check  which 
helps  the  formation  of  fruit  buds. 

The  growing  of  Spanish  peanuts  in 
young  orchards  is  worthy  of  a  trial.  We 
have  also  used  velvet  beans,  which  we 
believe  are  adapted  to  conditions  further 
south  where  the  season  is  longer  and 
will  mature  the  crop. 

Needs  of  XortlnTest  Soils 

During  the  past  season,  in  company 
with  Mr.  Irvine,  editor  of  the  "Fruit 
Grower,"  I  visited  the  orchard  regions  of 
Colorado,  Utah,  Idaho,  Oregon,  Washing- 
ton, and  Montana.  We  made  it  a  point 
to  inquire  about  cover  crops.  Generally 
our  Western  friends  all  admitted  that 
they  knew  little  about  them  and  felt 
their  need,  some  had  had  little  experi- 
ence with  clover.  Their  soil,  rich  in  min- 
erals, is  often  deficient  in  humus.  This 
is  one  of  the  greatest  problems  they  have 
to  solve,  and  is  one  to  which  they  should 
give  far  more  attention. 

There  are  many  forms  of  mineral  plant 
food  in  the  soil  which  are  not  available 
to  many  of  our  cultivated  plants.  Even 
under  the  best  conditions  thev  have  not 


the  power  to  use  them.  On  the  other 
hand,  certain  of  our  cover  crops  can 
digest  these  less  available  foods,  and 
when  they  decay  leave  them  in  the  form 
convenient  for  other  weaker  plants. 

Work  of  Deep  Booting  Plants 

Many  plants  cannot  work  below  the 
surface  layer  of  the  soil,  that  is,  they  can- 
not go  down  into  the  subsoil.  Subsoil 
contains  a  large  amount  of  mineral;  in 
fact,  the  surface  layer  is  merely  a  sub- 
soil to  which  humus  has  been  added  by 
the  growing  plants.  This  subsoil  is  very 
rich  in  the  necessary  elements,  and  it  is 
the  clovers  and  other  cover  crops  which 
send  down  their  roots  into  this  subsoil 
and  bring  to  the  surface  foods  which 
other  plants  cannot  reach.  They  not  only 
bring  these  foods  to  the  surface  but  the 
roots  remain  down  there  and  decay.  Even- 
tually the  subsoil  is  incorporated  with 
the  surface  soil  or,  in  other  words,  the 
surface  soil  is  made  deeper  by  these  roots 
working  around  in  the  subsoil,  loosening 
it   up   and   adding  humus   to   it. 

The  higher  elevations  are  not  adapted 
to  the  growth  of  cow  peas,  but  doubtless 
our  plant  breeders  will  give  us  hardier 
strains  and  varieties  adapted  to  every 
condition.  Clover  can  be  used  advan- 
tageously, but  perhaps  it  is  not  the  ideal 
crop  for  these  localities  where  intensive 
cultivation  is  practiced.  The  hairy  vetch 
is  probably  one  of  the  very  best  crops 
suited  to  such  method.  Intensive  clean 
culture  can  be  given  until  mid-summer, 
then  sowing  vetch  and  turning  it  under 
the  following  spring.  We  have  found 
Canadian  peas  a  most  desirable  cover 
crop  in  the  Genesee  valley  of  New  York. 
These  peas  are  also  utilized  very  largely 
in  New  Mexico.  This  is  a  great  crop  for 
the  fattening  of  lambs  and  hogs,  and 
here  is  a  suggestion  that  may  be  of  some 
value  to  the  West,  Grow  these  peas  as 
a  crop  for  the  fattening  of  sheep  and 
hogs,  thereby  manufacturing  at  home  a 
most  valuable  brand  of  fertilizer  which 
is  one  of  the  most  effective  methods  of 
supplying  the  humus  required  by  Western 
soils. 

While  in  the  West  we  noticed  a  few  or- 
chards sown  in  clover  and  for  partial  cul- 


252 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


tivation  they  plowed  a  strip  and  left  a 
strip.  The  strip  left  standing  thus  be- 
came a  seeder  for  the  strip  turned  under, 
and  so  caused  fairly  good  cultivation. 

Captain  Shawhan  of  Payette,  Idaho, 
the  products  of  whose  orchards  attracted 
most  favorable  attention  and  some  blue 
ribbons  at  the  Council  Bluffs  Apple  Show, 
and  also  at  the  Spokane  Apple  Show — 
believes  in  cover  crops,  and  the  adding 
of  humus  to  the  soil,  thus  feeding  his 
trees.  He  says  when  he  takes  such  won- 
drous crops  of  fruit  from  his  trees  that 
he  feels  in  duty  hound  to  give  them 
something  in  return.  Therefore,  in  addi- 
tion to  cover  crops  he  makes  generous 
application  of  barnyard  manure,  and  the 
soil  is  so  porous  and  loose  that  in  walk- 
ing through  the  orchard  one  sinks  to  his 
shoe  tops. 

Conuiiercial  Ferlilizers 

In  planting  a  later  addition  to  the 
Rolla  orchard,  consisting  of  15,000  trees, 
mostly  one-year,  but  with  some  two-year, 
we  applied  to  each  tree  several  pounds 
of  Commercial  583  and  bone  meal.  Every 
tree  lived,  not  one  failed  to  grow  and  all 
made  a  most  vigorous  growth.  Planters 
of  Western  orchards  on  land  deficient  in 
himius  have  supplied  the  deficiency  by 
this  method  rather  than  lose  a  year's 
time  in  the  cultivation  of  some  crop.  We 
suggest  that  each  tree  be  given,  at  the 
time  of  planting,  several  pounds  of  sheep 
or  other  manure,  or  some  commercial 
brand  of  fertilizer,  as  may  be  convenient. 
Abundant  humus  may  then  be  supplied 
by  the  cover  crop  to  follow.  This  method 
is  also  suggested  for  old  lands  lacking 
in  fertility.  The  mone.v  and  time  spent 
in  applying  a  stimulant  will  prove  a 
profitable  investment. 

William  P.  Stark, 

Louisiana,    ilo. 

CoTpr  Crops  for  Eastern   Conditions 

There  are  two  distinct  classes  of  cover 
crops.  There  are  those  that  live  over 
winter  and  commence  .growing  in  the  early 
spring,  like  the  clovers,  vetches,  and  rye, 
and  those  that  die  down  in  the  fall,  like 
cow  peas,  soy  beans,  turnips,  rape  and 
buckwheat.  Many  of  those  of  the  latter 
class  make   a  very   large  growth   and   in 


many  respects  are  superior  to  those  of 
the  former  class.  The  winter  cover  crops, 
however,  furnish  better  protection  to  the 
soil  and  roots  during  cold  weather,  and 
on  the  whole  are  better  suited  to  New 
England  conditions. 

Cover  crops  may  also  be  classified  ac- 
cording to  their  ability  to  contribute  to 
the  supply  of  plant  food  in  the  soil.  Plants 
belonging  to  the  legume  family,  such  as 
clover,  alfalfa,  vetch,  peas  and  beans,  have 
the  power  of  assimilating  nitrogen  from 
the  air  and  when  turned  under  contrib- 
ute to  the  supply  of  this  valuable  form 
of  plant  food.  It  will  be  observed  that 
some  of  these  nitrogen-gathering  crops 
belong  to  the  winter  group  and  some  to 
the  fall  group.  Under  certain  conditions 
a  non-leguminous  crop  may  be  more  serv- 
iceable than  a  nitrogen-gathering  one  and 
in  like  manner  a  fall  cover  crop  may 
often  be  just  as  useful  as  a  winter  one. 
If  the  trees  were  not  making  sufficient 
growth  a  leguminous  crop  would  probably 
be  desired,  while  if  the  trees  were  making 
sufficient  growth  and  there  appeared  to 
be  a  lack  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil, 
a  rapid  growing  non-leguminous  crop, 
such  as  winter  rye,  would  be  more  suit- 
able. In  locations  where  good  covering 
of  snow  may  be  depended  upon  and  where 
soils  are  not  likely  to  wash,  a  fall  cover 
crop  such  as  turnips,  rape,  buckwheat, 
cow  peas,  soy  beans,  or  horse  beans  would 
be  very  suitable.  The  three  last  named 
crops  are  nitrogen-gatherers  and  would 
be  more  suitable  than  the  former  three, 
if  the  trees  were  not  making  satisfactory 
growth. 

Oats,  barley  and  corn  are  occasionally 
used  as  cover  crops,  but  have  very  little 
to  commend  them.  They  draw  heavily 
upon  the  moisture  of  the  soil  when  the 
fruit  is  maturing  and  are  likely  to  affect 
the  yield  seriously. 

Turnips  and  rape  are  very  similar  and 
are  sometimes  used  for  cover  crops.  They 
are  more  useful  when  sown  in  combina- 
tion with  clover  than  when  grown  by 
themselves.  They  continue  growing  late  in 
the  fall  and  furnish  good  protection  to  the 
clover  plants.  Their  chief  value  lies  in 
their  ability  to  attack  and  break  up  in- 
soluble compounds  that  other  plants  can- 


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253 


not  use.  Whether  grown  alone  or  in  com- 
bination the  greatest  care  should  be  exer- 
cised in  using  just  the  right  quantity  of 
seed.  Those  who  have  not  had  experi- 
ence in  sowing  turnips  and  rape  are  al- 
most sure  to  use  too  much  seed.  Not  more 
than  one  pound  of  turnip  seed  should  be 
used  to  the  acre,  except  with  the  cow- 
horn  t.vpe.  Six  pounds  of  rape  seed  to 
the  acre  is  sutficient. 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat,  like  rye,  is  a  dependable 
crop  and  is  largely  used  by  the  apple 
growers  of  Western  New  York.  It  has 
a  pulverizing  influence  upon  the  soil  and 
is  useful  in  "smothering"  weeds.  It  does 
well  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil,  and  on 
account  of  its  ability  to  grow  on  very  poor 
soils  is  often  called  the  "poor  man's 
crop."  The  "poor  farmer's  crop"  would 
seem  to  he  a  more  suitable  appellation. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  sow  buckwheat  in 
an  orchard  until  August  1st.  or  later.  If 
sown  earlier  it  may  mature  its  seed  be- 
fore frost  comes  and  such  seed  will  cause 
trouble  in  the  spring.  Buckwheat  con- 
tributes to  the  soil  very  little  vegetable 
matter,  for  after  the  first  frost  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  find  the  remains  of  the  crops. 

Rye 

Rye  is  probably  the  most  reliable  of  all 
cover  crops  and  among  those  of  the  non- 
leguminous  class  it  is  the  most  satisfac- 
tory. The  most  important  requirement  of  a 
cover  crop  is  that  it  makes  a  cover  and 
where  other  crops  fail  rye  may  usually 
be  depended  upon.  The  greatest  objection 
to  this  crop  is  that  it  sometimes  makes 
such  a  large  growth  in  the  spring  that 
it  is  difficult  to  turn  it  under.  This  sel- 
dom happens  except  with  the  farmer 
who  is  habitually  behind  with  his  work. 

Legumes 

Canada  peas,  soy  beans  and  horse  beans 
are  sometimes  grown  as  cover  crops.  They 
are  nitrogen-gatherers  and  belong  to  the 
fall  group.  For  a  Connecticut  condition 
none  of  them  is  so  well  adapted  as  the 
cow   peas. 

Cow  Pea 

By  many  orchardists  the  cow  pea  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  best  plants  for  cover 
crop  purposes.     Of  the  autumn  group   it 


is  undoubtedly  the  most  satisfactory.  It 
is  a  hot  weather  plant  and  thrives  re- 
markably well  on  light  soils  and  in  dry 
seasons.  This  is  an  important  point  in 
its  favor,  for  it  is  a  common  occurrence 
to  have  very  dry  weather  about  the  time 
the  cover  crop  is  expected  to  make  its 
growth.  The  seed  may  be  sown  broad- 
cast, or  it  may  be  drilled  in.  The  variety 
"Whippoorwill"  is  probably  the  best  for 
cover  crop  purposes.  A  combination  of 
cow  peas  and  clover  makes  an  ideal  cover 
crop.  The  former  should  be  sown  in  drills 
about  two  feet  apart  and  not  later  than 
the  middle  of  July.  About  the  first  of 
August  the  clover  should  be  sown  broad- 
cast between  the  rows  and  harrowed  in. 
This  harrowing  will  be  of  great  benefit  to 
the  cow  peas,  giving  them  a  good  start.  In 
very  dry  seasons  the  sowing  of  the  clover 
may  be  deferred  and  cultivation  may  be 
continued  between  the  rows.  If  deferred 
too  long  the  clover  is  not  likely  to  become 
well  established  before  winter  sets  in  and 
is  likely  to  be  killed  before  spring.  Under 
such  conditions  rye  would  probably  give 
best  results.  About  one  bushel  of  cow- 
peas  and  12  to  1.5  pounds  of  clover  seed 
will  probably  be  about  the  right  quantity 
I)er  acre.  When  frost  comes  the  cow  peas 
will  be  killed,  leaving  the  clover  in  pos- 
session of  the  ground. 

Hairy  Vetch 

Hairy  or  winter  vetch  in  many  sections 
is  becoming  a  popular  cover  crop  for  or- 
chard purposes.  It  is  an  annual  and 
thrives  well  at  low  temperatures.  It  he- 
longs  to  the  nitrogen-gathering  group  and 
owing  to  its  prostrate  habit  of  growth  and 
its  habit  of  growing  in  late  fall  and  early 
spring,  is  well  suited  to  cover  crop  pur- 
poses. It  is  better  adapted  to  heavy  soil, 
but  when  sufficient  attention  is  given  to 
the  preparation  of  the  ground,  will  thrive 
remarkably  well  on  the  lighter  soils.  The 
harvesting  of  the  seed  is  a  difficult  opera- 
tion, especially  in  New  England,  and  for 
this  reason  the  seed  is  usually  very  high 
in  price.  Some  orchardists  have  been 
able  to  grow  their  own  seed  by  sowing 
rye  and  vetch  together.  The  rye  supports 
the  vetch,  facilitating  the  work  of  har- 
vesting. 


254 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


ClOTcrs 

The  clovers  make  good  cover  crops  and 
in  this  section  of  the  country  are  more 
generally  used  than  anything  else.  Some 
prefer  the  mammoth  clover  on  account  of 
Its  making  a  larger  growth.  Others  prefer 
the  common  red  clover,  vphile  still  others 
pin  their  faith  in  alsike.  Crimson  clover 
is  largely  used  and  in  sections  where  it 
may  he  depended  upon  to  stand  the  win- 
ter, is  undoubtedly  the  best  of  its  class.  It 
Is  a  very  rapid  grower,  but  in  most  sec- 
tions of  New  England  it  Is  likely  to  win- 
ter-kill and  for  this  reason  is  not  gener- 
ally recommended.  The  safest  plan  prob- 
ably is  to  mix  together  two  or  more  kinds, 
always  including  a  little  crimson.  Some 
growers  prefer  to  mix  in  a  little  turnip 
seed.  The  turnips  grow  rapidly  and  pro- 
tect the  young  clover  plants  from  the  hot 
sun.  A  suitable  mixture  may  be  made  up 
as  follows: 

Mammoth  clover  6  pounds 

Crimson  clover  6 

Alsike  clover  3 

Cowhorn  turnips  3    ounces 

Alfalfa  is  so  exacting  in  its  require- 
ments and  so  slow  in  starting  its  growth, 
that  it  is  seldom  used  for  cover  crop  pur- 
poses, except  in  combinations. 

A  close  examination  of  the  orchard  soils 
of  New  England  reveals  a  marked  de- 
ficiency in  vegetable  matter  or  humus. 
There  is  no  more  effective  way  of  increas- 
ing the  amount  of  humus  and  the  ultimate 
fertility  of  the  soil  than  by  the  judicious 
use  of  cover  crops. 

Any  crop  that  is  sown  in  the  orchard  for 
the  purpose  of  turning  under  in  the  spring 
is  called  a  cover  crop,  and  should  not  be 
confused  with  what  is  commonly  called  a 
"catch  crop,"  which  is  grown  to  be  har- 
vested. Catch  crops  are  commonly  and 
profitably  grown  In  young  orchards  be- 
fore the  trees  require  the  whole  area. 

Quantity  of  Seed  Per  Acre 

Mammoth   clover  12  pounds 

Common  red  clover 12 

Alsike  clover  12 

Crimson  clover  15 

Alfalfa  20       '• 

Cow  peas   90 

Soy   beans    90 

Horse  beans  90 


Hairy  or  winter  vetch 50  pounds 

Summer  vetch  60       " 

Canada  peas 90 

Rye  90       " 

Buckwheat  60       " 

Rape  6       " 

Turnips  1  pound 

In  the  selection  of  a  cover  crop  there 
are  so  many  matters  to  be  considered  that 
some  of  them  are  likely  to  be  overlooked. 
The  following  score  card  may  serve  to 
keep  the  various  points  in  mind  and  to 
give  some  idea  of  their  relative  impor- 
tance: 

Score  Card  for  Cover  Crops 

Chemical  influence: 

(a)  Addition   of  plant  food 10 

(b)  Retention    of    plant    food    (that 

used  in  growth  and  that  saved 
from   washing)    15 

(c)  Influence   on   nitrification 5 

Physical  Influence: 

(a)  Addition  of  humus  10 

(b)  Mechanical  influence   (action  of 

roots)     10 

(c)  Eifect  on  soil  moisture    (its  in- 

fluence on  the  retentive  power 
of  the  soil  and  its  ability  to 
utilize  the  surplus  moisture 
in  late  summer  and  to  hold  the 
snow  and  rain  In  winter  and 
early  spring)   10 

Protective   Influence: 

(a)  Protection  to  roots  from  injuri- 
ous freezing  and  thawing  (1st, 
by  the  growth  of  vegetation; 
2nd,  by  its  ability  to  hold  the 

snow  and  leaves) 10 

(h)   Protection  to  fruit    (by  serving 

as  a  cushion  for  windfalls)....     5 
General  Considerations: 

(a)  Adaptability     (to    soil,    climate, 

purpose,  etc.) - 10 

(b)  Reliability    (its   ability   to   pro- 

duce a  good  cover  under  vary- 
ing and  adverse  conditions)....  10 

(c)  Cost  of  seeding 5 

C.  D.  Jarvis, 
Stori's.    Conn. 

Canada  Field   Pea  as   a    Cover   Crop   in 
tlie  Ro^e  River  Valley 

The  Canada  field  pea  is  one  of  the  most 
promising  of  the  leguminous  crops  for  or- 
chards— to  meet  conditions  in  the  Rogue 
river  valley,  namely,  delayed  rains  in  the 
fall  and  the  probability  that  plowing  will 
have  to  be  done  in  March. 

My  experience  is  limited  to  a  single  crop 
and  to  a  few  volunteer  plants.     I  plowed 


APPLES 


255 


and  harrowed  in  February,  a  granite  loam, 
drilled  in  100  pounds  to  the  acre  the  1st 
of  March.  Plants  broke  surface  in  three 
weeks,  began  to  bloom  in  the  middle  of 
May  and  had  ripened  seed  and  were  dying 
by  July  1st. 

It  is  most  important  to  Inoculate  the 
seed  as  the  test  plot  represented  a  failure 
— plants  pale,  small  leaved,  18  inches  long, 
shed  bloom.  Inoculated  plants  luxuriant, 
dark  green,  five  feet  long  in  places  and 
well  fruited. 

Our  season  was  wet  and  the  orchard 
young,  so  plants  were  allowed  to  mature 
and  harvested.  Thrashed  out  700  pounds 
of  seed  to  acre  and  had  a  ton  of  straw, 
which  made  good  horse  feed  for  wintering. 
This  crop  could  have  been  turned  under 
the  1st  of  May  when  it  averaged  30  inches 
in  height.  Volunteers  followed  this  crop 
appearing  mostly  in  late  September  and 
growing  12  inches.  The  severe  winter 
killed  all,  and  the  native  weeds,  turnip 
and   alfllarea   also   winter-killed. 

When  planted  in  the  fall  and  if  rains 
come  early  one  would  have  a  good  crop  of 
vines  to  plow  under  even  if  it  winter- 
killed. 

With  irrigation  it  would  be  a  splendid 
crop  to  sow  in  spring,  then  irrigate  and 
plow  under  in  May  or  June. 

Geo.  B.  Dean 

INTERCKOPPIJfG 

There  can  be  no  objection  to  the  grow- 
ing of  crops  between  young  trees  and 
thus  utilizing  the  land  which  is  unoccu- 
pied and  likely  to  remain  so  for  several 
years  provided  care  is  taken  not  to  crowd 
the  trees  and  not  injure  them  by  culti- 
vating too  closely  and  peeling  the  bark, 
and  provided  as  much  is  put  on  the  land 
in  the  form  of  fertilizers  as  is  taken  off 
by  the  crop.  The  average  man  will  not 
do  this,  but  will  take  off  crop  after  crop 
and  put  little  or  nothing  on  in  return; 
however,  if  he  will  make  proper  use  of 
manure  he  can  grow  crops  between  his 
young  trees,  make  a  living  off  the  crop 
and  improve  the  soil  at  the  same  time. 
Cropping  is  not  injurious  to  the  land  any 
more  than  milking  is  injurious  to  a  cow, 
but  to  crop  the  soil  without  fertilizing  it 
Is  like  milking  the  cow  without  feeding 


her.  This  process  may  be  kept  up  for  a 
while  without  visible  exhaustion,  for  the 
soil  is  a  storehouse  of  plant  food  which 
has,  in  some  cases,  been  hundreds  of 
years  in  accumulating,  but  if  it  is  kept 
up  too  long  exhaustion  is  sure  to  follow. 
It  must,  therefore,  be  understod  that  if 
we  are  not  to  rob  the  soil  of  its  produc- 
tivity and  deprive  the  coming  gener- 
ations of  their  right  to  a  living  from  the 
land,  we  must  conserve  the  fertility  of 
the  soil  which  they  will  in  the  future  cul- 
tivate. 

Plan  for  Yakima  Valley 

The  following  plan  is  suggested  for 
North  Yakima.  Washington.  It  is  subject 
to  modification  for  varying  conditions  and 
with  new  information. 

First,  we  would  plant  apples  as  the 
permanent  crop  to  live  and  to  bear  for 
one  hundred  years.  This  may  seem  a  long 
time  to  expect  trees  to  bear,  but  in  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  New  England 
and  Canada  there  are  bearing  apple  trees 
one  hundred  years  old.  It  must  be  re- 
membered, too,  that  these  trees  have 
never  been  properly  sprayed,  cultivated 
or  pruned.  They  have  simply  happened 
to  be  where  the  soil  and  moisture  condi- 
tions are  good.  In  a  country  where  the 
soil  is  deep,  where  there  is  plenty  of 
water,  and  where  trees  receive  proper 
pruning  and  care,  there  is  no  question 
but  that  they  will  bear  profitably  for  a 
long  period  of  years.  We  would  select 
winter  apples  because  they  will  find  a 
wide  market.  We  would  select  three  or 
four  varieties  to  insure  fertilization. 

We  would,  at  this  point  (North  Yaki- 
ma), select  Spitzenburgs.  Delicious,  New- 
towns  and  Winesaps.  At  a  higher  alti- 
tude we  would  select  Jonathans,  Delicious 
and  Rome  Beauty.  At  a  lower  altitude 
we  would  select  Winesaps,  Newtowns  and 
Arkansas  Blacks.  However,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  please  others  in  selections,  and 
with  more  information,  we  might  change 
our  own  views. 

Distances  to  Plant 

We  would  plant  the  apples  two  rods 
apart  each  way.  This  may  seem  like  a 
waste  of  land,  but  remember  that  these 
trees  are  expected  to  stand  a  long  time. 


256 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


and  the  land  between  the  trees  is  to  be 
utilized  by  the  planting  of  "fillers"  and 
the  growth  of  vegetables.  Bj-  "fillers"  we 
mean  other  varieties  of  trees  between 
the  rows.  We  are  presuming  that  apples 
will  be  the  main  crop,  and  that  every- 
thing is  to  be  subordinated  to  the  idea 
of  producing  a  permanent  apple  orchard 
that  will  live  and  bear  perhaps  one  hun- 
dred years,  but  "fillers"  may  be  planted 
with  a  view  to  sacrificing  them  when 
the  apple  trees  need  the  soil  and  sun- 
shine. 

Peaoli  and  Poar  Fillers 

*  We  will  suppose  that  the  square 
method  is  chosen  and  that  the  trees  are 
planted  two  rods  apart  each  way.  This 
makes  on  one  full  acre  of  land  40  trees, 
and  on  ten  acres,  400  trees.  We  would 
then  plant  the  same  number  of  rows  of 
pear  trees  midway  between  the  rows  of 
apple  trees,  and  plant  them  one  rod  apart. 
This  gives  80  pear  trees  per  acre,  or  800 

*  For  other  methods  of  plantins.  see  article 
on    "LayinK   Out   the  Orchard." — Ed. 


trees  on  ten  acres.  We  would  then  plant 
as  many  peach  trees  as  apple  trees  mid- 
way between  the  apple  trees,  making  40 
peach  trees  per  acre,  or  400  on  ten  acres. 
This  gives,  in  all,  IGO  trees  per  acre,  one 
rod  apart,  or  1,600  on  a  full  ten  acres. 

Many  would  not  plant  peaches,  and 
their  objection  is  that  peaches  are  differ- 
ent in  nature  from  apples  and  pears; 
that  they  grow  with  spreading  branches, 
rendering  it  difficult  to  work  and  culti- 
vate among  the  trees.  It  is  also  claimed 
that  spraying  apples  and  pears  for  codling 
moth  often  specks  the  peaches  and  in- 
jures them.  We  have  full.v  weighed  these 
objections,  and  do  not  consider  them  im- 
portant as  compared  with  the  fact  that 
the  peach  is  a  rapid  grower,  an  early 
bearer  and  ordinarily  profitable.  The 
fact  that  it  is  of  a  different  nature  from 
apples  and  pears  and  extracts  different 
food  substances  from  the  soil  is  in  its 
favor,  because  it  does  not  compete  so 
strongly  for  the  same  food.  The  fact  that 
it  grows  with  spreading  branches  may  be 
remedied  largely  by   pruning.     The  diffi- 


Fig.  1.      Onions  on  New   Land. 


APPLES 


257 


culty  of  spraying  we  have  not  found  to  be 
serious. 

Variety  of  Pears 

As  to  the  variety  of  pears,  we  would 
plant  Bartletts,  because  they  are  the  earli- 
est bearers,  heaviest  bearers  and  up  to 
date  best  money-makers.  However,  the 
Anjon  Bosc  and  Winter  Nellis  are  excel- 
lent varieties. 

As  to  the  varieties  of  peaches,  we  would 
plant  Early  Crawfords  and  Elbertas — the 
Crawford  because  it  is  out  of  the  way 
before  the  Elberta  is  ripe:  the  Elberta  be- 
cause it  is  a  good  shipper  and  seller.  Be- 
sides It  ripens  at  a  time  before  apples 
have  to  be  picked,  and  therefore  distrib- 
utes the  work  more  evenly  through  the 
fruit  season. 

Kind   of   Crops   to    Grow 

We  now  have  the  orchard  planted,  and 
will  suppose  that  one-year-old  nursery 
stock  has  been  used,  that  we  have  three 
kinds  of  apples,  two  kinds  of  peaches  and 
one  kind  of  pears.  The  trees  are  one  rod 
apart  each  way.  and  160  trees  per  acre. 

There  is  no  income  from  the  fruit  trees. 
but  there  is  unused  land,  which  with 
proper    cultivation    will    grow    vegetables 


that  find  a  profitable  market.  What  can 
be  grown  during  the  waiting  period  that 
will  make  a  living  for  the  family?  Straw- 
berries, blackberries  and  raspberries  yield 
profitable  returns;  but  it  takes  one  year 
of  waiting  from  the  time  of  setting  to 
get  a  crop.  It  takes  one  year  with  rhu- 
barb and  two  years  with  asparagus.  Here 
are  one  or  two  years  of  waiting,  and  we 
are  supposing  that  the  orchardist  wants 
profitable  returns  the  first  year.  What 
should  he  plant? 

Onions  on  >'ew  Land 

The  answer  to  that  question  depends  on 
the  soil,  the  climate,  the  market,  the 
grower,  and  various  other  circumstances. 
On  new,  rich  land,  we  have  found  onions 
to  be  a  very  profitable  crop.  Most  pro- 
ducers say  that  onions  should  be  grown 
on  land  that  has  been  worked  for  several 
years,  because  by  cultivation  the  soil  is 
brought  into  a  condition  that  is  better 
adapted  to  the  onion.  There  is  some  truth 
in  this  statement,  but  our  preference  for 
the  new  land  on  which  to  grow  onions  is 
because  of  the  little  difficulty  of  weeding 
when  the  onions  are  small.  The  young 
onion    is    very    small.      The    little    tender 


'/»t 


^' 


Fig.  2.  Field  of  J.  B.  Early,  Grandview.  Wash.,  30  months  after  setting  out.  Phillips 
Cling  Peach  planted  in  Spitz-Wiucsap  orchard  set  in  apple  row  to  create  wide 
spaces  between  rows  to  allow  for  growing  money  crop  while  trees  are  growing. 
Mr.  Early  has  made  his  place  pay  from  the  beginning. 


258 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


sprout  is  scarcely  discernible  from  grass 
at  the  first;  it  grows  slowly  too,  and  re- 
quires a  great  amount  of  hand  weeding 
where  the  soil  is  full  of  weed  seeds,  and 
where  the  weeds  spring  up  rapidly  after 
spring  plowing.  This  hand  weeding  is 
very  difficult  work.  If  it  is  done  by  adults, 
they  must  be  for  hours  In  a  stooping  pos- 
ture or  walk  on  their  knees  along  the 
rows. 

Onions  grow  well  on  sandy  soils  and  on 
volcanic  ash  soils.  Land  that  has  been 
recently  cleared  of  sagebrush  is  good  for 
onions,  because  there  the  onions  grow  to 
a  large  size,  and  the  first  year,  especially 
after  the  sagebrush  has  been  grubbed, 
there  are  no  weeds  of  any  consequence  to 
Interfere  with  cultivation;  the  labor  cost 
is  low.  Only  the  ordinary  tools  need  to 
be  used  and  the  returns  are  thus  relatively 
large. 

rantaloupos 

Cantaloupes  have  been  successfully 
grown  between  the  trees  and  are  adapt- 
able to  many  soils  and  climates,  are  of 
fine  quality,  are  easily  grown,  and  if 
planted  soon  enough  to  find  an  early  mar- 
ket, bring  very  profitable  returns. 


Watermelons 

Watermelons  are  sometimes  grown,  but 
the  difficulty  is  generally  that  the  trees 
require  more  water  than  is  required  for 
the  watermelon.  In  fact,  after  the  water- 
melon is  formed  and  as  large  as  a  man's 
fist,  it  requires  very  little  water,  and  is 
of  better  quality  without  it,  while  the 
trees  need  water  throughout  the  season. 
Many  of  the  failures  to  i)roduce  good 
watermelons  on  damp  soils  or  irrigated 
lands  grow  out  of  the  fact  that  the  vines 
get  too  much  water.  Some  persons  sup- 
pose that  because  the  watermelon  is  most- 
ly composed  of  water  and  because  of  the 
name,  it  should  have  a  great  amount  of 
water.  This  is  a  mistake,  and  for  the 
reason  that  the  watermelon  rind  is  tough 
and  solid,  allowing  very  little  evapora- 
tion, nearly  all  the  water  pumped  by  the 
root  system  and  carried  into  the  melon 
is  retained  as  if  it  were  pumped  into  a 
jug.  It  is  not  that  the  melon  receives 
more  water  than  the  leaves  that  causes  it 
to  be  so  juicy  in  the  autumn  and  the 
leaves  to  be  dry,  but  it  is  because  the 
leaves  have  given  up  their  water  by  the 
process  of  evaporation  and  the  melon  has 
not.     It  is  therefore  necessary  to  exercise 


Fig.    3. 


Mr.    Eai-ly's    \V.TUMmeli]n    I'atch.      Cleared    of   sage   brush    in    February,    plowed 
in  March,  planted  in  May,  crop   in   August, 


APPLES 


Fig.  4. 


A  Heavy  Crop  of  Vegetables  is  Permissible  in  a  Young  Orchard  Where  Proper 
Attention  is  Given  to  Fertilization. 


care  not  to  give  the  melon  too  much  water 
after  it  is  once  started  and  the  young 
melon  is  well  formed.  This  is  not  true  of 
cantaloupes  although  cantaloupes  and 
watermelons  are  frequently  grown  on  the 
same  ground  or  in  adjacent  rows.  On 
the  other  hand  it  probably  takes  twice 
or  three  times  as  much  water  to  grow 
onions  as  to  grow  watermelons.  They 
need  more  than  is  usually  given  to  the 
trees,  while  the  melons  need  less,  conse- 
quently if  care  is  observed  to  give  the 
onions  enough  water  the  trees  are  not 
likely  to  suffer. 

Potatoes 

Potatoes  are  easily  grown  and  are  a 
fairly  profitable  crop,  yielding  sometimes 
as  high  as  $200  or  $300  per  acre.  The 
price  of  potatoes  fluctuates  greatly.  We 
would  especially  recommend  potatoes  if 
the  land  has  been  in  alfalfa  or  clover 
previous  to  setting  the  orchard.  It  is  not 
uncommon  for  potatoes  to  bring  $30  ])er 
ton  one  year,  and  the  next  year  scarcely 
pay  the  cost  of  growing.  The  rule  is 
that  if  potatoes  are  very  high  in  price 
one  j'ear  they  will  be  low  the  next  year 
and  not  a  profitable  crop.  Many  old  farm- 
ers say,  "When  seed  is  cheap,  plant  po- 
tatoes:  when   it  is  high,  sell  your  seed." 


This  rule  is  not  infallible,  for  we  have 
seen  it  fail;  but  it  is  so  nearly  true  that 
in  an  average  of  ten  years,  the  profits  to 
the  growers  who  follow  it  will  be  much 
larger  than  to  those  who  plant  without 
an.v  observation  as  to  whether  seed  is 
high  or  low. 

Tomatoes 

Tomatoes  are  a  very  profitable  crop  in 
soils  and  under  conditions  to  which  they 
are  adapted.  In  some  countries  they 
blight  to  such  an  extent  that  the  returns 
are  uncertain,  but  where  they  can  be 
grown  successfully  and  without  too  much 
risk,  and  close  to  the  market,  they  yield 
large  returns.  We  have  known  in  excep- 
tional cases  profits  of  $600  to  be  gathered 
from  one  acre  of  tomatoes.  Again,  we 
have  known  them  to  fail  entirely,  so  that 
the  profits  may  be  estimated  at  from  noth- 
ing to  $600  per  acre.  How  to  prevent  to- 
mato blight  will  be  treated  in  the  article 
on  tomatoes. 

rncHmbers 

Perhaps  no  truck  crop  will  bring  larger 
returns  for  the  given  -amount  of  labor 
than  cucumbers,  provided  they  are  grown 
sufficiently  near  the  market  to  be  picked 
and  ro-irketed  every  day.  One  man  mar- 
keted in  one  year  from  one  acre  of  land 


260 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


over  $1,000  worth  of  cucumbers.  They  are 
not  difficult  to  cultivate,  pick,  crate  or 
market,  and  therefore  in  proportion  to 
the  labor  expended  yield  enormous  re- 
turns. 

Squashes 
Hubbard  squashes  do  well  and  usually 
sell  at  high  prices.    We  have  known  them 
to  bring  $300  per  acre. 

Cabbages,  Turnips,  Etc. 

Cabbages,  turnips,  rutabagas,  beets,  cel- 
ery and  asparagus  are  all  profitable,  and 
make  It  possible  for  a  family  to  live  in 
comfort  on  ten  acres  of  land  while  the 
young  trees  are  coming  into  bearing.  We 
treat  the  growth  of  these  crops  more  fully 
under  their  appropriate  heads,  but  we 
know  because  we  have  seen  it  tried  that 
it  is  possible  both  to  succeed  and  to  fail, 
and  that  success  or  failure  depends  on  the 
labor  and  the  intelligence  put  into  the 
■work.  We  have  known  a  few  persons  who 
succeeded  so  well  at  growing  crops  be 
tween  the  trees  that  they  abandoned  the 
orchard  idea  and  turned  to  the  growing 
of  vegetables  as  paying  larger  profits  in 


proportion   to   the   expenditure   of   money 
and  of  labor  cost,  than  fruits. 

Small  Fruits 

Strawberries,  currants,  gooseberries, 
raspberries  and  blackberries  are  often 
grown  between  the  trees  with  varying  de- 
grees of  success.  In  choosing  among 
them,  we  would  say  that  the  gooseberry 
is  the  least  trouble,  while  the  strawberry 
is  likely  to  prove  the  most  profitable.  We 
have  known  strawberries  to  yield  $300  per 
acre,  but  it  is  more  likely  that  the  aver- 
age grower  will  not  receive  more  than 
$150  to  $200  per  acre. 

.\Ifalfa 

We  have  tried  setting  trees  in  a  field 
of  alfalfa  by  plowing  out  rows  about  six 
feet  wide  in  which  to  set  the  trees,  and 
allowing  the  alfalfa  to  grow  between  the 
rows.  We  did  so  on  the  theory  that  al- 
falfa is  a  nitrogen  gathering  plant  and 
fertilizes  the  land,  and  that  the  hay  crop 
would  pay  good  returns.  If  this  plan  is 
adopted  there  will  be  a  strip  of  about  24 
feet  of  alfalfa  provided  the  trees  are  set 
30  feet  apart.    Thus  five-sixths  of  the  land 


Fig.  5.     Combination  of  Strawberries  and  Watermelons, 
and  watermelons   in   the  rows. 


Strawberries  between  the  rows 

Courtesu  of  O.W.  R.  d   N.   Co. 


APPLES 


261 


is  in  alfalfa,  and  oue-sixth  of  it  plowed 
and  cultivated  for  the  growth  of  trees. 
With  each  succeeding  year  the  plowed 
strip  will  be  a  little  wider  and  the  alfalfa 
will  be  a  little  narrower,  inasmuch  as  we 
would  endeavor  to  plow  the  land  about 
as  rapidly  as  the  roots  of  the  tree  would 
extend  out  in  the  direction  of  the  center 
of  the  row.  This  plan  seemed  to  work 
well,  except  for  the  difficulty  of  irrigation, 
where  irrigation  is  practiced,  but  there  is 
no  question  that  the  soil  Is  improved  by 
the  growth  of  alfalfa,  and  that  it  will 
yield  a  profitable  crop  while  the  trees  are 
coming  into  bearing.  That  which  is  true 
of  alfalfa  is  also  true  of  clover,  insofar 
as  improving  the  soil  is  concerned,  but  as 
a  hay  crop  the  clover  is  perhaps  not  so 
profitable. 

Profits  from  TegetaWes 
Mr.    Alexander    Miller,    a    gardener    at 
North  Yakima,  Washington,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing figures  as  possible  net  profits  per 
acre  from  various  crops: 

Cucumbers,     ground     heavily     ma- 
nured, per  acre,  per  annum $1,000 

Tomatoes    1,000 

Asparagus    1,500 

Rhubarb   1,500 

Celery    1,500 

Horse  Radish   1,500 

Earlv  Potatoes  500 

Peas  500 

Turnips  300 

Turnips  may  follow  a  crop  of  early  po- 
tatoes or  peas  the  same  year,  and  that 
brings  the  productive  value  of  the  land 
up  to  $800  per  acre. 

The  rutaba.gas  are  about  as  profitable  as 
turnips  and  either  will  yield  large  returns 
in  proportion  to  the  labor  costs. 

These  yields  are  exceptionaly  large  but 
knowing  Mr.  Miller  to  be  an  exceptionally 
good  gardner  we  do  not  doubt  the  figures. 

How  to  .Vrransre  the  Rows 

The  plan  here  given  is  merely  sugges- 
tive, and  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  condi- 
tions or  the  opinions  of  the  planter.  Sup- 
pose, however,  we  plant  rhubarb,  aspara- 
gus and  strawberries  midway  between  the 
rows  of  fruit  trees,  one-third  of  each.  We 
will  have  to  wait  for  them  to  bear,  but 
they  are  very  hardy  and  very  profitable, 
if   well   fed.     This   places   them    one   rod 


apart  and  one-half  rod  from  each  tree  row 
on  either  side.  In  spraying,  the  team  and 
wagon  can  be  driven  astride  these  rows, 
and  will  not  injure  them  in  the  least. 

First  Tear 

We  have  now  aranged  for  a  profitable 
crop,  one  year  from  planting,  but  nothing 
the  first  year.  Between  the  rows  of  veg- 
etables now  planted,  and  the  trees,  may  be 
planted  onions,  peas,  cucumbers,  tomatoes, 
cantaloupes  or  celery.  Ten  acres  planted 
in  this  way  ought  to  yield  a  living  much 
larger  than  the  average  family  of  the 
United  States  receives  and  larger  than 
the  profits  from  the  average  farm.  This 
is  the  critical  period,  for  it  is  the  first 
year  and  the  one  of  the  least  income. 

The  next  year  these  crops  may  be  va- 
ried, except  that  the  rhubarb,  asparagus 
and  strawberries  remain  standing  until 
such  time  as  the  trees  need  the  land. 

Second  Year 

The  second  year  the  same  arrangement 
as  the  first  may  be  followed  or  the  crops 
may  be  varied.  This  year  the  asparagus 
will  bear  a  little  and  the  rhubarb  and 
strawberries   yield   profitable   returns. 

Third  Tear 

The  third  year,  any  arrangement  may 
be  followed  that  suits  the  grower,  because 
there  are  three  crops,  namely,  asparagus, 
rhubarb  and  strawberries  that  will  yield 
good  returns.  This  year  the  400  peach 
trees  should  yield  $3  to  $5  per  tree.  This 
will,  in  the  aggregate,  make  a  fair  living. 

In  this  estimate  of  profits  from  peaches, 
I  am  presuming  upon  fair  market  condi- 
tions. During  the  seasons  of  1912  and 
1913,  we  have  had  rather  poor  markets, 
not  because  peaches  did  not  sell  for  good 
prices  to  the  consumer,  but  because  of 
poor  systems  of  distribution.  I  have 
known  peaches  to  yield  $1,000  per  acre; 
again  they  would  not  pay  the  costs  of 
production  and  marketing. 

Fourth  Year 

The  fourth  year  we  would  not  advise 
any  vegetables  between  the  trees  except 
the  three  permanent  crops  of  asparagus, 
rhubarb  and  strawberries.  This  year 
four-year-old  peach  trees  will  yield  from 
$5    to    $10    per   tree   and    the   pears    will 


262 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


bear   a  small   crop.     This,   together   with 
the  vegetables,  should  bring  good  returns. 

Fifth  Tear 

This  year  the  peaches  should  yield 
large  returns  and  the  pears  begin  to  pay. 
There  will  also  be  a  few  apples,  say  $1.50 
per  tree.  At  this  rate,  400  trees  should 
bring  $600.  There  will  also  be  an  income 
from  the  vegetables.  However,  the  peach 
tree  grows  with  spreading  branches  and 
will  begin  to  intrude  upon  the  straw- 
berries and  vegetables,  yet  at  this  time 
we  would  not  sacrifice  the  vegetables,  but 
prune  the  peach  trees  so  as  not  to  inter- 
fere too  much  with  them. 

Sixth  Tear 

From  this  time  forward  peaches,  pears 
and  apples  will  yield  good  returns  and  the 
question  of  sacrificing  the  vegetables  may 
well  be  considered.  There  is  income 
enough  without  them,  but  if  they  still 
prove  profitable,  the  grower  will  hesitate. 
Some  people  say  that  vegetables  should 
not  be  grown  among  the  trees  because 
the  trees  need  the  soil's  substance.  This 
is  true  if  the  ground  is  not  manured;  but 
if  the  vegetable  matter  taken  off  the  land 
is  replaced  by  an  equal  or  greater  amount 
of  barnyard  manure,  it  improves  rather 
than  impoverishes  the  soil. 

From  this  time  on,  the  grower  has  a 
comfortable  income  that  should  net  him 
not  less  than  $500  per  acre  per  annum, 
and  he  can  cut  out  his  vegetables  and 
fillers  when  it  seems  wise  to  do  so. 

After  the  vegetables  are  disposed  of 
and  the  land  well  manured,  then  some 
kind  of  cover  crop  should  be  grown 
among  the  trees. 

GR-iXVILLE     LOWTHER 

Plan  for  Eastern  States 

In  newly  planted  orchards  the  trees  oc- 
cupy a  very  small  portion  of  the  ground, 
and  as  a  rule  some  other  kind  of  a  crop 
is  grown  in  the  open  space.  The  amount 
of  space  at  the  disposal  of  other  crops 
will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  kind  of 
filler  chosen. 

If  peaches  are  used  as  fillers  the  ground 
should  not  be  cropped  for  more  than  one 
or  two  seasons.  Some  reputable  growers 
do  not  believe  in  attempting  to  grow  any 


other  crop,  except  cover  crops,  when 
peaches  are  used  as  fillers.  At  least  one 
grower  in  Connecticut  has  had  excellent 
results  from  growing  turnips,  another  has 
found  late  cabbage  profitable.  In  some 
cases  the  spaces  between  the  trees  are 
planted  to  small  fruits — strawberries, 
raspberries,  blackberries,  gooseberries 
and  currants.  Where  no  fillers  are  used 
the  small  fruits  are  very  suitable.  With 
apple  fillers  strawberries  may  be  success- 
fully grown,  but  the  bush  fruits,  if  used, 
are  likely  to  be  left  in  too  long. 

The  best  kind  of  a  crop  for  this  purpose 
is  one  that  will  require  cultivation  the 
early  part  of  the  season  and  will  be  out 
of  the  way  in  time  for  the  sowing  of  a 
cover  crop.  Crops  of  this  nature  are 
early  cabbage,  early  cauliflower,  early  po- 
tatoes, beans,  peas  and  radishes.  Next  to 
this  is  one  that  will  require  cultivation 
the  early  part  of  the  season  but  will  not 
necessitate  the  disturbing  of  the  soil  late 
in  the  season.  Late  cabbage,  squash,  tur- 
nips, cucumbers  and  melons  are  of  this 
class.  A  cover  crop  may  be  sown  when 
such  interplanted  crops  are  last  culti- 
vated. Late  potatoes  are  not  suited  to 
the  purpose,  for  the  reason  that  in  digging 
them  the  soil  is  much  disturbed,  produc- 
ing a  late  growth  and  preventing  the  trees 
from  properly  ripening  their  wood.  Corn 
has  been  grown  in  this  way  but  usually 
has  a  bad  effect  upon  the  trees.  It  may 
be  used  without  fear  of  injury  if  a  wide 
space  is  left  and  kept  cultivated  along 
the  rows  of  trees.  The  whole  may  be 
seeded  to  clover  about  July  15th,  or  at  the 
last  cultivation  of  the  corn. 

Whatever  is  grown  in  the  orchard  it 
should  be  looked  upon  as  a  catch-crop, 
and  the  returns  from  it  as  incidental.  On 
the  other  hand,  these  companion  crops, 
with  careful  management,  may  be  made 
to  pay  for  the  care  of  an  apple  orchard 
up  to  the  age  of  profitable  production.  An 
extra  supply  of  fertilizer  always  should 
be  applied  for  the  use  of  these  supple- 
mentary crops  and  the  greatest  care  exer- 
cised in  preventing  them  from  interfer- 
ing with  the  growth  of  the  trees.  From 
year  to  year  the  space  for  the  use  of  the 
trees  should  be  increased  until  finally  it 
is  given  up  entirely. 


APPLES 


263 


Fruit  Trees  as  Fillers 

The  ideal  filler  is  a  quick-growing  and 
early  maturing  tree  that  will  produce  the 
maximum  amount  of  fruit  within  the  few 
years  that  it  has  to  live,  and  one  that 
will  least  affect  the  welfare  of  the  perma- 
nent trees.  As  soon  as  the  fillers  begin 
to  interfere  with  the  natural  grow-th  of 
the  permanent  trees,  they  must  be  re- 
moved. There  is  a  difference  of  opinion 
w'ith  regard  to  the  use  of  fillers.  The 
chief  objection  raised  by  those  opposed 
to  the  practice,  is  that  the  fillers  are  likely 
to  be  left  too  long,  resulting  in  injury  to 
the  permanent  trees.  Such  a  result,  in 
reality,  would  be  the  fault  of  the  man 
rather  than  that  of  the  system.  The  grow- 
er, for  the  benefit  of  the  remaining  por- 
tion of  the  trees,  cuts  out  superfluous 
branches,  so  why  should  he  hesitate  to 
remove  superfluous  trees  when  by  so  do- 
ing the  remaining  trees  will  be  benefited? 
In  either  case  it  is  simply  a  case  of  re- 
moving part  of  his  fruit-bearing  structure 
for  the  sake  of  getting  better  returns  in 
the  future.  It  should  be  remembered  in 
this  connection  that  the  fruit  is  borne 
largely  on  the  surface  of  the  tree,  and 
that  when  the  tree  becomes  crowded  to- 
gether the  surface  is  very  greatly  re- 
duced. Assuming  that  the  grower  knows 
when  fillers  should  be  removed  and  that 
he  has  the  courage  to  remove  them,  the 
question  to  be  decided  is  whether  it  is 
more  profitable  to  use  fillers  or  to  use  the 
space  between  the  rows  for  growing  veg- 
etables, small  fruits,  or  other  crops. 

In  Connecticut  the  peach  is  more  large- 
ly used  for  interplanting  than  any  other 
kind  of  fruit  tree.  In  many  respects  the 
peach  is  well  suited  to  the  purpose.  It 
matures  early  and  fair  crops  are  often 
obtained  three  or  four  years  after  plant- 
ing. The  objection  to  this  kind  of  filler  is 
that  the  treatment  for  bearing  peach  trees 
is  somewhat  different  from  that  demanded 
by  young,  growing  apple  trees.  If  the  ap- 
ple trees  should  suffer  from  this  cause  it 
is  again  the  fault  of  the  man.  The  grower 
should  keep  in  mind  that  in  such  case  of 
mixed  planting,  the  apple  is  entitled  to 
first  consideration  and  the  filler  should 
be  regarded  strictly  as  a  secondary  mat- 
ter.    Plums  and  cherries  are  open  to  the 


same  objection  raised  against  the  peach, 
but  it  is  probable  that  any  of  these  stone 
fruits  in  the  hands  of  the  intelligent  fruit 
grower  may  be  successfully  used  as  fillers. 

The  use  of  early  maturing  varieties  of 
apples  as  fillers  has  been  strongly  recom- 
mended during  recent  years.  The  apple 
makes  a  slower  growth  than  the  peach  and 
returns  come  in  much  more  slowly.  This 
objection  is  offset  however,  by  the  fact 
that  the  apple  filler  may  be  retained  in  the 
orchard  much  longer  and  a  great  many 
more  crops  secured.  Five  or  six  and  often 
as  many  as  ten  crops  of  apples  may  be 
secured,  while  it  is  seldom  that  more  than 
two  or  three  crops  can  be  taken  from 
peach  fillers  without  injuring  the  perma- 
nent trees.  The  profit  from  two  crops  of 
peaches  is  very  likely  to  exceed  that  from 
the  many  apple  crops,  but  it  is  not  fair  to 
judge  their  relative  value  from  this  stand- 
point only.  The  apple  fillers  may  have  a 
better  influence  on  the  permanent  trees 
and,  on  account  of  their  slower  develop- 
ment, may  permit  the  growth  of  other 
crops  between  the  rows  for  several  years. 
The  apple  filler  is  more  satisfactory  where 
the  permanent  trees  are  widely  spaced 
and  it  is  entirely  unsuited  to  closely 
planted  orchards. 

The  small  growing  and  early  maturing 
varieties  such  as  Yellow  Transparent. 
Oldenburg,  Bismarck,  Wealthy,  Wagener, 
Ontario  and  Missouri  Pippin,  are  the  most 
suited  to  use  as  fillers.  Jonathan  may  also 
prove  to  be  desirable  for  this  purpose. 
Ben  Davis  and  Gano  are  largely  used  as 
fillers  in  some  sections,  but  on  account  of 
their  inferior  quality,  they  are  not  recom- 
mended for  planting  in  New  England. 
There  is  little  difference  among  the  va- 
rieties of  peaches  for  this  purpose.  The 
pear,  on  account  of  its  susceptibility  to 
blight  under  intense  cultivation,  is  not 
suited  to  interplanting. 

Many  fruit  growers  have  the  necessary 
intelligence  and  courage  to  handle  suc- 
cessfully an  orchard  on  the  filler  system. 
But  there  are  undoubtedly  some,  who  for 
the  sake  of  earlier  returns,  are  likely  to 
favor  the  fillers  at  the  expense  of  the 
permanent  trees  and  for  the  sake  of  get- 
ting one  or  two  additional  crops,  are  likely 
to  injure  seriously  the  shape  of  the  trees 


264 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


of  the  main  planting.  The  growers  of  the 
latter  class  are  advised  to  set  their  trees 
at  moderate  distances  and  to  grow  among 
them  some  kind  of  a  crop  such  as  pota- 
toes, corn,  or  vegetables  that  require  cul- 
tivation during  the  early  part  of  the  sum- 
mer. Even  then,  there  is  danger  of  grow- 
ing these  crops  too  near  the  trees  and 
of  not  supplying  the  necessary  plant  food 
to  make  up  for  that  removed  from  the 
soil  by  the  secondary  crop. 

C.  D.  Jarvis, 
Storrs,   Conn. 

Tillage  with  Intercropping 

The  system  of  tillage  and  intercropping 
is  generally  practiced  in  the  orchard  be- 
fore the  trees  arrive  at  a  profitable  bear- 
ing age,  and  after  it  has  served  its  pur- 
pose is  usually  succeeded  by  tillage  and 
cover  crops.  The  growing  of  companion 
crops  or  intercrops  in  the  young  orchard 
affords  the  orchardist  an  opportunity,  by 
careful  management,  to  make  such  crops 
pay  for  the  care  and  management  of  the 
orchard  during  the  period  elapsing  be- 
tween the  time  of  setting  the  trees  and 
the  age  of  their  profitable  bearing.  The 
kinds  of  crops  which  may  be  grown  in  the 
young  orchard  are  only  limited  by  the  cli- 
matic and  soil  conditions.  Generally 
speaking,  however,  they  should  be  re- 
stricted to  hoed  crops.  Vegetables  and 
small  fruits  are  the  most  desirable.  The 
writer  prefers  vegetable  because  the  or- 
chardist can  choose  such  crops  as  may  be 
planted  rather  late  and  still  mature  a 
crop,  thus  permitting  early  and  unre- 
stricted cultivation  of  the  soil  for  a  short 
time  before  planting,  thereby  furnishing 
moisture  and  plant  food  to  the  tree  when 
it  is  making  its  most  vigorous  leaf  and 
wood  growth.  Such  crops  as  late  cabbage, 
squash,  cucumbers,  beans,  tomatoes,  etc., 
may  be  used  to  good  advantage.  Corn 
and  potatoes  may  be  grown  if  not  planted 
too  close  to  the  tree  rows.  Strawberries 
are  preferred  among  fruits  followed  by 
the  bush  fruits — currants,  gooseberries, 
raspberries  and  blackberries.  The  objec- 
tion to  these  crops  is  that  their  season 
of  growth  is  practically  identical  with 
that  of  the  apple  tree,  and  that  unless,  as 
has  been  said,  they  are  planted  at  some 


distance  from  the  rows,  they  are  apt  to 
deprive  the  young  trees  of  needed  mois- 
ture and  plant  food.  The  successful  prac- 
tice of  the  intercropping  system  is  wholly 
dependent  upon  the  intelligence  displayed 
by  the  orchardist  in  furnishing  a  suffici- 
ent amount  of  plant  food  to  meet  the  ex- 
tra demand  made  upon  the  soil  by  both 
tree  and  companion  crop,  as  well  as  upon 
the  intelligent  selection  of  intercrops. 
For  the  past  four  seasons  the  writer  has 
grown  Hubbard  squash  upon  certain  por- 
tions of  the  young  station  orchard.  The 
squash  is  usually  planted  about  June  17- 
20  and  as  yet  has  not  failed  to  mature  a 
crop.  This  late  planting  permits  unre- 
stricted cultivation  of  the  orchard  prac- 
tically up  to  .July  1.5.  or  later  if  desired, 
as  the  vines  do  not  begin  to  run  much 
before  that  date.  The  returns  from  an 
intercrop  will  of  course  vary  with  the 
kind  of  crop  grown,  the  care  and  fertiliz- 
ation, and  the  market.  Owing  to  an  al- 
most total  failure  of  the  crop  throughout 
New  England  the  Hubbard  squash  inter- 
crop grown  in  1907  in  the  station  orchard, 
returned  about  $1.50  per  acre.  The  aver- 
age receipts  for  four  seasons  have  approx- 
imated $75  per  acre.  Of  course  such  re- 
sults are  possible  only  where  a  good  home 
market  is  available,  and  are  not  to  be 
expected  from  shipments  to  larger  mar- 
kets where  charges  for  freight  and  com- 
mission, as  well  as  competition,  serve  very 
greatly  to  reduce  the  profits. 

WrLLLiM  Stu.\rt, 

Burlincton.   Vt. 

Fillers 

E.  H.  Favor,  author  of  "The  Fruit 
Growers  Guide,"  on  the  subject  of  "Fill- 
ers" says: 

"The  use  of  'fillers,'  or  temporary 
trees,  in  an  orchard  is  not  always  to  be 
recommended.  Such  trees  can  in  many 
instances  serve  a  useful  purpose,  but 
they  too  often  become  permanent.  After 
they  come  into  bearing  the  owner  always 
wants  just  one  more  crop  from  them  be- 
fore they  are  removed.  Years  pass  by  in 
this  way  and  the  orchard  becomes  so 
crowded  that  the  yield  from  all  the  trees 
is  less  than  it  would  be  if  the  fillers  were 
out. 


APPLES 


2G5 


"When  the  kiiuls  of  trees  to  be  used  as 
fillers  are  carefully  selected  and  then  re- 
moved at  the  right  time  they  can  be  made 
profitable.  Peaches  can  sometimes  be 
used  as  fillers  in  an  apple  orchard,  if  the 
soil  and  climate  are  suitable.  Pears  are 
not  advisable  as  fillers,  especially  in  an 
apple  orchard,  on  account  of  their  sus- 
ceptibility to  fire  blight,  which  can  be 
communicated  to  the  apple  trees.  Quick 
maturing  varieties  of  apples  make  the 
best  fillers  in  an  apple  orchard,  and  es- 
pecially so  if  the  fillers  have  an  upright 
habit,  such  as  Missouri  Pippin,  Wag- 
ener,  or  Rome  Beauty.  Such  kinds  can 
be  handled  to  advantage  in  an  orchard 
laid  out  on  the  rectangular  plan,  with 
the  filler  in  the  center  of  the  square. 
This  will  double  the  number  of  trees  per 
acre,  and  give  each  tree  the  maximum 
of  room.  It  is  not  so  easy  to  plant 
fillers  to  advantage  when  the  orchard  is 
laid  out  on  the  hexagonal  plan  without 
crowding  the  trees. 

"A  common  and  satisfactory  method 
of  arranging  fillers  is  to  set  the  perma- 
nent apple  trees  30  feet  apart,  with  a 
filler  midway  between  the  trees  in  one 
direction  only.  This  will  put  the  trees 
15x30  feet  apart. 

"■^Tiile  good  returns  can  be  made  from 
the  fillers  in  an  orchard,  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  practically  as  good  returns  can  be 
made  by  using  crops  of  other  kinds.  In 
small  orchards  some  of  the  small  fruits, 
such  as  strawberries,  blackberries  or  cur- 
rants, are  good  money  makers.  In  large 
orchards,  it  is  better  to  grow  some  kind 
of  cover  crop  and  work  toward  building 
up  a  large  framework  and  strong  trees 
that  will  be  heavy  bearers  when  they 
come  into  fruiting,  rather  than  to  try 
to  get  an  extra  amount  of  fruit  from  the 
temporary  trees. 

"One  of  the  great  dangers  of  inter- 
mixed planting  is  that  nine  persons  out 
of  ten  will  not  take  the  fillers  out  when 
they  ought  to.  There  is  danger  in  it 
to  the  whole  enterprise  and  the  system 
should  be  recommended  very  guardedly, 
if  at  all.  Peaches  should  not  be  planted 
among  apples  as  a  rule.  It  is  better  to 
stick  to  one  kind  of  fruit." 


Double  rianting  for  Middle  States 

The  plan  of  double  planting  the  orchard 
is  sometimes  followed.  The  fundamental 
idea  of  this  scheme  is  to  plant  temporary 
trees  between  the  permanent  ones  with 
the  idea  of  removing  them  when  they  be- 
gin to  crowd.  By  this  double  cropping 
early  returns  may  be  secured.  The  peach, 
for  example,  begins  to  bear  in  about  three 
years,  while  the  apple  requires  from  five 
to  eight  years  where  the  method  of  dou- 
ble planting  is  followed,  it  is  probably 
best  to  adhere  to  the  same  class  of  crops. 
In  the  apple  orchards,  for  example,  use 
some  early  bearing  variety  such  as  the 
Wealthy  or  Missouri  Pippin  as  the  filler. 
The  plan  of  using  mixed  crops  has  a  dis- 
advantage in  that  different  fruits  require 
different  cultural  treatment.  The  peach 
leaf,  for  example,  is  tender  and  Injured 
by  the  spray  of  the  standard  strength  for 
the  apple.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  the 
Japanese  plums. 

The  most  serious  objection  to  double 
planting  is  the  fact  that  the  temporary 
trees  are  usually  permitted  to  stand  too 
long  and  the  permanent  planting  seriously 
injured.  Before  the  outer  branches  be- 
gin to  touch,  the  filler  trees  should  be 
promptly  removed.  Otherwise  the  trees 
enter  into  competition  with  each  other 
and  are  compelled  to  battle  for  their  ex- 
istence. The  longer  they  are  allowed  to 
stand  after  reaching  this  condition  the 
more  intense  the  struggle  becomes.  It  is 
rare  indeed  that  the  grower  has  the  cour- 
age to  cut  out  these  temporary  trees.  He 
remembers  how  they  bore  last  year,  and 
is  thus  induced  to  withhold  the  axe  an- 
other year.  In  the  majority  of  instances 
it  is  better  to  grow  small  fruits  as  a  filler 
crop,  or  some  annual  such  as  corn  or  po- 
tatoes. These  also  have  the  advantage 
of  requiring  clean  cultivation. 

A.  T.  Erwin  and  G.  R.  Bliss, 

Ames.   Iowa. 

Safe  Bale  for  Fillers 

Peach,  and  other  vigorous  growing 
trees,  are  unsuited  to  be  used  as  fillers 
in  an  apple  orchard,  unless  confined  to 
the  centers  of  the  square.  They  ought 
never  to  be  planted  in  the  rows  with  the 
apple  trees.     The   only   safe   rule   in   the 


266 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


use  of  fillers  is  that  nothing  shall  be 
employed  for  the  purpose  which  is  more 
vigorous  in  growth  than  the  permanent 
trees,  and  that  the  removal  of  fillers  shall 
he  begun  as  soon  as  there  is  evidence  of 
crowding. 

Apple  Trees  the  Best  Fillers  in  an 
Apple  Orchard 

The  best  fillers  in  an  apple  orchard 
are  apple  trees  which  are  upright  in  habit 
of  growth  and  begin  to  bear  at  an  early 
age.  Those  of  a  spreading  habit  may  be 
used  if  precocious.  The  first  class  is  ex- 
amplified  by  the  Yellow  Transparent  and 
Wagener.  which  may  be  planted  in  the 
rows,  both  ways  between  the  permanent 
trees.  Oldenburg  (Duchess)  and  Wealthy 
may  be  used,  with  some  caution,  in  the 
same  manner.  Jonathan,  Ben  Davis  and 
Gano  are  suitable  to  plant  in  the  centers 
of  the  squares  between  the  permanent 
trees. 

W.  J.  Green, 
Wooster.    Ohio. 

Intercropping  in  New  Mexico 

The  mixing  of  apple  and  peach  trees  in 
an  orchard  is  sometimes  advocated,  but 
in  this  climate  it  is  not  considered  advis- 
able. Whenever  peaches  are  planted  be- 
tween apple  trees  it  is  done  with  the  ex- 
pectation of  taking  the  peach  trees  out 
whenever  they  become  so  large  that  they 
interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  apple 
trees.  If  this  were  done  there  would  be 
no  objection  whatever  to  this  method  of 
planting  orchards,  but  as  a  rule  the  idea 
is  never  carried  out  and  the  result  is  that 
the  peach  trees  are  never  cut  out  until 
they  either  die  out  or  have  injured  the 
apple  trees  by  crowding  them  out.  Very 
frequently  by  the  time  the  peach  trees 
are  large  enough  to  interfere  with  the 
growth  of  the  apple  trees  they  are  pro- 
ducing their  very  best  crops,  and  the  or- 
chardist  has  not  the  strong  heart  to  go  to 
work  and  dig  them  out  at  that  time.  Tak- 
ing everything  into  consideration  peach 
trees  ought  not  to  be  planted  among  apple 
trees. 

Fabian  Garcia, 
Santa    !•>.   N.    M. 


HOW    TO    MAKE    AN    ORCHARD    PAT 
BEFORE  IT  COMES  INTO  BEARING 

By  a.  G.  Craig 

Deer  Park,  Washington 
It  is  very  seldom  that  an  apple  orchard 
will  yield  a  crop  large  enough  to  net  a 
profit  above  the  expense  of  the  care  and 
harvesting  before  the  orchard  is  six  years 
old.  During  these  six  years  the  orchard 
is  a  constant  drain  on  the  finances  of  the 
owner,  and  the  interest  on  the  original 
investment  for  six  years  is  a  large  item. 
The  average  person  starting  into  apple 
growing  has  the  above  facts  staring  him 
in  the  face,  and  this  problem  of  how  to 
meet  the  expenses  and  at  the  same  time 
make  a  living  for  himself  and  family  has 
to  be  solved.  The  problem  of  improving 
the  soil  or  at  least  maintaining  its  fer- 
tility must  also  be  considered. 

The  clean  culture  method  has  been  ad- 
vocated and  extensively  practiced  in  the 
Northwest,  but  a  large  percentage  of  the 
fruit  growers  now  realize  that  it  is  ex- 
pensive and  the  physical  condition  of  the 
soil  becomes  impaired  in  a  few  years.  He 
also  knows: 

(1)  That  the  roots  of  apple  trees 
spread  very  rapidly,  but  when  not  more 
than  eighty-five  trees  are  planted  to  the 
acre  it  takes  several  years  for  all  of  the 
soil  to  be  filled   with  apple  roots. 

(2)  That  a  good  farmer  improves  his 
soil  and  at  the  same  time  gets  a  good 
profit  out  of  it,  and 

(31  That  a  field  allowed  to  lie  idle  and 
grow  up  to  weeds  and  bushes  for  a  period 
of  years  deteriorates  in  value. 

With  the  above  problems  and  facts  be- 
fore the  grower,  he  seeks  for  the  best 
solutions.  He  says.  Why  not  utilize  the 
land  not  occupied  by  trees  by  using  the 
methods  of  the  good  farmer  who  grows 
crops  and  at  the  same  time  improves  the 
soil.  He  hesitates  to  try  because  so  many 
have  not  succeeded.  The  crops  have  not 
been  profitable  on  account  of  poor  man- 
agement. The  trees  have  not  made  a 
satisfactory  growth  Because  they  were  de- 
prived of  moisture  on  account  of  poor 
cultivation,  poor  irrigation  or  the  sapping 
of  the  moisture  and  food  by  the  crops 
planted  too  close  to  the  trees.     The  soil 


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Fig.  1.      luterciop  of  Winter  Wheat.     Xo  crop  is  placed  closer  than  four  feet  from  the  trees. 


has  been  impaired  because  proper  rota- 
tion of  crops  was  not  practiced  and  stock 
was  not  raised.  By  avoiding  these  pit- 
falls success  is  inevitable.  There  have 
been  enough  growers  who  have  succeeded 
in  growing  good  crops  and  a  good  orchard 
on  the  same  land  at  the  same  time  to 
demonstrate  that  it  can  be  done  success- 
fully. To  do  it  the  grower  must  study 
his  soil  and  climatic  conditions  and  adapt 
his  methods  and  crops  to  his  conditions. 
This  is  much  easier  to  accomplish  on  a 
small  tract  than  on  a  large  one.  With 
over  seven  thousand  acres  of  young  orch- 
ard we  have  met  the  problems  in  part,  in 
the  following  way.  Before  explaining  let 
me  tell  of  a  few  of  the  local  conditions. 

Our  land  in  its  native  state  was  cov- 
ered with  fir,  tamarack  and  pine.  The 
land  is  well  drained  and  varies  from  a 
sandy  loam  to  clay  loam.  The  rainfall  is 
about  twenty  inches.  We  have  an  irriga- 
tion system  for  bearing  orchards  but  we 
have  not  found  it  necessary  to  irrigate 
to  get  a  normal  growth  on  our  young 
trees  nor  to   raise   the  crops   on   the   ex- 


tensive plan  of  agriculture.  Where  we 
use  intensive  farming,  irrigation  is  nec- 
essary. 

We  began  by  planting  the  trees  in  such 
a  way  that  a  long  life  orchard  would  be 
the  result  and  at  the  same  time  give  the 
maximum  amount  of  land  available  for 
crops  without  obstruction  by  trees.  The 
planting  plan  is  illustrated  below. 

o    +    o    +    o    +    o 


+      O     +     O     +      0"*-  + 

The  trees  are  placed  17. .5  feet  apart  in 
the  row  and  the  rows  are  28  feet  apart. 
Every  other  tree  in  the  row  is  a  filler 
(marked  x  in  the  illustration).  When 
the  fillers  are  taken  out  the  permanent 
trees  are  in  triangle,  two  legs  of  which 
are  about  thirty-three  feet  and  the  third 
thirty-five  feet.  The  wide  strips  (28 
feet)  are  in  the  directions  with  the  slope 
that  gives  the  best  results  with  irriga- 
tion  furrows. 


26S 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


We  make  It  a  hard  and  fast  rule  that 
no  crop  is  placed  closer  than  four  feet 
from  the  trees.  Thus  eight  feet  or  more 
is  thoroughly  cultivated.  Hoeing  alone 
is  poor  cultivation  and  it  does  not  pay 
to  just  hoe  a  circle  around  the  trees  and 
put  crops  on  the  balance  pf  the  land. 

We  practice  clean  culture  the  first  year 
and  seed  in  the  fall  with  winter  wheat. 
After  the  crop  is  harvested  the  stubble 
is  plowed  in  the  fall  and  remains  rough 
over  winter.  In  the  spring  of  the  third 
year  the  land  is  prepared  and  peas  are 
planted  for  hogs  and  seed.  The  fourth 
year  potatoes  are  planted  on  the  pea 
land.  We  have  experimented  with  and 
grown  many  other  crops,  among  them, 
winter  vetch  for  cow,  hay  and  seed,  clover 
for  hay,  lentils  for  seed,  treet,  rye,  oats 
and  garden  truck. 

Rye,  wheat  and  oats  have  given  the  best 
net  returns  but  never  more  than  one  crop 
in  the  orchard  is  allowed.  One  crop  of 
any  of  the  three  will  not  injure  the  orch- 
ard or  land  one  iota.  Some  places  we 
have  had  better  success,  no  doubt  due  to 


the  fact  that  the  orchard  could  be  covered 
sooner  after  a  rain  with  the  cultivator 
than  where  all  the  land  had  to  be  culti- 
vated, in  the  clean  culture  method. 

Wheat — The  total  cost  of  the  care  of 
the  orchard,  growing,  harvesting  and  mar- 
keting the  wheat  crop  on  1.245  acres  was 
$12,469.86.  The  wheat  crop  brought  $14,- 
263.86  or  a  gain  of  $1,794.00  or  $1.44  per 
acre  above  the  entire  cost  of  orchard  and 
crop.  It  cost  $11,426.16  or  $6.43  per  acre 
to  take  care  of  1,777  acres  of  orchard  in 
about  the  same  condition  as  the  orchard 
having  the  wheat  crop.  Therefore  the 
actual  gain  was  $1.44  plus  $6.43  or  $7.87 
per  acre. 

Peas — Figuring  on  the  same  basis,  peas 
gave  a  net  gain  of  $2.23  per  acre.  This  is 
not  a  large  gain,  but  when  it  is  considered 
that  the  soil  was  improved,  it  is  actually 
a  large  gain. 

Potatoes — Potatoes  cost  us  in  the  pit 
and  storage  38  cents  per  hundred  weight. 

Winter  Vetch — We  have  had  fair  suc- 
cess raising  vetch  hay  and  seed,  but  the 
greatest  benefit  has  been  derived  from  the 


^SiJ^^^imas, 


In    till'    Spring   ot   the   Third    Year  I'eas    .\re    Planted. 


APPLES 


2fi9 


Fig 


The    Fourth    Year    Potatoes    Are    I'lanted    on    the    I'ea    Land. 


Improvement  in  the  soil.  It  is  difficult 
to  get  all  the  vetch  out  of  the  orchard  as 
it  volunteers  badly,  but  for  an  orchard 
it  is  not  considered  a  bad  fault,  but  it  is 
not  desirable  on  a  general   farm. 

Clover — Clover  has  been  profitable  and 
is  beneficial  to  the  soil,  but  we  have  had 
some  trees  checked  in  growth  by  it.  It 
takes  the  moisture  from  the  trees  more 
than  any  other  crop  we  have  grown.  This 
can  be  overcome  by  careful  irrigation, 
but  clover  should  not  be  grown  in  an 
orchard  where  water  cannot  be  thorough- 
ly applied   in  a  short  period  of  time. 

Vegetables  and  Ismail  Fruits — We  have 
grown  good  vegetables  in  the  orchard,  but 
on  account  of  the  market  conditions  we 
have  not  gone  into  it  on  a  large  scale. 
Many  families  have  and  are  supported  in 
the  Northwest  by  growing  vegetables  and 
small  fruit  in  the  small  young  orchard. 
Where  vegetables  and  small  fruits  are 
grown  in  the  orchard,  manure  should  be 
freely  applied  or  the  crops  should  be 
grown  in  a  long  rotation,  or  both. 


Alfalfa — We  have  not  given  alfalfa  a 
good  trial,  but  there  are  thousands  of  suc- 
cessful orchards,  young  and  old,  in  the 
irrigated  districts  of  the  Northwest, 
seeded  to  alfalfa. 

In  conclusion,  the  writer  is  safe  in  say- 
ing, without  successful  contradiction,  that 
no  orchard  should  be  cultivated  continu- 
ally for  a  period  of  five  years  without 
either  an  intercrop,  companion  crop, 
cover  crop  or  a  good  application  of  barn- 
yard manure. 

INTERCROPS  M.VDE  TO  PAY 

In  employing  cover  crops  I  have  had 
two  objects  in  view.  First,  to  bring  up 
the  fertility  of  the  soil,  as  I  started  with 
sagebrush  land.  Second,  to  decrease  as 
far  as  possible  the  ultimate  cost  of  the 
orchard  when  in  full  bearing.  That  I 
am  accomplishing  my  purpose  is  attested 
by  the  fact  that  by  the  end  of  the  third 
year  from  sagebrush  three-fourths  of  the 
40  acres  I  am  caring  for  has  been  en- 
riched either  by  a  cover  crop  of  clover  or 
alfalfa  or  by  a  dressing  of  manure.    Also. 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.  4.     Fourth  Year.     This  Ur«jhard  lias  Uaii  an  lutercrup  iruui  the  Time  it  Was  i'lauteil. 


the  gross  value  of  field  crops  f.  o.  b. 
Grandview  for  1913  was  approximately 
$2,500  and  of  poultry  and  dairy  products, 
$1,000.  Help  during  the  year  cost  about 
$500,  leaving  $3,000,  which  met  all  current 
expenses  of  the  ranch,  including  living 
expenses. 

Crops  grown  in  1913  and  comments  on 
same  follow; 

Tree  Fillers 

I  wished  to  put  in  some  peach  fillers, 
mostly  cling,  and  some  apple  fillers,  so 
adopted  the  hexagonal  system  of  plant- 
ing with  permanent  apple  trees  33  feet 
apart  and  rows  28  feet  apart  with  fillers 
in  the  same  row  as  the  permanent  trees 
and  16''o  feet  from  the  permanent  trees. 
No  appreciable  revenue  has  yet  been  ob- 
tained from  the  peaches,  but  a  good  crop 
Is  indicated  this  (fourth  season)  year 
with  $22.50  per  ton  offered  by  the  Sun- 
nyside    cannery. 

Hay 

Leaving  eight  feet  for  the  tree  row, 
my    planting    plan    permitted    of    20-foot 


strips  of  hay.  A  total  acreage  of  16 
acres  or  a  net  acreage,  excluding  tree 
rows,  of  11  acres,  was  in  hay  last  year 
and  yielded  45  tons,  which  was  all  fed 
on  the  ranch.  Those  portions  of  the 
ranch  most  heavily  graded  off  were  first 
seeded,  using  clover,  as  I  expected  to 
plow  the  sod  up  at  the  end  of  the  second 
year.  I  am  now  making  new  seeding 
with  alfalfa,  as  I  expect  to  leave  the 
ground  in  sod  longer.  I  will  state  in 
this  connection  that  clover  is  more  of  a 
surface  feeder  than  alfalfa  and  seems  to 
require  more  water  to  prevent  robbing 
the  trees  of  moisture.  With  care  in 
watering  and  cultivating,  I  find  no  in- 
jurious results  from  stripping  with  grass 
but  have  seen  many  young  orchards  which 
have    shown    injury    from    seeding. 

Cantaloupes 

Six  acres.  Yield  1.150  crates.  Re- 
turns f.  o.  b.  Grandview  $1,350.  This  has 
been  my  best  paying  crop.  Prices  have 
been  satisfactory  three  out  of  the  last  four 
years.     The   seeding  and   the   harvesting 


APPLES 


271 


costs  appi-oximately  $60  per  acre  for  a 
maximum  crop  of  about  200  crates  per 
acre  and  the  cultivation  and  the  water- 
ing incident  to  harvesting  a  good  crop 
are  ideal  for  securing  a  maximum  growth 
on  the  trees.  Cantaloupes  do  well  on  the 
heavier  upland  soils  of  the  valley  with- 
out fertilizer  but  do  not  appear  to  be 
adapted   for  the  light  sandy  soils. 

Potatoes 

Four  acres.  Yield  2S  tons,  exclusive  of 
culls — about  two  tons  at  $3  or  $4  a  ton  fed 
to  stock.  Returns:  One  ton  early  pota- 
toes, $35;  22V2  tons,  August  digging,  sold 
to  net  f.  o.  b.  Grandview,  $395;  three  tons, 
late  digging,  $45;  total,  $440.  I  prefer 
early  planting,  as  prices  average  fully  as 
good,  less  water  is  required  and  the 
ground  can  be  seeded  in  September  to  win- 
ter wheat  for  poultry.  For  potatoes  and 
corn  the  ground  needs  enriching.  Two 
years  ago  (1911)  on  ground  not  enriched, 
I  harvested  four  tons  merchantable  pota- 
toes per  acre.  Last  year  (1912)  on  man- 
ured ground  the  yield  was  seven  tons,  and 
this  year  I  will  have  two-year  clover  sod 
with  manure  dressing,  which  I  expect  to 
yield  around  12  tons  per  acre.  All  seed 
is  treated  with  formaldehyde  and  so  far 
I  have  had  no  loss  from  scab.  On  an 
eight  to  ten  ton  per  acre  crop,  seeding  and 
harvesting  expenses  need  not  exceed  $5  or 
$6  per  ton  and  fair  returns  are  obtained 
at  even  $12  to  $15  per  ton  for  potatoes 

Corn 

Five  acres.  Yield  175  bushels.  Value, 
exclusive  of  fodder,  $125.  This  corn  was 
on  unenriched  ground.  Next  year  I  will 
have  two-year  clover  sod  and  expect  bet- 
ter than  twice  this  yield.  I  have  been 
feeding  the  fodder  to  the  cows  but  this 
year  will  put  in  a  silo  and  corn  not  used 
for  silage  will  be  husked  without  cutting, 
the  stocks  run  down  with  a  stock  cutter 
and  plowed  under.  All  corn  is  fed  on 
the  ranch,  chiefly  to  poultry. 

Wheat 

One  acre.  Yield  approximately  four 
tons  wheat,  on  straw.  Value  $25.  The 
wheat  was  sowed  in  September  of  the 
previous  year,  on  land  from  which  pota- 
toes were  harvested  in  August,  and  cut  in 


June  and  the  ground  replanted  in  .July  to 
rutabagas,  making  three  crops  in  two 
years. 

Riitaliagas 

One  and  one-fourth  acres.  Yield  175 
sacks.  Returns:  100  sacks  shipped  for 
culinary  purposes  to  net  f.  o.  b.  Grand- 
view  about  $100;  20  sacks  sold  50  cents 
per  sack;  balance  fed  to  stock;  total  value 
about  $125. 

Tomatoes 

One-fifth  acre.  Yield  two  and  one-half 
tons.  Returns  $85.  The  tomatoes  were 
packed  in  peach  boxes  and  shipped.  Re- 
turns varied  from  30  cents  to  65  cents 
per  box  f.  o.  b.  Grandview.  I  was  espe- 
cially fortunate  in  my  marketing  but 
would  not  recommend  a  large  acreage  un- 
less the  greater  part  of  the  crop  could  be 
sold  to  a  cannery. 

Onions 

One-tenth  acre.  Yield  12  sacks.  Re- 
turns $12.  All  things  considered  not  a 
bad  crop. 

Black  Caps 

One-tenth  acre.  Yield  25  crates.  Re- 
turns $45.  Considerable  work  in  harvest- 
ing, but  with  pickers  available  a  paying 
crop. 

Poultry 

"While  not  a  field  crop  the  poultry  and 
the  cows  are  an  important  item  on  our 
ranch.  The  average  number  of  hens  was 
about  300.  Total  returns  from  eggs,  sale 
of  hens,  broilers  and  about  25  turkeys, 
$800.  My  experience  would  indicate  about 
50  per  cent  of  the  gross  returns  from  the 
poultry  to  be  required  for  feed.  Consider- 
able of  the  feed,  including  all  excess  milk 
from  the  cows,  is  produced  on  the  ranch. 
The  poultry  have  proved  a  valuable  ad- 
junct and  personally  move  desirable  than 
hogs.  Our  experience  would  indicate  this 
valley  to  be  especially  well  adapted  for 
poultry. 

Dairy 

During  1913  we  milked  two  cows,  but 
have  four  heifers  to  freshen  during  1914. 
The  cream  checks  from  the  two  cows  after 
supplying  the  ranch  with  milk  and  butter 
amounted  to  about  $200.  If  the  increase 
and  growth  of  young  stock,  together  with 


272 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the    value    of   manure    are    included,    the 
dairy   showing  is  very  gratifying. 

F.  A.  Norton, 
Grandview.  Wash. 

PBUNENG 

Pruning  Is  plant  surgery.  It  is  the 
knife  or  instrument  applied  to  a  tree  as 
the  knife  of  the  surgeon  is  applied  to  the 
body  of  the  animal  or  of  man.  The  con- 
sequences of  error  in  the  two  kinds  of 
gurgery    may    be    vastly    different. 

The  life  forces  of  the  tree  tend  to  re- 
store the  equilibrium  that  was  impaired 
by  the  severing  of  the  limb  from  the  par- 
ent stock.  It  will  likely  put  out  new 
branches  that  perform,  in  a  measure,  the 
functions  of  the  old,  or  increase  the 
strength  of  existing  branches,  and  this  is 
an  effort  of  nature  to  restore  equilibrium 
of  form  and  energy.  Thus  the  conse- 
quences between  the  two  kinds  of  surgery 
are   different   and   yet   analogous. 

Hare  A  Definite  Plan 

This  leads  us  to  conclude  that  no  one 
should  prune  without  a  definite  end  in 
view.  No  one  should  go  into  an  orchard 
and  cut  and  slash  promiscuously  without 
reasons,  any  more  than  he  would  send  a 
butcher  into  a  hospital  to  carve  the  bodies 
of  patients  according  to  the  rules  he 
learned  in  the  shop.  No  two  patients  in 
a  hospital  will  need  exactly  the  same  treat- 
ment, unless  in  very  exceptional  eases 
where  the  circumstances  are  very  similar 
and  the  organisms  of  the  patients  alike. 
In  nature  no  two  things  are  exactly  alike, 
therefore,  no  two  trees  would  demand 
exactly  the  same  treatment  in  pruning. 
There  are  general  characteristics,  how- 
ever, that  belong  to  certain  varieties,  and 
these  would  lead  us  to  give  to  each  and 
every  one  of  these  varieties  the  same 
general  treatment.  For  instance,  the 
Wagener  apple  tree  tends  to  grow 
straight,  the  branches  closing  in  toward 
the  center  very  much  on  the  style  of  a 
Bartlett  pear.  There  are  other  apples 
that  tend  to  grow  in  the  same  manner. 
In  trees  of  this  character,  the  limbs  would 
be  cut  away  from  the  center  with  the 
purpose  of  giving  a  more  spreading  and 
open  top  than  they  would  naturally  have. 
The    Jonathan,    the    Winesap,    and    other 


varieties  tend  to  produce  bushy  tops  with 
spreading  branches.  Trees  of  this  char- 
acter should  generally  be  pruned  more 
from  the  outside  in  order  to  make  it  pos- 
sible to  cultivate,  spray  and  gather  the 
fruit  with  less  interference  from  the 
overhanging  branches. 

Experience  in  Low  Heading 

There  is  one  thing  about  which  we  are 
more  fixed  in  our  opinions  than  about 
any  other  on  the  subject  of  pruning,  and 
that  is  the  question  of  low  heading  as 
compared  with  high  heading.  We  have 
been  brought  to  this  conclusion  by  one 
of  those  accidents  which  often  cause  us 
to  discover  things  we  would  not  other- 
wise discover,  and  therefore  to  reverse 
our  judgments  of  methods.  We  have  in 
our  orchard  several  trees  which,  when 
the.v  were  young,  were  injured  during 
the  winter  by  rabbits.  These  orchard 
enemies  peeled  the  bark  from  at  least  a 
dozen  trees,  and  the  owner  of  the  orch- 
ard felt  that  great  damage  was  done  to 
them.  The  question  was,  whether  to 
dig  them  up  and  plant  others,  or  to 
allow  them  to  grow  and  put  out  new 
shoots  near  the  ground.  The  latter  plan 
was  adopted.  These  trees  are  now  six- 
teen years  old,  the  same  age  as  other 
trees  in  the  orchard,  and  of  those  adja- 
cent to  them.  We  have  taken  photo- 
graphs of  these  trees  in  comparison  with 
others  of  the  same  age  and  the  same  va- 
rieties near  them,  and  the  photographs 
show  what  is  true  in  fact,  that  in  every 
case  the  trees  that  were  headed  at  the 
ground  or  just  above  the  ground,  are 
the  largest,  most  vigorous  trees  in  the 
orchard.  The  same  conditions  prevailed 
in  the  case  of  the  high  headed  trees  as  in 
the  case  of  the  low,  except  that  in  the 
case  of  the  low  headed  trees  the  branches 
put  out  just  above  the  ground,  while  the 
others  were  headed  so  that  they  began 
to  branch  about  two  feet  above  the  ground. 
Whatever  may  be  the  causes  the  facts 
remain.  We  have  seen  this  in  other 
orchards  as  well  as  in  our  own.  When 
we  try  to  discover  the  causes  we  find 
the  following: 

1.  There  is  less  space  between  the  root 
system  and  the  top  system,  and  there  is. 


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274 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICrLTURE 


therefore,  less  exposed  surface  that  is 
subject  to  disease,  injuries  by  accident, 
etc. 

2.  There  is  less  energy  required  to  car- 
ry food  from  the  root  system  to  the  top 
and  from  the  top  system  to  the  root,  and 
as  the  railroad  man  would  say,  there  is 
less  expense  and  less  friction  in  the 
shorter  haul.  The  trunk  of  a  tree  is  a 
circulatory  system,  a  kind  of  common 
carrier  that  exchanges  the  products  of 
one  part  of  the  tree  for  the  products  of 
another. 

3.  There  is  no  extra  sap  required  for 
the  support  of  a  longer  body,  and  there- 
fore the  extra  energy  that  would  be  re- 
quired to  support  the  extra  length  of 
body   goes   into   the   branches. 

4.  It  Is  easier  to  pick  the  fruit  from  a 
tree  with  a  low  top  than  from  one  that 
is  higher  in  the  air.  It  is  easier  to  prune 
and  to  spray.  When  the  fruit  falls  from 
the  top  of  a  low  tree  it  is  less  likel.v  to 
damage  and  bruise  in  falling,  and  there- 
fore there  is  less  waste.  Our  observa- 
tions lead  us  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
trees    are    almost    always    healthier,    and 


this  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  they  grow 
more  vi.gorously  and  produce  more  fruit. 

5.  There  is  another  reason  in  favor  of 
low  heading  that  is  worthy  of  considera- 
tion, and  that  is,  that  trees  are  bent  by 
force  of  the  wind  currents  and  the  taller 
trees  bend  more  than  the  lower  ones. 
Often  great  dama.ge  is  done  in  this  way. 
especially  to  trees  that  are  heavily  loaded 
with  fruit  so  that  the  center  of  gravity 
is  beyond  the  base.  Trees  are  sometimes 
broken  in  this  way.  Much  less  damage 
is  done  from  this  cause  to  trees  with  low 
tops. 

There  are  advantages  on  the  other  side, 
for  experience  teaches  us  that  it  is  more 
difficult  to  cultivate  among  trees  that 
have  been  headed  low,  but  this  can  be 
largely  obviated  if  care  is  taken  in  shap- 
ing the  tops  and  in  the  choice  of  tools 
for  cultivation.  In  orchards  that  have 
been  pruned  with  this  in  mind,  it  is  about 
as  easy  to  cultivate  around  trees  that 
are  headed  just  above  the  ground  as 
around  others  that  are  headed  eighteen 
inches   higher. 

Of  course  there   is  a  difference   in   the 


Fig.   2.     Orrhard  near   Kenuewick,   Wash.      Peaches  in   the   Foreground.      In   wind.v   sections   trees 
do  much  hetter  if  lieaded  close  to  the  srouud. 


APPLES 


pruning  of  apiiles,  peaches  and  pears,  be- 
cause these  trees  are  by  nature  differ- 
ently formed,  but  with  these  differences 
in  mind  we  give  a  few  general  rules.  It 
is  understood  that  these  rules  are  made 
to  be  followed  when  they  seem  best 
adapted  to  the  circumstances,  but  made  to 
be  broken  when  the  nature  of  the  condi- 
tions seem  to  re'iuire. 


Fig.  3.  A  Convenient  Disc  Cultivator,  capable 
of  being:  extended  for  rnltivation  under  low 
trees. 

Rules  for  rruning 

First.  We  remove  certain  branches  in 
order  that  the  plant  food  gathered  by 
the  roots  may  be  used  to  support  the  re- 
maining branches  and  stimulate  more 
.vigorous  growth.  If  the  tree  is  not  grow- 
ing rapidly  enough,  this  is  ver.v  important. 


-'*■ 


Fls.  4.  A  Beautiful  Illustration  ot"  Symmetr.v 
and  Regularity  in  an  Orchard.  Seen  from  a 
distance  the  tops  of  these  trees  are  as  level 
as  the  pruning  line  seen  in  the  picture.  How- 
ever, the  trees  are  headed  too  high  both  for 
the  vigor  of  the  trees  and  for  convenience 
and  economy  in  spraying  and  in  harvesting 
the  crop. 


but  on  a  tree  where  there  is  a  heavy 
wood  growth  this  is  not  needed  and  may 
be  an  injury  in  preventing  the  forming  of 
fruit  spurs. 

Second.  We  remove  a  branch  when  it 
interferes  with  the  growth  of  another 
that  we  consider  of  greater  importance 
than  the  branch  to  be  removed. 

Third.  We  remove  a  branch  when  it 
grows  in  a  direction  to  give  the  tree  an 
undesirable  shape.  Usually  in  the  North- 
west we  prefer  the  open  top  and  spread- 
ing branches  in  order  to  let  in  the  sun- 
shine to  color  the  fruit. 

Fourth.  We  remove  a  branch  when  its 
weight  tends  to  pull  the  top  in  an  unde- 


Fig.  .J. 


A    Well    Shaped   Tree. 

— .1/fer   Brarkctt 


sirable  direction.  The  heaviest  and  long- 
est branches  should  be  left  on  the  side 
of  the  tree  from  which  come  the  prevail- 
ing winds.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  tree 
will  lean,  and  when  it  is  heavily  loaded 
with  fruit  the  average  weight  will  be 
far  enough  from  the  center  to  uproot  it 
or  break  it,  or  in  some  other  way  injure 
it. 

Fifth.  We  remove  a  branch  when  it  is 
diseased.  We  do  this  not  only  because 
it  is  useless,  but  because  the  diseased  part 
may  also  injure  the  healthy  parts. 

Sixth.  Summer  pruning  is  resorted  to, 
generally,  in  order  to  produce  fruit  spurs. 
In  young  trees  from  one  to  five  years  of 
age  summer  pruning  is  a  method  of  caus- 
ing the  trees  to  put   out   extra  branches 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.  0.     Sixteen-year-old  Gano,     iiini.! 


imnil.     »'irt;nml"ereiu-e  ar  I^ase.  -Hi   Inches. 


Fig.  7.     Sixteen-vear-old  Gano.     Headed  24  Inches  from  the  Ground.     ("Ircumference  at  Base. 
40  Inches.     Trees  on  the  Left  Headed  at  the  Ground.      (See  Fig.   12.) 


APPLES 


that  mature  their  wood  sufficiently  so 
that  they  are  not  in  general  killed  by  the 
winter  freezing.  These  branches  are 
started  for  the  growth  of  the  coming  sea- 
son and  the  sap  which  would  go  to  pro- 
mote the  growth  of  longer  shoots  that 
would  be  cut  off  the  following  spring  is 
thrown  into  the  new  branches,  many  of 
which  will  be  left  the  next  year,  and  in 
this  manner  three  years  of  wood  growth, 
it  is  believed,  can  be  obtained  in  two 
years  of  this  kind  of  pruning. 

At  this  point,  however,  there  is  some 
controversy  and  the  theory  is  not  uni- 
versally accepted. 

Seventh.  When  a  tree  is  being  trans- 
planted the  tops  should  be  cut  back  at 
least  far  enough  to  correspond  with  the 
root  pruning  necessary  in  removing  from 
the  nursery  and  setting  in  the  orchard. 
In  the  dry  climates  this  cannot  be  too 
strongly  emphasized,  because  the  dry  air 
tends  to  rapidly  absorb  the  sap  from  the 
young  leaves  and  branches  and  if  there 
is  too  much  top  surface  exposed  to  the 
dry  atmosphere  it  draws  too  heavily  on 
the  root  system  which  has  not  yet  suffici- 
ently thrown  out  tender  rootlets  to  ab- 
sorb sufficient  food  and  moisture. 

Eighth.  Branches  are  removed  when 
they  are  so  low  as  to  interfere  with  prop- 
er cultivation. 

Ninth.  Branches  are  removed  when 
they  are  so  high  that  it  is  inconvenient 
to  pick  the  fruit. 

Tenth.  Heavy  pruning  is  often  re- 
sorted to  when  trees  are  planted  so  close 
together  that  their  branches  interfere  with 
each  other. 

Eleventh.  The  proper  time  for  winter 
pruning  is  during  the  dormant  period, 
somewhere  between  the  dropping  of  the 
leaves  in  the  early  winter  and  before  the 
opening  of  spring.  It  is  not  well  to  prune 
when  the  wood  is  frozen,  as  that  seems 
to  injure  the  tree.  The  time  for  summer 
pruning  depends  a  good  deal  on  the  lati- 
tude. In  most  countries  where  apples 
are  grown  perhaps  about  the  first  of  .luly 
would  be  the  preferable  time. 

Twelfth.  Trees  that  tend  to  head  in- 
ward, or  toward  the  center,  should  have 


the  intertwining  branches  cut  away  to 
give  them  a  more  spreading  top. 

Thirteenth.  Trees  that  tend  naturally 
to  produce  overhanging  boughs  or  spread- 
ing tops  should  be  pruned  from  the  out- 
side more  than  from  the  inside. 

Fourteenth.  In  pruning,  care  should 
be  observed  in  distinguishing  between 
fruit  spurs  and  small  limbs  that  protrude 
from  the  branches.  In  cutting  away 
fruit  spurs  we  destroy  the  possibility  of 
producing  fruit. 

A  summary  of  these  rules  would  be 
about  as  follows: 

Remove  branches  to  invigorate  other 
branches;  remove  branches  that  interfere 
with  the  growth  of  more  important 
branches;  remove  branches  that  give  the 
tree  an  undesirable  shape;  remove 
branches  that  pull  the  top  in  the  wrong 
direction;  remove  branches  that  are  dis- 
eased; remove  enough  of  the  top  to  cor- 
respond with  the  root;  remove  Ijranches 
that  interfere  with  cultivation;  remove 
branches  that  are  too  high  for  the  con- 
venient gathering  of  fruit;  prune  any 
time  when  the  tree  is  dormant  and  the 
wood  is  not  frozen ;  do  not  cut  away  the 
fruit  spurs. 

Pliotoiarraphs  of  Trees  Headed  Both  High 
and  Low 

In  the  orchard  of  the  Editor,  North 
Yakima,  Washington,  were  a  number  of 
trees,  to  which  we  have  referred, 
which,  when  young,  were  damaged  by 
rabbits.  The  owner  at  that  time  had  to 
decide  between  cutting  them  off  at  or 
near  the  ground  or  digging  them  n\>  in 
order  to  plant  new  trees.  He  decided  to 
cut  them  off.  The  trees  are  now  sixteen 
years  old.  On  April  4,  1912,  photographs 
were  taken  and  measurements  made  in 
order  to  determine  the  comparative  size 
of  these  trees  with  others  in  the  same 
row.  same  varieties,  same  age,  and  the 
same  conditions  as  nearly  as  two  trees 
growing  twenty  feet  apart  can  be  said  to 
grow  under  the  same  conditions.  We 
might  have  selected  a  number  of  other 
trees  that  would  give  about  the  same  re- 
sults, but  these  were  believed  to  be  suf- 
ficient to  illustrate  the  facts  and  prin- 
ciples involved. 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.   8. 


Newtown   Spitzpnburg,   lO  Years  Old.      Headed  at    tbe   Ground.      Circumference  at 
Base,   43   Inches. 


r!/:/^Iv^ 


Fig.  0.      Newtown   Spilzi'iibtirg",   ItJ  Years  Old.      Ilcaiird   :\~i   Inilu-s   lli;;Ii.      ('irt'umfereuce  at 

Base,  li.'i'-j    Inoiios. 


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279 


Figures  (i  ami  7  aio  Ganoes.  and  the 
measurements  are  as  follows: 

Fig.  6  hearted  near  the  ground,  meas- 
ured in  circumferenre  at  the  base  46 
inches. 

Fig.  7  headed  24  inches  high,  circum- 
ference  at   base,   40   inches. 

Fig.  8  headed  at  the  ground.  Newtown 
Spitzenburg,   43   inches. 

Fig.  9  same  variety,  headed  35  inches 
high,   2514    inches   circumference. 

Fig.  11  Esopus  Spitzenburg.  headed  1G 
inches  high.  41   inches  in  circumference. 

Fig.  12  Esopus  Si>itzenburg.  headed  at 
the  ground,  see  Fig.   7. 

In  every  case  the  top  system  of  the 
low  headed  tree  was  stronger,  healthier 
and  larger.  No  records  have  been  kept  of 
the  bearing,  but  from  memory  would  say 
that  the  fruit  yielded  is  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  tree. 

The  accompanying  cut  is   used  to   rep- 
resent  a  wrong  method   of   pruning. 
1 


JL_ 


Fig.   10.      Pen    sketch    ol    frame    work    of    four 
year  old  tree  which  bore  41  apples. 

According  to  our  belief,  the  tO])  should 
have  been  started  at  cross  mark,  rather 
than  thrice  that  height,  because  it  could 
have  born  its  fruit  with  less  than  half 
the  strain  and  w'ould  have  been  less  like- 
ly to  lean  or  break  by  the  force  of  the 
winds.  . 

However,  in  traveling  over  the  country. 


w'e  have  discovered  that  all  conditions  are 
not  the  same,  in  fact,  no  two  places  are 
exactly  alike  in  climate,  soil,  or  other 
environments,  and  that  what  might  be 
better  under  one ,  set  of  circumstances 
would  not  be  wise  under  vastly  different 
conditions.  For  instance,  in  Eastern 
Colorado  and  Western  Kansas,  where  the 
winds  are  strong  and  the  sun  hot,  it  is 
better  to  head  the  trees  at  the  ground 
to  prevent  leaning,  breaking  and  sun 
scald.  In  the  coves  of  the  hills  or  moun- 
tains, where  the  trees  are  protected  from 
the  winds,  there  would  be  little  danger 
of  injury  from  winds  and  in  a  humid 
climate  little  danger  from  sun  scald.  We 
give,  therefore,  views  from  several  au- 
thors with  wide  experience  in  several 
states.  These  views  differ  in  many  par- 
ticulars but  are  doubtless  the  results  of 
exi)erience  in  the  various  sections  from 
which  they  come. 

Gri.\NVILI,E  LOWTIIICI! 

Pruning'    When   Transplaiitius' 

We  are  ready  to  set  the  tree  and  the 
problem  of  pruning  is  before  us.  It  is  nec- 
essary to  cut  away  part  of  the  branches 
to  enable  the  injured  root  system  to  sup- 
ply the  remaining  branches  with  water. 
The  less  the  roots  are  injured  the  less 
the  top  need  be  cut  away.  Both  theory 
and  experience  lead  to  the  belief  that 
fruit  growers  usually  make  a  mistake  in 
the  manner  of  pruning  newly  set  trees. 
The  common  way  is  to  cut  back  all  of 
the  branches.  This,  in  many  cases,  is 
wrong.  The  top  buds  on  a  branch  develop 
soonest  and  produce  the  lar,gest  leaves. 
Now  a  newly-set  tree  will  grow  best  if  it 
can  develop  a  large  leaf  surface  before 
dry,  hot  weather  sets  in,  and  this  it  will 
do  if  some  branches  are  left  intact.  There- 
fore, instead  of  shortening-in  all  branches, 
cut  away  some  or  the  branches  entirely. 
The  tree  so  pruned  will  start  growth  and 
acquire  vigor  more  quickly  and  a  batter 
top  can  be  formed.  There  are  some  cases 
in  which  certain  fruits  or  varieties  pro- 
duce abnormally  long  branches  by  the  end 
of  the  second  year  which  may  have  to  be 
cut  back. 


At  the  end  of  the  second  year  the  root  s.ys- 
tem  will   have  a   good   start   and   if  the  whole 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.   11.      Esopiis   Spitzpnimrg.   Hi   Years   oki.      IleailHil   Hi    Indies   High.      Circumference  at 

Base,   41    Indies 


KiK.   1::.      Ksiipus  .Siiit/.euliulg.      li;   Veins  Uld.      Ileaileil  at    llie  GruuuU. 


APPLES 


281 


top  is  at  that  time  cut  to  within  a  few  inches 
of  the  Kiound.  the  tree  will  send  forth  via- 
orous  branches  tliat  will  in  two  or  three  years 
form  a  head  equal  to  the  first  and  ever  after 
be  a   more  vigorous  tree. — Ed. 

The  Height  of  the  Head 

A  decisive  choice  must  be  made  at  tlie 
very  start  as  to  the  height  of  the  head. 
Shall  the  tree  be  low  or  high-headed?  The 
choice  should  usually  be  for  a  low-headed 
tree  for  the  reason  that  such  a  tree  is 
more  easily  sprayed  and  pruned  and  the 
fruit  more  readily  thinned  and  harvested : 
crop  and  tree  are  less  liable  to  injury  by 
wind:  the  trunk  is  less  liable  to  injury  by 
sun  scald,  winter-killing  and  parasites;  the 
top  is  more  quickly  formed  and  the  low- 
headed  tree  soonest  bears  fruit.  No  ad- 
vantage as  to  cultivation  is  gained  by 
either  method  over  the  other,  as  a  well 
trained  tree  with  a  low  head,  in  which 
the  branches  ascend  obliquely,  permits 
the  cultivator  to  come  sufficiently  near  the 
tree.  It  is  a  fact,  for  which  no  explana- 
tion can  be  offered  here,  that  the  branches 
of  low-headed  trees  ascend  more  uprightly 
than  those  of  trees  neaded  high.  By  low- 
headed  is  meant  a  distance  from  earth  to 
first  limb  of  from  one  to  two  feet.  The 
peach  may  be  headed  at  the  lower  dis- 
tance, the  plum,  pear  and  cherry  some- 
what higher,  while  the  apple  should  ap- 
proach the  upper  limit.  * 

U.  P.  Hedrick. 

Geneva.  N.  Y. 

Pnining  One-year-old  Trees 

With  a  one-year-old  tree  pruning  is 
easy.  Remove  the  branches  and  cut  back 
the  remaining  whip  to  the  heading  height 
desired.  The  reason  for  this  cutting  back 
is  that  a  tree  of  this  age  has  not  sufficient 
space  of  hare  trunk  between  branches  for 
final  branch  spacing.  If  the  tree  is  two 
years  old  as  is  usually  the  case  with  all 
fruits  excepting  the  peach  or  when  the 
one-year-old  plants  have  been  set  a  year, 
the  real  work  of  heading  may  be  begun, 
but  even  now  the  required  space  for 
proper  heading  hardly  exists,  and  the  head 
cannot  yet  be  wholly  formed.  This  early 
pruning  is,  therefore,  all  more  or  less  pro- 
visional  though   an   ideal   for  the   future 


•  Our  opinion  is  that  the  lower  limit  is  better 
than   the  upper. — Ed. 


tree   must    be   plainly    in    the   mind    from 
the  start. 

Pruning  for  Wood 

When  the  head  of  the  tree  is  formed 
subsequent  priming  is  directed  toward  the 
formation  of  wood  or  of  fruit-buds.  If  a 
tree  is  bearing  many  small  fruits,  if  the 
top  contains  dead  or  dying  branches,  or 
if  the  seasonal  growth  is  short  and  scant, 
it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the 
tree  lacks  vigor,  or,  in  old  trees,  is  pass- 
ing into  decrepitude.  Such  trees  may  us- 
ually be  rejuvenated  by  judicious  prun- 
ing. In  professional  terms  the  tree  must 
be  "pruned  for  wood."  Such  pruning  con- 
sists in  cutting  back  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  branches  and  in  wholly  removing 
others.  The  practice  is  based  upon  the 
fact  that  the  development  of  the  leaves 
and  shoots — vegetative  activity — is  de- 
pendent upon  a  constant  supply  of  the  sol- 
uble nutriment — the  sap.  Therefore, 
when  the  size  of  the  tree  top  is  diminished 
the  remaining  parts  grow  more  lustily.  If 
half  of  the  top  of  a  decrepit  tree  is  cut 
away,  the  remaining  half  in  the  season 
that  follows  will  produce  a  leaf  surface 
often  twice  that  which  the  whole  top 
would  have  borne.  When  trees  are  en- 
feebled by  age,  injured  by  insects  or  fungi, 
robbed  of  food  and  moisture  by  sod  or 
crops,  or  neglected  in  any  way.  there  is 
nothing  which  will  more  quickly  stimu- 
late them  and  renew  their  youthful  vigor 
than  conservative  surgery.  Such  pruning 
for  wood  should  usually  he  extended  over 
two  or  more  years.  In  pruning  for  wood 
the  following  rules  are  usually  applicable: 

Weak-growing  varieties  may  always  be 
pruned  generously:  strong-growing  kinds 
lightly. 

Varieties  which  branch  freely  need  lit- 
tle pruning.  Those  having  unbranching 
limbs  should  he  pruned  closely. 

In  cool,  damp  climates  trees  run  to 
wood  and  need  little  pruning.  In  hot. 
dry  climates  they  need  much  pruning. 

Rich,  deep  soils  favor  growth:  prune 
trees  in  such  soils  lightly.  In  shallow. 
sand.y  soils,  trees  produce  short  shoots, 
and  the  wood  should  be  closely  cut. 

The  Form   of  the  Top 

Two  general  types  of  top  are  open  to 
choice:    the    vase    form    or   open-centered 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


tree,  and  the  globe  or  close  centered  tree. 
In  the  first  the  frame-work  of  the  tree 
consists  of  a  short  trunk  surmounted  by 
four  or  five  main  branches  ascending 
obliquely.  In  the  close-centered  tree  the 
trunk  is  continued  above  the  branches, 
forming  the  center  of  the  tree.  There 
are  several  modifications  of  each  of  these. 
In  this  climate  the  open-headed,  vase- 
formed  tree  is  best  for  the  peach  and 
the  close-centered  two-storied  tree  is  best 
for  all  other  fruits.  Whatever  the  form, 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  lowest 
branches  are  longest  so  that  the  greatest 
possible  leaf-surface  will  be  exposed  to  the 
sun  and  light. 

Tree  Formation 

For  several  years  after  planting,  the 
peach  alone  excepted,  fruit  trees  need  to 
be  pruned  only  to  train  the  tree.  Just 
how  much  to  prune  young  trees  depends 
upon  the  fruit,  the  variety,  the  soil  and 
the  climate.  Fruit  growers  prune  trees 
far  too  much,  thereby  increasing  the 
growth  of  wood  and  of  leaf  surface  and 
of  delaying  the  fruiting  of  the  plant.  If 
trees  were  originally  well  selected  all  that 
is  needed  is  to  remove  an  occasional 
branch  which  starts  out  in  the  wrong 
place — the  sooner  done  the  better — and  to 
take  out  dead,  injured  or  crossed  limbs. 
The  peach,  some  plums  and  some  pears 
may  need  heading-in,  and  a  weak  or  sickly 
tree  may  require  somewhat  more  severe 
pruning. 

Dehorning:   Trees 

A  great  deal  is  said  about  dehorning 
trees.  By  dehorning  is  meant  the  cut- 
ting back  of  all  branches  to  within  two 
feet  or  even  less  of  the  trunk.  The  term  in 
use  for  this  rather  severe  operation  is 
a  misnomer,  for  the  tree  so  treated  is 
really  decapitated.  If  cutting  off  the 
top  of  a  tree  is  "dehorning"  one  can  as 
well  say  that  cutting  off  the  roots  is  "de- 
tailing." Most  trees  that  are  "dehorned" 
may  as  well  be  "detailed"  at  the  same 
time.  There  are,  however,  exceptional 
cases  with  peaches  and  possibly  other 
stone  fruits  when  this  wholesale  renew- 
ing of  top  is  rational,  as  when  good  trees 
of  these  fruits  in  their  prime  are  se- 
verely    injured     by     overbearing,     heavy 


winds,  snows,  fungi,  or  other  causes.  But 
to  "dehorn"  peach  trees  15  or  more  years 
old  for  the  sake  of  one  more  crop  is  usu- 
ally a  very  poor  practice.  Such  trees  in 
most  cases  should  go  to  the  brush  heap 
and  a  young  orchard  take  the  place  of  the 
old. 

Root    Pruiiiug 

Root  pruning  is  seldom  necessary  in 
American  orcharding.  In  cooler,  damper 
climates  it  is  of  some  value  in  dwarf- 
ing trees  and  in  bringing  them  into  fruit. 
To  prune  the  roots  is  to  cut  off  the  food 
supply  and  thereby  starve  the  tree.  This 
drastic  treatment  is  sometimes  recom- 
mended for  the  orchards  of  this  region 
but  it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  properly 
pruning  the  top.  good  tillage  or  less  se- 
vere measures  than  cutting  the  roots  will 
not  bring  about  the  same  results  without 
permanently  weakening  the  trees  as  does 
root  pruning.  This  applies  to  pruning 
the  roots  of  mature  trees  and  not  to  the 
fantastic  notion  set  forth  by  Stringfel- 
low  10  or  12  years  ago  that  young  trees 
are  best  transplanted  by  cutting  the  roots 
back  to  a  stub.  Until  nature  reverses  the 
laws  of  plant-growth,  tree  planters  had 
much  better  continue  setting  trees  with 
a  root  system  ready  to  perform  its  func- 
tion naturally  and  normally  even  though 
a  plant  pruned  to  a  stub  may  grow,  and 
under  exceptional  conditions  may  grow 
well. 

Tlie  Work  of  Pniiiing' 

Each  man  must  select  his  own  pruning 
paraphernalia — as  ladders,  knives,  saws 
and  shears.  Occasionall.v  you  see  a  man 
pruning  with  an  ax.  Now  an  ax  is  a 
good  tool  for  some  purposes  but  it  is  not 
of  much  value  in  pruning.  A  sharp 
knife  in  the  hands  of  an  expert  is  a 
better  tool  than  shears,  but  the  amateur 
had  much  better  stick  to  shears. 

The  cut  in  pruning  should  always  be 
made  parallel  with  the  trunk  and  as  close 
as  possible.  One  of  the  most  elementary 
rules  of  pruning  is  that  the  cut  should 
be  made  just  beyond  a  healthy  lateral 
branch,  and  yet  in  the  average  orchard 
the  rule  is  violated  more  often  than  it 
is  followed.  The  reason  for  so  cutting 
is    plain.      The    lateral    branch    is   stimu- 


APPLES 


2S3 


lated  to  produce  a  great  number  of  leaves 
which  assimilate  sap.  This  elaborated 
food  passes  back  through  the  inner  bark 
near  the  newly  made  cut  and  the  wound 
quickly  callouses  and  heals  because  it 
thus  has  access  to  an  abundant  supply  of 
food. 

The  notion  prevails  that  a  wound  of 
any  size  will  heal,  but  the  major 
ity  of  wounds  over  three  inches  in  diani 
eter  do  not  heal — decay  sets  in,  foUoweil 
by  wood-destroying  fungi,  and  these,  with 
the  action  of  the  weather,  are  followeil 
by  rotten  wood,  a  hollow  branch  and  a 
diseased  tree.  The  Geneva  station  is  now 
digging  out  an  apple  orchard  in  which 
the  centers  of  the  trees  were  removed 
some  15  or  18  years  ago.  The  trees 
might  have  borne  crops  for  two  or  three 
decades  longer  but  practically  all  an 
worthless  from  the  results  of  the  cuttins 
out  of  large  limbs.  The  life  of  a  tree 
is  endangered  whenever  a  large  branch 
is  removed,  and  such  an  amputation 
should  be  made  only  under  dire  neces- 
sity. Tree  lovers  shudder  at  the  ghastly 
wounds  and  mutilated  trees  in  the  aver- 
age orchard.  The  professional  "hewers 
of  wood"  who  call  themselves  "tree 
pruners"  are  responsible  for  much  of  the 
dreadful    slaughter   seen    in    orchards. 

It  is  presumed  that  every  fruit-grower 
has  learned  from  observation  or  experi- 
ence that  one  of  the  secrets  of  the  heal- 
ing of  large  wounds  is  to  cut  close  to 
the  trunk,  and  no  matter  how  large  a 
wound  may  be  it  is  better  than  leaving 
a  projecting  stub.  The  chances  for  heal- 
ing with  a  large  wound  are  materially 
increased  by  a  coating  of  thick  lead  paint 
to  protect  the  cut  surface  from  evapora 
tion  and  moisture.  It  is  a  waste  of  time 
to  treat  wounds  less  than  two  inches  in 
diameter. 

U.    P.    HEDRIfTC. 

Geneva.   N.   Y. 

(hie   Spring  and   T«<i   Siiiiimer  I'riiiiiii^s 

The  accompanying  photographs  illut; 
trate  a  method  of  pruning  eiuployed  h\ 
an  orchard  company  near  North  Yakima 
Washington. 

The  method  consists  of  pruning  younu' 
trees  once  before  the  buds  i)ut  out  in  the 
spring,    once   about    the    last   of   May    or 


rig.  1.  Tree  One  and  ()ne-llalf  Years  After  Re- 
moving from  the  Nursery.  The  photograph 
was  taken  about  the  first  of  September,  the 
second  year  of  growth  in  the  orchard.  The 
tree  was  pruned  early  in  March,  early  in 
June,  and  was  photographed  Just  before  prun- 
ing early  In  September  of  the  same  year. 


Tlie  Siiuie  Tree  After  the  Second  Sum- 
mer Pruning,   September  1st. 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


first  of  June,  and  again  about  the  last  of 
August  or  first  of  September. 

The   trees   are   well    watered   and   man- 
ured and  make  a  rapid  growth. 


Fig.   3.     Another  Tree  Grown  and   riuned  in  a 
Manner  Similar  to  That  Already  Described. 


Fig.  4.     Represents  the  Same  Tree  After  PruninR. 
Photos  Cottrtcttu  Yal-iiiia  Orchard  ^rciirifics  Co. 


The  Natural  Method 

Pruning  is  as  natural  and  as  old  as  any 
other  orchard  operation.  Nature  has  al- 
ways adopted  this  method  for  reducing 
the  exceedingly  large  number  of  buds  and 
small  sprouts  from  growing  into  large 
branches  and  thereby  over-taxing  the  en- 
ergies of  the  tree.  She  not  only  prunes 
regularly  and  at  the  right  time  but  she 
prunes  without  leaving  large  and  ugly 
scars  on  the  tree.  We  should  try  to  copy 
after  nature  by  doing  the  work  at  the 
proper  time  and  in  that  way  will  not  only 
remove  the  small  branches  but  keep  the 
tree  in  shape  throughout.  It  is  quite  com- 
mon to  wait  until  undesirable  habits  of 
.growth  have  established  themselves  and 
then  begin  a  general  thinning  out  and 
shaidng  of  the  tree.  The  effect  of  this 
Idnd  of  pruning  generally  results  in  some 
kind  of  injury  to  the  plant. 

It  is  a  very  hard  matter  to  give  definite 
instructions  about  how  to  prune  trees 
since  there  are  no  two  trees  that  are  ex- 
actly alike.  No  two  trees  can  be  pruned 
alike  if  they  are  pruned  properly.  "Prun- 
ing is  a  matter  of  judgment,  not  a  rule." 
No  one  can  tell  you  how  to  prune  your 
trees  without  seeing  them.  While  this 
is  true  there  are  a  few  principles  which 
may  apply  everywhere  and  if  the  fruit 
grower  follows  them  he  ought  to  avoid 
making  many  mistakes  in  pruning.  The 
l)est  rule  is  to  prune  regularly  and  at 
the  proper  time.  If  the  tree  is  neglected 
for  a  few  years  and  then  severely  pruned 
it  is  likely  to  make  a  very  vigorous 
growth  of  wood  in  order  to  restore  the 
balance  which  the  pruner  has  upset.  If 
the  tree  is  cut  back  severely  the  roots 
immediately  endeavor  to  restore  the 
e'luilibrium  by  producing  a  vigorous  top 
growth  or  heavy  growth  of  suckers  or 
sjjrouts.  This  is  likely  to  cause  a  re- 
duction of  fruit.  Sometimes  trees  which 
produce  a  large  growth  are  shy  bearers. 
It  is  better  to  prune  a  little  every  year 
and  not  a  large  amount  every  three 
or  four  years.  If  trees  are  growing  too 
fast  the  worst  thing  that  can  be  done  is 
to  remove  a  large  amoimt  of  wood  dur- 
ing the  winter.  That  only  stimulates 
the  tree  to  grow  that  much  faster.  If 
the  desire  is  to  check  the  growth  it  can 


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285 


be  done  better  by  withholding  cultiva- 
tion and  irrigation  or  l)y  what  is  termed 
summer  pruning.  Top  pruning  produces 
wood  w'hile  root  pruning  reduces  wood. 
Checking  growth  induces  fruittulness. 
The  season  of  pruning  influences  fruitful- 
ness  and  for  that  reason  it  is  better  to 
summer  prune  for  fruit  and  winter  prune 
for  wood.  Climate  and  locality  may  affect 
the  time  of  pruning. 

Young    trees    .grow    ra|)idly    and    make 
strong,   upright   growth,   but   as   they   get 


Fig.   1.     Improper  Method  of  Cutting  the  Limbs. 

older  and  come  into  bearing  the  tops 
spread  out  and  the  growth  is  less  vigor- 
ous. Bearing  trees  require  less  top  prun- 
ing, and  this  seems  to  be  especially  true 
in  a  dry  climate. 

Every  apple  grower  is  confronted  every 
winter  with  the  question  of  how  best  to 
prune  his  trees.  The  heaviest  pruning 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  tree  top 
should  be  done  during  the  first  three  to 
five  years  of  the  tree's  growth.  During 
this  time  the  apple  tree  should  be  prop- 
erly started  and  be  well  pruned  so  that 
when  it  comes  into  bearing  it  will  not 
be  necessary   to  prune   it  severely. 

Two  forms  are  generally  considered  in 
the  starting  of  the  young  apple  tree  in 
the  orchard,  the  low  and  high-headed 
tree.  The  choice  of  either  one  of  these 
forms  depends  to  a  great  extent  on  the 
cultural  methods  to  be  followed  by  the 
orchardist,  and  upon  the  climatic  condi- 
tions.     The    high-headed    tree    is    better 


adapted  to  Eastern  sections  while  the  low 
headed  trees  are  preferred  for  New 
Mexico, 

The  first  pruning  of  the  young  apjUe 
tree,  after  it  has  been  transplanted  to 
the  apple  orchard,  should  be  carefully 
done  as  at  this  time  we  determine  the 
height  of  the  trunk.  The  top  should  be 
cut  back  to  about  12  to  18  inches  from 
the  ground.  The  following  spring  a  num- 
ber of  liml3s  will  develop  from  the  trunk. 
Three  to  five  limbs  should  only  be  allowed 
to  form  the  scaffold.  At  the  next  prun- 
ing, the  following  spring,  these  scaffold 
limbs  are  again  cut  back  somewhat  and 
any  interfering  limbs  are  also  removed. 
At  the  third  and  even  the  fourth  pruning 
the  limbs  should  be  cut  back  and  the 
tree  rounded  up  generally.  By  this 
method  of  pruning  the  tree  is  shaped  up 
and   properly  started. 

While  there  are  some  fruit  growers 
who  claim  that  the  bearing  apple  tree 
should  be  cut  back  every  year  the  na- 
ture of  the  growth  in  this  climate  does 
not  warrant  such  practice  and  on  the 
whole  the  results  are  not  so  satisfactory. 
The  bearing  tree  should  be  pruned  as 
lightly  as  possible.  It  does  not  produce 
the  same  rank  growth  that  the  young 
tree  does  during  the  first  few  years.  A 
great  deal  of  the  vitality  of  the  bearing 
tree  is  used  up  in  the  production  of  the 
fruit,  and  in  fruit  spurs  for  the  follow- 
ing crop,  as  it  takes  two  seasons  for  the 
apple  to  form  its  first  buds.  While  the 
tree  does  not  require  severe  pruning  it 
should  be  pruned  a  little  every  year.  All 
the  dead  and  broken  limbs  should  be  re- 
moved as  well  as  those  which  interfere. 
Avoid   the   cutting  of  large  branches. 

The  limbs  should  be  cut  as  near  the 
trunk  as  possible  so  the  wound  may  heal 
over  quickly.  Never  cut  limbs  so  as  to 
leave  a  stump  one  or  more  inches  in 
length.  Such  stumps  if  left  never  heal 
over.  The  healing  of  the  wound  depends 
on  the  activity  of  the  cabium  layer. 
This  layer  is  most  active  in  the  spring 
after  the  tree  starts  to  growing.  The 
longer  the  wound  remains  exposed  the 
more  it  will  dry  and  crack.  Wounds 
which  are  made  in  the  fall  or  mid-winter 
necessarily  remain  longer  before  the  cam- 


286 


ENCYCLOPEEIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig 


The  Cambium  firowins  Over  a  Properly 
Made  Wound. 


bium  layer  begins  to  grow  over  them  than 
those  made  in  the  spring  just  before  the 
tree  starts  to  growing.  While  trees  can 
and  may  be  pruned  any  time  during  their 
dormant  period — that  is  during  the  fall, 
winter  and  spring — the  preferable  time  is 
in  the  spring,  shortly  before  growth  be- 
gins. 

Fabian  Garcia, 
Santa  Fe.  N.  M. 

A  Vermont  Viewpoint 

The  successful  growth  of  a  vigorous  and 
well  developed  tree  is  largely  dependent 
upon  rational  methods  of  pruning.  The 
pruning  a  tree  receives  during  its  first 
few  years  determines  the  shape  of  its  ma- 
ture head.  The  young  tree  at  the  time  of 
setting  should  be  severely  pruned.  As  a 
rule  the  roots  are  cut  back  to  six  or  eight 
inches  and  the  top  either  to  a  whip,  or. 
If  it  has  been  started  at  the  right  height 
in  the  nursery,  from  three  to  five  of  the 
best  placed  branches  are  selected  for  the 
scaffold  limbs  or  framework  of  the  head 
and  these  are  cut  back  to  correspond  with 
the  roots.  Fall  planted  trees  should  not 
be  pruned  back  as  severely,  since  the  wood 


is  likely  to  suffer  from  drying  out  and 
winter  freezing.  Frequently  when  the  top 
is  light,  pruning  is  deferred  until  spring, 
when  practically  the  same  cutting  back 
is  given  as  to  the  spring  set  trees.  When 
the  trees  are  pruned  to  a  whip  it  is  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  a  lower  head 
or  for  securing  better  placed  scaffold 
limbs.  The  limbs  left  for  the  framework 
of  the  tree  should  not  be  located  opposite 
to  each  other  as  limbs  thus  placed  w-ould 
have  a  tendency  to  form  a  weak  crotch. 

The  advocates  of  the  low  headed  apple 
tree  seem  to  be  in  the  ascendancy  over 
those  who  prefer  the  high  head.  This 
type  of  tree  is  called  for  because  of  the 
necessity  of  fighting  insect  and  fungus 
pests.  The  lower  and  more  compact  tree 
top  makes  spraying  a  much  easier  and 
simpler  process,  reduces  the  number  of 
windfalls,  and  lessens  the  cost  of  harvest- 
ing. A  low  head  might  be  defined  as  from 
1  ">  to  24  inches,  and  a  medium  head  from 
24  to  42  inches,  while  anything  above  42 
inches  should  be  termed  a  high  head. 
William  Stuart. 

Burlinston.    Vt. 

Experiments  in   Arkansas 

Experiments  in  pruning  at  the  Arkansas 
station  from  1902  to  1906.  on  various  va- 
rieties, including  Ben  Davis,  and  its  de- 
scendants, at  various  seasons  of  the  year, 
as  well  as  the  work  in  the  large  orchard 
last  year,  show  that  whether  pruning  is 
injurious  depends  on  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  done  rather  than  upon  the  season  or 
size  of  the  limb. 

The  work  was  undertaken  simpl.v  on 
account  of  the  fear  many  have  of  serious 
consequences  following  the  removal  of 
limbs  in  this  climate.  One  of  the  first 
opinions  the  writer  heard  in  Arkansas  re- 
specting the  management  of  orchards  was 
from  an  old  gentleman  who  said;  "One 
thing  certain,  make  a  note  of  it.  you've 
got  to  keep  the  knife  away  from  trees 
down  here,  esi)ecially  Ben  Davis.  I  have 
seen  more  trouble  down  here  from  prun- 
ing than  from  all  the  other  bad  orchard 
practices  combined.  Trees  won't  stand 
liruning  down  here.  It  is  a  different  cli- 
mate from  up  North;  and  I  have  seen  more 
than  one  northern  man  come  down  here 


APPLES 


287 


and  ruin  a  good  orchard  by  not  taking 
that  into  account."  This  opinion,  which 
is  more  or  less  prevalent.  I  Have  found 
to  be  absolutely  without  foundation  as  far 
as  the  simple  removal  of  limbs  is  con- 
cerned. The  opinion  originated  not  in  the 
practice,  however,  so  much  as  in  its  abuse. 
To  hack  off  limbs  roughly,  with  a  hatchet, 
and  to  attempt  by  means  of  hatchet  or 
axe  to  convert  low-headed  trees  into  high- 
headed  trees,  is  a  sure  means  of  produc- 
ing disastrous  results.  Orchards  are  fre- 
quently seen  where  such  pruning  has 
wrought  sad  havoc  with  otherwise  good 
trees.  Orchards  have  often  been  killed  in 
this  way.  The  mischief  was  in  ignorance, 
not  in  pruning. 

Limbs  of  almost  any  size  may  be  re- 
moved if  the  work  is  done  right,  while 
the  removal  of  a  branch  one-half  inch  in 
diameter  may  result  in  injuiT  if  it  is  done 
badly.  There  is  unquestionably  a  greater 
necessity  for  care  and  correct  pruning 
here  than  in  some  other  sections.  There 
is  more  of  a  tendency  of  the  bark  to  dry 
and  die  back  in  the  case  of  stubs,  and 
careless  pruning,  but  if  the  work  be  done 
correctly  pruning  may  be  done  here  with- 
out any  danger  whatever,  the  same  as  in 
other  sections  of  the  country.  Bad  prun- 
ing is  more  common  than  correct  prun- 
ing. Hence  the  origin  of  the  present  ideas 
concerning  pruning,  and  the  common  ne- 
glect of  this  useful  practice. 

Lately,  in  riding  along  the  country 
road,  the  writer  has  seen  several  instances 
of  'villainous  work"  in  orchards,  which 
the  owner  intended  for  pruning.  Fresh 
stubs,  varying  in  size  from  an  inch  to 
three  inches  In  diameter,  and  as  much 
as  eight  Inches  long,  were  visible  in 
abundance  from  the  road.  Sometimes  a 
good  pruner,  or  the  owner  takes  this 
method  of  marking  limbs  whiclz,lie  wants 
removed,  leaving  the  stubs  to  be  sawed 
off,  by  a  cheaper  man.  I  found  myself 
hoping  that  this  w'as  the  design  in  this 
instance,  but  from  what  I  observed  in 
many  other  instances,  I  fear  I  %as  indulg- 
ing a  vain  hope. 

Early  training  of  the  top  is  frequently 
wholly  neglected.  The  result  is  the  pro- 
duction   of    unbalanced    heads,    limbs    in 


the  wrong  place,  and  the  necessity  for 
the  removal  of  large  limbs  later  when 
there  is  a  likelihood  of  damage  from 
sunscalding  to  portions  of  limbs,  and  de- 
cay in  wounds.  Attention  to  forming  the 
head  and  keeping  out  unnecessary  growth 
would  conserve  the  energies  of  the  tree, 
and  remove  the  necessity  of  severe  prun- 
ing so  often  considered  necessary  later. 
The  nurseryman  is  concerned  only  in 
growing  trees.  His  idea  is  not  the  or- 
chard, but  a  salable  tree,  and  as  many  as 
he  can  grow  on  a  given  area.  He  usu- 
ally plants  closely  and  the  head  formed 
is  often  high  and  poorly  balanced.  The 
orchardist  should  not  depend  on  the  nurs- 
eryman's head  in  either  sense.  In  this 
climate  low  heads,  say  started  about  three 
feet  from  the  ground,  are  desirable.  The 
interference  with  subsequent  cultivation 
must  be  overcome  by  the  use  of  suitable 
orchard  implements.  In  shaping  the 
young  two-year  tree  the  main  stem  or  a 
strong  branch,  should  be  left  for  a  leader. 
The  side  branches  should  be  cut  back  to 
within  a  few  inches  of  the  main  stem, 
leaving  buds  near  the  ends  of  the  stubs 
on  the  side  toward  the  gap  which  it  is 
desired  to  fill  by  the  growth  to  be  made. 
About  the  second  year  from  this  trim- 
ming the  leader  may  be  cut  back  to  in- 
duce branching;  the  idea  being  to  distrib- 
ute what  is  to  become  a  skeleton  of  the 
tree  over  about  three  feet.  One  of  the 
more  upright  top  branches  should  again 
be  selected  for  a  leader  to  continue  the 
center  of  the  tree  upwards,  and  it  is  al- 
ways desirable  to  maintain  this  plan 
throughout  the  life  of  the  tree.  In  the 
case  of  young  trees,  removing  a  branch 
to  the  base  leaves  a  gap  on  that  side  of 
the  tree.  Cutting  back  to  a  stub  is  done 
largely  in  proportion  to  the  strength  of 
the  branch  and  may  be  used  for  filling 
gaps.  Strong  branches  may  be  left  long- 
er; weaker  ones  must  be  cut  back  closer, 
or  to  two,  three,  or  four  buds. 

Very  great  damage  to  trees  is  frequent- 
ly the  result  of  bad,  careless  and  untime- 
ly pruning.  Many  of  the  trees  which 
have  died  the  past  season  (1906),  and 
having  the  appearance  of  trees  killed  by 
root-rot,  were  dead  as  a  result  of  fungus 
diseases   following  the   removal   of  limbs 


288 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


broken   by   overbearing   or   for  other   rea- 
sons. 

The  opening  up  of  a  head  of  a  tree 
which  has  been  allowed  to  become  crowd- 
ed, is  very  apt  to  be  followed  by  sun- 
scalding  on  portions  of  limbs  previously 
shaded.  This  is  serious  in  itself,  and 
suggests  that  the  best  pruning  is  that 
which  is  avoided  by  careful  attention  to 
disbudding,  the  removal  of  limbs  when 
they  can  be  rubbed  off  or  cut  out  with 
a  pocket  knife,  and  so  training  the  head 
at  the  start  that  the  removal  of  large 
limbs  on  bearing  trees  will  be  unneces- 
sary. Pruning  should  be  directive  rather 
than  corrective.  The  grower  should  have 
a  distinct  ideal  in  his  mind  at  the  start 
of  what  form  of  top  he  desires,  and  that 
ideal  should  be  based  on  the  necessities 
of  the  climate  and  the  experience  of  suc- 
cessful local  orchardists,  or  on  experi- 
mental studies.  One  from  another  local- 
ity, who  purchases  an  orchard  in  a  region 
where  conditions  are  new,  should  not  has- 
tily undertake  the  remodeling  of  the  or- 
chard to  conform  to  ideals  of  the  region 
from  which  he  came.  When  the  removal 
of  large  limbs  is  unavoidable,  or  desir- 
able, then  it  should  be  done  in  the  best 
manner  and  at  a  time  when  the  risk  of 


subsequent  mischief  will  be  the  least. 
Many  of  our  growers  select  the  season 
when  the  trees  are  just  starting  into 
growth,  continuing  the  work  till  June.  I 
believe  a  more  favorable  time  for  the 
work  would  be  January  and  February. 

I  have  seen  trees  pruned  in  April  with 
no  serious  results.  The  cuts  were  made 
right,  and  scars  one  and  one-half  inches 
were  almost  half  covered  in  a  year.  These 
trees  were  growing  in  good  soil  and  were 
in  a  very  vigorous  condition. 

Again  I  have  seen  .severe  bleeding  fol- 
low June  pruning  of  the  Ben  Davis.  These 
were  bearing  trees.  Limbs  in  the  same 
orchard  cut  earlier  were  not  followed  by 
this  effect.  In  both  cases,  however, 
stumps  were  left  from  three-quarters  inch 
to  one  and  one-half  inches  long.  This 
ma.v  have  been  partially  responsible  for 
the  bad  effects  in  the  latter  pruning. 

In  another  large  orchard  examined  where 
the  practice  is  to  do  the  pruning  in  Jan- 
uary and  February,  and  cut  the  limljs 
close  to  the  parent  branch,  evil  conse- 
quences following  pruning  are  unknown, 
and  wounds  heal  over  nicely  in  a  year  or 
two. 

Pruning  earlier  in  the  season  does  not 
remove   all   iiossibility   of   injury,   but   ob- 


Fig.  1.     A  and  B  Indicate  Inipii'i'ii   (ins    White  lines  .show  where  cuts  should  have  hern  uiiid-' 
C    shows  properl.v  made  cut  which  has  healed  over. — I'nrdne  Station. 


APPLES 


289 


viously  is  attended  with  less  rislv.  A  very 
common  practice  is  to  leave  more  or  less 
of  a  stub  iu  the  removal  of  limbs.  This 
is  a  source  of  serious  mischief.  Such 
wounds  cannot  heal  over.  They  are  off 
the  channels  of  cambial  activity,  and  the 
edges  of  the  bark  die;  the  end  dries  and 
begins  to  decay.  Fungi  find  lodgment,  and 
soon  decay  proceeds  downward  to  the 
main  branch,  or  else  the  fungi  starting  in 
the  bark  soon  spread  to  the  main  limb, 
girdling  it,  and  causing  the  death  of  large 
limbs,  sometimes  the  whole  side  of  a  tree, 
and  even  the  entire  top.  Instances  of  all 
these  results  are  extremely  common. 

Whatever  season  is  preferred  by  the 
operator,  limbs  should  be  cut  off  closely 
and  parallel  to  the  general  direction  of 
the  parent  branch.  In  the  removal  of 
limbs  a  sharp  well-set  saw,  giving  a 
smooth,  clean  cut,  is  as  good  an  instru- 
ment as  can  be  found.  The  rough  work 
of  the  hatchet,  or  axe,  is  as  much  out  of 
place  in  an  orchard  as  in  surgery.  The 
rough  wounds  have  a  tendency  to  retain 
.  particles  of  dust  and  moisture,  offering 
bacteria  and  the  spores  of  fungi  a  very 
favorable  place  for  starting  into  activity. 
Bruising  and  tearing  of  the  bark  about 
the  edges  of  the  wounds  is  also  very 
serious.  The  smoother  the  cut  the  bet- 
ter. In  sawing  off  large  limbs  the  cut 
should  be  started  on  the  under  side. 
Wounds  should  be  coated  over  in  two  or 
three  days  after  being  made,  with  an 
adhesive  waterproof  antiseptic  coat.  White 
lead  mixed  with  linseed  oil  is  one  that 
the  writer  prefers.  Boiled  coal  tar  is  also 
satisfactory.  Especial  attention  should  be 
given  to  coating  the  entire  wound.  The 
lower  edge  is  the  weakest  point  about 
the  wound  on  account  of  being  the  last 
to  dry  off  after  rains.  Another  coat  later 
is  very  desirable. 

Ernest   Walker. 
Fayetteville.  Ark. 

Pruning  from  Conneoticnt  Tiewpoint 

Regarding  this  subject  there  exists  a 
great  difference  of  opinion,  both  among 
fruit  growers  and  official  horticulturists. 
The  conflicting  recommendations  of  the 
various  authorities  are  due  partly  to  the 
varying  conditions  under  which  apples  are 


grown,  but  more  particularly  to  our  meag- 
er stock  of  experimental  evidence  relating 
to  the  subject.  On  traveling  through  New 
England  one  becomes  impressed  with  the 
great  variety  of  tree  structures.  Some 
trees  have  large  broad  heads  with  open 
centers  and  some  are  so  crowded  that 
their  heads  have  not  had  a  chance  to  ex- 
pand. Some  are  low  headed,  some  high 
headed,  and  some  have  been  beheaded. 
Others  have  been  pruned  from  beneath  as 
high  as  a  man  can  reach  with  an  axe 
and  others,  by  far  the  largest  number, 
seem  never  to  have  been  pruned  at  all. 

With  so  many  conflicting  opinions  as  to 
how  a  tree  should  be  pruned,  it  seems 
necessary  that  the  fruit  grower  should  set- 
tle upon  some  form  of  tree  structure,  and, 
starting  with  the  young  tree,  develop  his 
ideal.  Varieties  and  individuals  differ 
greatly  in  form  and  habit,  but  even  in 
the  most  stubborn  cases  it  is  possible  to 
approach  the  ideal.  Each  tree  must  be 
pruned  with  respect  to  its  own  individu- 
ality. A  tree  that  is  making  a  strong 
growth  should  have  a  different  treatment 
from  one  making  a  weak  growth,  and  a 
tree  with  an  upward  tendency  demands 
different  training  from  one  with  a  spread- 
ing habit.  Pruning  should  be  regarded 
as  a  work  of  training  rather  than  of 
correcting.  In  the  treatment  of  neglected 
trees  it  is  necessarily  a  work  of  correc- 
tion, and  it  requires  several  years  of  this 
work  to  make  up  for  the  lack  of  training. 

The  Low  Headed  Trees 

The  general  tendency  at  the  present 
time  is  to  grow  low  headed  trees  and  the 
number  of  advocates  of  the  high  headed 
structure  is  becoming  smaller  every  year. 
The  necessity  for  thorough  spraying  since 
the  advent  of  the  San  Jose  scale  has  done 
much  to  bring  about  this  change  of  ideals. 
Low  headed  trees  are  not  only  more  easily 
sprayed  but  they  can  be  pruned  more  con- 
veniently and  the  fruit  can  be  more  eco- 
nomically thinned  and  harvested.  It  is 
difficult  to  estimate  the  difference  in  the 
cost  of  harvesting  fruit  from  high  and  low 
headed  trees,  but  it  is  probable  that  there 
would  be  a  difference  of  at  least  25  per 
cent  in  favor  of  the  latter.  Low  headed 
trees  are  less  susceptible  to  injury  from 


290 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


winds  and  their  trunljs  are  not  so  likely  to 
be  affected  by  "sun  scald." 

The  best  time  to  settle  this  question  is 
at  the  time  of  selecting  the  nursery  stock. 
Much  may  be  done,  however,  in  the  way  of 
severe  heading-in.  Many  trees  that  were 
originally  low  headed  have  become  high 
headed  owing  to  the  close  planting  and 
crowding.  The  only  treatment  for  such  a 
condition  is  to  cut  out  half  of  the  trees 
and  "dehorn"  the  remaining  ones. 

Some  varieties,  like  Sutton  and  Yellow 
Transparent,  are  naturally  upright  grow- 
ers and  are  kept  down  only  by  very  careful 
and  persistent  treatment.  In  the  first 
place  the  trees  of  such  varieties  cannot 
be  headed  too  low.  The  branches  should 
be  started  at,  or  very  near,  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Much  may  be  done  during 
the  first  few  years  by  careful  training, 
cutting  back  the  successive  annual 
growths  to  about  one-third  of  their  length 
and  always  cutting  back  to  a  bud  or 
branch  pointing  outward  or  downward. 
The  greatest  progress  will  be  made  after 
the  trees  commence  to  bear,  for  at  this 
time  the  weight  of  a  crop  tends  to  bring 
the  branches  down.  The  im]iortant  point, 
therefore,  is  to  induce  fruit-bearing  as 
early  as  possible.  Summer  pruning,  as 
described  under  another  head,  is  probably 
the  most  effective  way  of  Inducing  fruit- 
fulness. 

The  Open  Center 

We  hear  a  great  deal  these  days  about 
the  tree  with  the  open  center.  The  object 
of  the  open  center  in  apple  trees  is  to  ad- 
mit more  sunlight  and  in  this  way  produce 
more  highly-colored  fruit.  Inasmuch  as 
the  greater  part  of  the  fruit  is  borne  on 
the  surface  of  the  tree,  the  important 
point  is  to  develop  as  far  as  possible  a 
tree  with  the  maximum  surface  exposed 
to  the  light.  A  tree  with  a  broad  cone- 
shaped  top  probably  gives  the  greatest  ex- 
posed area,  and  this  is  in  opposition  to 
the  open  center  idea.  While  opening  up 
the  center  will  likely  give  additional  col- 
or to  a  few  apples  in  the  center  of  the  tree 
and  will  admit  of  a  better  circulation  of 
air,  it  is  a  question  whether  it  would  not 
be  better  to  open  the  tree  moderately  on 
all  sides.  If  it  is  good  to  open  up  the 
top,  the  same  should  apply  to  any  portion 


of  the  tree.  In  sections  where  trees  are 
likely  to  "scald"  the  open  center  exposes 
the  branches  to  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun,  and  for  this  reason  is  objectionable. 
While  the  writer  does  not  approve  of  open 
center  methods  as  practiced  by  the  extrem- 
ist, he  favors  the  removal  of  the  high 
central  leader  usually  found  in  neglected 
trees.  In  such  cases  the  new  growth  soon 
fills  up  the  space  and  protects  the  exposed 
branches  from  the  sun. 

Which  Branches  Should  Be  Eemored 

The  inexperienced  pruner  will  have 
trouble  in  deciding  which  branches  should 
be  cut  out  and  which  should  be  left.  Any- 
one may  become  proficient  in  the  work  if 
he  will  study  the  effects  of  different  kinds 
of  treatment.  The  most  common  error  is 
in  leaving  too  much  brush  on  the  tree.  A 
tree  in  winter  may  seem  to  be  well  opened 
up,  but  will  often  appear  very  different 
when  the  tree  is  in  foilage,  and  the  oper- 
ator should  keep  this  constantly  in  mind. 
Removing  brush  from  a  tree  may  greatly 
reduce  the  number  of  apples  without  re- 
ducing the  yield.  In  this  respect  pruning 
is  a  thinning  process.  Trees  that  are 
bearing  regularly  and  that  are  not  being 
over  nourished  will  not  require  much 
pruning.  This  is  one  reason — and  there 
are  many  others — why  an  even  growth 
should  be  maintained.  The  branches  to 
be  removed  are  mainly  those  that  inter- 
fere with  other  branches.  It  should  be 
the  aim  to  have  an  even  distribution  of 
branches  with  abundant  space  between 
them  for  the  free  circulation  of  air.  In 
selecting  between  two  branches  that  in- 
terfere with  one  another  the  most  de- 
sirable one  should  be  retained,  keeping 
in  mind  convenience  in  spraying,  har- 
vesting, and  the  other  operations.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  lower  one  usually 
should  be  retained.  Besides  relieving  the 
crowding,  all  objectionable  cross  branches 
in  the  center  of  the  tree  and  all  dead  and 
diseased  branches  should  be  removed. 
The  rapidly  growing  shoots,  esi)ecially 
at  the  top  of  the  tree,  should  be  cut  back 
with  a  view  of  maintaining  a  symmet- 
rical structure.  Water-sprouts  around  the 
base  of  the  tree  should  be  removed. 
Those  found  on  the  main  branches  should 


APPLES 


291 


Fiff.  1.  In  heading  back  upright  branches,  the 
cut  should  be  made  .iust  beyond  a  branch 
extending  outward,  as  shown  in  this  picture. 
The  fruit  spurs  along  the  main  branches 
should  not   be  removed  as   has   been  done   in 

,  this   case. 

either  be  removed  or  cut  back.  By  pinch- 
ing back  these  shoots  in  early  June,  they 
often  may  be  converted  into  fruit  spurs. 
The  fruit  spurs  along  the  main  branches 
should  not  be  removed,  as  is  so  often 
done.  Some  growers  do  not  believe  a 
tree  is  properly  pruned  unless  the  main 
arms  are  as  bare  as  telephone  poles. 
Many  growers  make  the  serious  mistake 
also  of  cutting  off  the  lower  branches  be- 
cause they  interfere  with  the  work  of  cul- 
tivation. These  are  often  the  most  prof- 
itable branches  on  the  tree,  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  fruit  they  bear  can  be  so 
quickly   and   conveniently   harvested. 

Making'  the  Cnt 

Much  may  be  done  in  the  way  of  di- 
recting the  growth  of  the  branches  of  a 
tree  by  giving  some  attention  to  the  po- 
sition of  each  cut.  If  it  is  desired  to  give 
a  particular  branch  an  outward  or  a 
spreading  tendency  it  should  be  cut  off  at 
a  point  just  beyond  a  bud  or  a  side 
branch  that  points  in  that  direction.  In 
like   manner  the   growth   of   a   spreading 


branch  may  be  directed  upward  by  cut- 
ting back  to  a  bud  or  side  branch  that 
points  upward  or  inward.  (See  Fig.  1.) 
The  wound  on  a  branch  that  has  been 
cut  back  close  to  a  side  branch  is  likely 
to  heal  over  more  readily  than  when  a 
long  stub  is  left  at  the  end  of  the  branch. 
In  removing  side  branches  the  cut  should 
be  made  close  and  parallel,  or  nearly  so, 
with  the  parent  branch.  When  long 
stubs  are  left  the  wounds  do  not  heal  over 
and  sooner  or  later  decay  starts.  It  is 
usually  in  this  way  that  wood-destroying 
fungi  get  into  the  tree,  resulting  in  the 
familiar  hollowed  trunks.  (See  Fig.  2.) 
The  cuts  should  be  made  as  smoothly  as 
possible  to  facilitate  the  healing  process. 
To  prevent  the  accumulation  of  moisture 
on  the  surface,  large  cuts  are  usually 
made  in  a  sloping  direction.  Wounds  of 
two  inches  or  more  in  diameter  should 
always  be  sealed  up  with  paint,  or  other 
substance.  Some  careful  growers  use  a 
thin  grafting  wax  for  this  purpose.  If 
the  wounds  do  not  heal  over  within  two 
years  a  second  coat  should  be  given.  Any 
ordinary  lead  and  oil  paint  will  answer 
the  purpose,  but  it  should  not  be  applied 
until  after  the  exposed  wood  has  become 
thoroughly  dry,  and  it  should  be  used 
moderately  thick  to  fill  up  the  cracks. 


Fig.  2.  A  Neglected  Wound.  Decay  starting 
at  this  point,  has  extended  far  down  the 
trunk.  Large  wounds  should  always  be  kept 
well   coated  with   paint. 


292 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Pruning  a  Form   of   Training 

Young  apple  trees  require  very  little 
attention,  with  regard  to  pruning,  until 
they  reach  the  bearing  age.  The  treat- 
ment should  be  one  of  training  rather 
than  of  correction.  That  is,  the  trees 
should  be  gone  over  every  year  and  en- 
couraged to  grow  in  the  desired  way. 
Several  yearly  trimmings  will  require  no 
more  time  than  a  single  pruning  after  a 
lapse  of  three  or  four  years.  Irregular 
pruning  tends  to  throw  the  young  tree  out 
of  balance,  for  the  removal  of  so  much 
wood  in  one  year  is  always  followed  by 
a   rank,    succulent   growth    the   following 


->§^*3J:'^=Uzr= 


Figs.  3  and  4.  A  Ten-year-old  Apple  Tree  that 
iias  not  been  pruned  since  it  was  planted,  and 
the  same  tree  after  pruning.  Observe  the 
open  center. 

season.  Unless  such  yearly  treatment  can 
be  given,  it  is  probably  better  to  delay 
pruning  entirely  till  the  trees  reach  the 
bearing  age,  when  the  maturing  of  a  crop 
of  fruit  will  offset  to  some  extent  the  in- 
vigorating effect  of  severe  pruning.  Fig. 
3  and  Fig.  4  show  a  tree,  before  and  after 
pruning,  that  has  been  treated  in  this  way. 
If  this  method  is  employed,  and  if  there 
is   much   wood   to   be   removed,   it  would 


seem  advisable  to  remove  some  of  the 
wood  during  the  summer  and  the  remain- 
der in  the  following  winter  or  spring. 
Summer  pruning  is  a  devitalizing  process 
and  has  the  opposite  effect  upon  the  tree 
to  that  of  winter  pruning.  It  also  tends 
to  induce  fruitfulness. 

The  regular  annual  treatment  may  be 
done  any  time  during  the  dormant  season, 
and  the  operation  consists  in  removing 
unnecessary  growth  and  moderately  head- 
ing-in  the  stronger  growing  branches. 
Much  may  be  done  in  the  way  of  direct- 
ing the  growth  of  the  branches  by  cutting 
back  to  a  bud  the  points  in  the  right  di- 
rection. If  a  spreading  habit  is  desired, 
the  cut  should  be  made  about  an  inch 
above  one  of  the  lower  or  outer  buds. 
With  trees  that  are  naturally  spreading 
in  habit,  on  the  other  hand,  a  more  up- 
right growth  may  be  induced  by  cutting 
back  to  a  bud  on  the  upper  or  inner  side 
of  a  branch.  Some  growers  rub  off  the 
buds  that  they  do  not  want  to  develop. 
This  is  a  doubtful  practice  and  entirely 
unnecessary.  The  important  point  in  the 
whole  matter  is  the  development  of  a 
strong,  well-balanced  structure  with  a 
large  bearing  surface.  In  pruning  and 
shaping  the  young  tree  the  grower  should 
keep  in  mind  the  matter  of  convenience. 
He  should  endeavor  to  keep  the  tree  as 
low  as  possible  to  facilitate  the  operation 
of  spraying  and  harvesting.  There  is  a 
tendency  among  the  best  growers  to  de- 
velop a  tree  with  an  open  space  in  the 
center  of  the  head.  This  is  a  great  ad- 
vantage in  the  way  of  admitting  more  air 
and  sunlight,  but  it  is  possible  to  carry 
the  matter  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
branches  of  the  tree  may  be  injured  by 
exposing  them  to  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun. 

C.  D.  Jarvis, 
Rtorrs.  Conn. 

Pruning  as  Adapted  to  Iowa 

In  too  many  of  our  Iowa  orchards  the 
trees  are  permitted  to  grow  any  shape 
or  density  restricted  only  by  the  laws  of 
nature.  As  a  rule  there  are  too  many 
limbs,  the  foliage  is  too  dense,  and  the 
apples  toward  the  center  of  the  tree  do 
not  color  properly.    As  the  tree  gets  larg- 


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293 


Fig.   1.      A    Neglected    Apple    Tree. 


Fig.  2.      The   Same  Tree  After   Pruning. 


er  it  becomes  top-heavy  and  too  many 
fruitspurs  are  formed.  Following  this 
condition  the  tree  sets  more  fruit  than  it 
can  properly  mature  and  as  the  years  go 
by  the  fruit  gradually  becomes  under- 
sized. Careful  pruning  simplifies  and 
often  renders  unnecessary  the  thinning 
of  the  fruit.  The  best  pruning  is  that 
which  Is  done  during  the  formative  per- 
iod. It  is  better  to  train  the  tree  during 
its  younger  years  than  to  use  the  pruning 
saw  severely  when  it  is  grown.  The  head 
of  the  tree  should  be  opened  to  admit  the 
sunlight,  and  all  branches  which  inter- 
fere should  be  removed.  Any  branch  which 
is  growing  towards  the  center  of  the  tree 
rather  than  outward  should  also  be  taken 
out 

In  the  removal  of  any  large  branches 
care  should  be  taken  to  make  the  cut 
close  and  parallel  to  the  remaining  stem. 
WTienever  a  stub  Is  left  the  wound  will 
not  heal  properly.  If  the  wound  is  more 
than  two  inches  in  diameter  the  surface 
should  be  coated  with  some  antiseptic  and 
waterproof  material  such  as  white  lead. 


The  best  time  to  prune  in  this  section 
is  after  the  severe  weather  of  winter  is 
past  and  from  then  on  to  the  middle  of 
May,  with  the  exception  of  the  brief  per- 
iod just  at  the  leafingout  time  when  the 
tree  is  liable  to  bleed  badly. 

For  Iowa  conditions  a  low-headed  tree  is 
to  be  desired  for  a  number  of  reasons. 
The  fruit  is  much  easier  to  pick,  the 
spraying  can  be  done  more  thoroughly, 
there  are  less  windfalls,  and  the  tree  is 
also  less  liable  to  sun  scald.  The  first 
branches  should  be  formed  20  to  24  inches 
above  the  ground.  If  the  tree  Is  headed 
too  high  when  it  comes  from  the  nursery, 
it  can  be  cut  back,  removing  the  stem  at 
the  poirt  where  it  is  desired  that  the  first 
branches  shall  appear.  Low-headed  trees 
are  sometimes  objected  to  on  the  ground 
that  they  are  difficult  to  cultivate  under. 
In  this  connection,  we  would  call  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  many  growers  make 
a  far  more  laborious  and  difficult  opera- 
tion of  cultivating  than  is  necessary  or 
desirable.  The  bulk  of  the  feeding  roots 
of  the  tree   are   in   a  zone   at  about  the 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


end  of  the  branches  and  in  the  space  be- 
tween the  rows.  It  is  this  area  that 
should  be  cultivated.  There  is  little  ad- 
vantage in  cultivating  up  close  around 
the  stem  of  a  large  tree  as  the  feeding 
roots  are  not  within  this  area.  The  main 
object  of  cultivation  can  be  attained  by 
keeping  the  middles  and  a  short  distance 
back  under  the  branches  stirred.  This 
plan  also  admits  of  heading  the  trees  low. 
A.  T.  Erwin, 
G.  R.  Bliss, 

Ames.   Iowa. 

Prnning  in  West  Virginia 

Intelligent  pruning,  at  the  right  time, 
is  absolutely  essential  to  the  production  of 
the  best  fruit.  An  unpruned  tree  may, 
in  many  instances,  produce  a  larger  num- 
ber of  apples  than  an  adjacent  pruned 
tree:  but  the  percentage  of  merchantable 
fruit  will  invariably  be  smaller.  Small 
apples  or  peaches  contain  just  as  many 
seeds  as  do  large  ones,  and  therefore 
make  practically  as  great  demands  upon 
the  store  of  plant  food.  They  do  not,  how- 
ever, fill  the  basket,  nor  the  pocketbook, 
so  rapidly  as  the  others. 

Wlien  to  Prune 

The  best  time  for  pruning  is  on  warm 
days  from  January  to  May.  More  can  be 
accomplished  in  the  longer  days  of  April 
and  May,  but  if  there  are  many  trees  to 
be  pruned,  the  work  should  be  commenced 
earlier  in  the  season.  The  time  of  year 
when  the  cut  is  made  has  little  effect  upon 
the  readiness  with  which  the  wound  heals, 
but  more  care  is  necessary  to  prevent  in- 
jury to  trees  pruned  when  the  wood  is 
frozen. 

A  wound  made  by  removing  a  limb  heals 
best  if  the  cut  is  made  close  to  the  trunk 
or  branch.  A  stub  two  or  three  inches 
lon.g  does  not  heal  and  becomes  a  lodging 
place  for  spores  of  fungi  and  bacteria 
which  cause  decay  and  death  of  the  tree. 
The  splitting  down  of  large  limbs  may 
often  be  avoided  when  pruning  by  sawing 
in  from  the  under  side  first;  but,  in  every 
case,  see  that  the  wound  is  left  clean  and 
smooth.  Wounds  should  also  be  covered 
immediately  with  a  coat  of  paint,  shellac 
or  grafting  wax,  to  keep  out  the  moisture 
and  spores  before  mentioned.     Nothing  is 


better  for  this  purpose  than  pure  white 
lead  and  linseed,  oil. 

The  whole  philosophy  of  the  pruning 
of  plants  rests  upon  the  fact  that  the 
various  parts  are  unlike;  that  each  branch 
is,  in  a  measure,  independent  and  capable 
of  becoming  a  new  individual;  that  by 
lessening  the  conflict  between  the  parts, 
the  growth  of  the  whole  is  iiromoted. 
Pruning  is  a  necessity,  and  the  pruning 
given  by  Nature  in  a  neglected  orchard  or 
forest,  is  more  severe  than  the  average 
man  would  dare  to  attempt. 

It  is  often  urged  that  pruning  should 
be  commenced  when  the  tree  is  planted, 
and  continued  annually  throughout  the 
life  of  the  tree.  It  is  doubtful,  however, 
whether  equally  good  results  may  not  be 
obtained  by  removing  superfluous 
branches  at  four  or  five  years  of  age,  rath- 
er than  by  severe  pruning  very  early  in 
the  life  time  of  the  tree.  In  other  words, 
it  is  contended  by  some  that  it  is  better 
to  permit  the  root  system  to  become  thor- 
oughly established  before  disturbing  the 
top. 

The  amount  of  pruning  necessary  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  location  and  ex- 
posure of  the  orchard.  Trees  on  a  warm 
southern  slope,  freely  exposed  to  the 
winds,  require  much  less  pruning  than 
do  those  in  a  coo]  sheltered  location  which 
is  lacking  in  sunshine.  Plenty  of  light 
is  essential  to  the  production  of  highly 
colored  fruit.  It  is  desirable  that  trees 
should  be  pruned  intelligently  from  the 
time  they  are  set,  but  old  trees  may  often 
be  given  a  new  lease  of  life  by  judicious 
management.  If  the  trees  have  been  long 
neglected  and  require  heavy  pruning,  do 
not  remove  all  of  the  wood  the  first  year. 
Removal  of  a  portion  of  the  top,  thus  dis- 
tributing the  food  gathered  by  the  roots 
to  a  smaller  number  of  branches,  tends  to 
produce  rapid  growth  and  renewed  vigor 
of  the  tree.  The  removal  of  too  much 
at  one  time  will  start  the  growth  of  wa- 
tersprouts  and  defeat  the  very  purpose  in 
view. 

The  method  of  shaping  the  top  of 
young  trees  will  depend  upon  the  natural 
habit  of  the  variety,  the  ideal  of  the 
grower,  and  the  local  conditions.     No  at- 


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tempt  should  be  made  to  make  all  vari- 
eties conform  to  a  given  type,  like  trees 
in  a  hedge.  In  general,  limbs  which  are 
parallel  and  close  together,  or  limbs  which 
cross  and  interfere  with  each  other, 
should  be  removed  or  thinned.  Trees  of 
an  upright  habit,  like  Sutton  or  Maiden 
Blush,  should  have  the  center  of  the  top 
opened,  while  trees  of  a  spreading  habit, 
like  Jonathan  or  Rhode  Island  Greening, 
should  have  the  lower  limbs  removed. 
To  keep  the  trees  within  bounds,  the 
leading  branches  may  be  cut  back  one  to 
three  feet  about  every  other  year  until 
the  bearing  age  is  reached;  after  which 
the  production  of  fruit  should  sufficiently 
check  superfluous  growth  of  wood. 

The  question  of  high  heads  or  of  low 
heads  is  a  perennial  one.  In  general. 
however,  the  tendency  at  the  present  time 
is  to  maintain  as  low  heads  as  is  consis- 
tent with  cultivation.  The  ideal  tree  is 
vase-formed,  the  lower  branches  starting 
about  two  and  one-half  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  ascending  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  permit  of  reasonably  close  approach 
to  the  tree  in  cultivating.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  cutting  off  those  limbs 
which  tend  to  grow  out  horizontally  or 
which  hang  from  the  lower  side  of  the 
leaders. 

TThy  Prnning  Is  Important 

It  is  astonishing  to  find  how  little  the 
average  orchardist  thinks,  when  pruning 
his  trees,  of  the  actual  problems  at  issue. 
Pruned  trees  are  almost  always  more  vig- 
orous than  unpruned  ones,  because  the 
food  taken  up  by  the  roots  is  concentrated 
into  a  smaller  number  of  branches. 

Pruning  is  practiced  to  produce  larger 
and  better  fruit;  to  keep  the  plant  within 
manageable  limits;  to  remove  superfluous 
or  injurious  parts;  to  facilitate  spraying, 
tillage  and  harvesting;  to  train  the  plant 
to  some  desired  form. 

Plants  naturally  grow  from  the  upper- 
most buds.  By  pruning  in  one  way  this 
tendency  is  augmented,  in  another  way 
it  is  checked.  As  a  rule,  in  dealing  with 
fruit  trees,  the  latter  end  is  desired,  since 
the  principle  that  "checking  growth  in- 
duces fruitfulness"  is  universally  recog- 
nized.   The  heading  in  of  young  growths 


tends  to  develop  lateral  and  dormant  buds, 
or  to  thicken  the  top;  so  the  question  of 
heading  resolves  itself  into  a  question  of 
personal  ideals.  To  secure  thick  topped 
trees,  heading  is  necessary.  It  has,  how- 
ever, the  very  marked  advantage  of  in- 
ducing the  development  of  fruit  buds  near 
the  body  of  the  tree,  rather  than  far  out 
on  the  limbs.  This,  in  the  case  of  plums 
and  other  tender  wooded  plants,  is  an 
important  consideration. 

Fruit  bearing  is  determined  more  by 
the  habit  and  condition  of  the  tree,  than 
by  the  extent  of  pruning.  In  other  words, 
it  is  to  a  certain  extent  an  individual 
characteristic.  Pruning,  however,  may  be 
made  a  means  of  thinning  the  fruit,  and 
thus  improving  the  size  and  quality  of 
that  which  remains  by  removing  super- 
fluous shoots  upon  which  fruit  buds  are 
borne.  Heading  back  the  annual  growth 
thins  peaches;  but  with  the  apple,  pear 
and  plum,  which  produce  fruit  on  spurs 
or  miniature  branches,  on  wood  of  more 
than  one  season's  growth,  older  limbs 
must,  of  course,  be  removed  in  order  to 
effect  the  desired  thinning. 

W.  M.   MUNSON, 
Morsantown.   W.   Va. 

Opinions  of  L.  C.  Torbett 

In  pruning  a  fruit  bearing  plant  like 
the  apple,  attention  must  be  given  not 
only  to  the  height  and  formation  of  the 
head,  but  to  the  removal  of  wood  as  well. 
The  apple  bears  fruit  on  spurs  which  are 
developed  from  wood  one  year  old  or 
more.  For  that  reason,  therefore,  the  re- 
moval of  wood  which  carries  fruit  spurs 
reduces  the  crop  the  tree  is  capable  of 
bearing.  This,  then,  is  a  practicable  way 
of  thinning  the  fruit.  Besides  accom- 
plishing this  result  pruning  can  be  used 
to  lessen  the  annual  growth  and  force 
the  energj'  of  the  plant  which  would  nat- 
urally be  used  in  making  wood  into  fruit, 
thus  increasing  its  size  or  enabling  the 
tree  to  carry  a  larger  quantity  than 
would  be  possible  were  a  normal  wood 
growth  permitted. 

Forming  the  Head 

Modern  orchardists  have  come  to  look 
upon   the  low-headed   tree  as  more  desir- 


296 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


able  than  those  headed  high.  A  head 
which  is  two  and  one-half  to  three  feet 
from  the  ground  is  at  present  considered 
more  desirable  than  one  which  is  six  feet 
or  more  from  the  ground.  The  latter 
height  was  formerly  frequently  used.  In 
forming  the  head  care  should  be  taken 
to  have  the  framework  branches  disposed 
at  different  heights  along  the  body  of  the 
tree — say  from  three  to  six  inches  apart, 
and  distributed  as  evenly  as  possible 
around  the  body  as  a  central  axis;  that 
is,  when  viewed  from  above  the  picture 
presented  would  be  that  of  a  wheel,  the 
hub  being  the  central  axis  of  the  tree  and 
the  framework  branches  representing  the 
spokes. 

JIain   Brandies 

For  an  apple  tree  three  branches  are 
considered  the  ideal  number.  More  may 
be  left  upon  some  varieties,  particularly 
those  which  are  strong  growers  and  upon 
trees  which  have  a  well-developed  root 
system  at  planting  time.  If,  however,  the 
roots  have  been  badly  mutilated  in  re- 
moving the  tree  from  the  nursery,  it  will 
be  safer  to  reduce  the  number  to  three 
rather  than  to  maintain  a  larger  number 
These  three  main  framework  branches 
upon  the  ordinary  first-class  nursery  tree 
should  not  be  more  than  10  or  12  inches 
In  length.  At  the  close  of  the  first  sea- 
son's growth  after  planting,  each  of  these 
three  framework  branches  should  be  con- 
sidered as  though  it  were  a  separate  nur- 
sery tree,  and,  if  possible,  three  subdivi- 
sions of  this  should  be  maintained  for  the 
wood  supply  of  the  second  year,  the  three 
branches  retained  being  cut  back  to  about 
the  same  length  as  those  originally  held 
by  the  tree  as  planted  in  the  first  place. 
This  operation  should  be  repeated  each 
succeeding  year.  By  so  doing  a  symmet- 
rical development  can  be  maintained,  and 
by  cutting  to  an  outside  or  an  inside  bud 
the  habit  of  the  tree  can  be  modified  so 
as  to  make  it  upright  or  spreading  in  char- 
acter. Some  trees  are  normally  upright 
in  their  habit  of  growth,  while  others  are 
spreading.  This  must  be  borne  in  mind 
and  the  character  of  the  variety  under 
treatment  must  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion in  cutting  the  branches,  so  that  they 


will  be  upright  or  spreading  according  to 
the  desire  of  the  planter. 

Effect  of  Cutting  Back 

This  frequent  cutting  back  of  the 
branches  of  the  tree  while  it  is  young  pre- 
vents the  long,  bare  branches  which  are 
so  characteristic  of  old  orchard  trees.  It 
also  prevents  the  tree  from  growing  too 
tall — a  condition  which  makes  it  difficult 
to  gather  the  fruit  or  spray  the  tree.  With 
the  low-headed  trees  less  propping  is  nec- 
essary than  with  trees  having  long  frame- 
work branches.  The  load  of  fruit  is  car- 
ried nearer  the  trunk,  and  the  main  struc- 
tural branches  being  larger  in  proportion 
to  their  length  are  therefore  better  able 
to  carry  any  load  of  fruit  which  the  tree 
may  develop. 

Annual  and  Biennial  Crops 

Judicious  pruning,  as  has  been  pointed 
out,  not  only  facilitates  the  work  of  cul- 
tivation and  spraying,  but  at  the  same 
time  determines  to  a  very  considerable 
extent  the  fruiting  habit  of  the  tree;  that 
is,  the  quantity  of  bearing  wood  which  a 
tree  carries  can  be  modified  by  pruning  so 
that  it  will  be  practically  impossible  for 
the  tree  to  retain  more  fruits  in  any  given 
season  than  the  root  is  capable  of  sup- 
plying with  a  proper  amount  of  nourish- 
ment. With  such  a  balance  between  the 
fruit  bearing  wood  of  the  tree  and  its 
root  system  maintained,  biennial  crops 
will  be  less  likely  and  annual  crops  will 
be  more  common.  Orchardists  in  general 
are  coming  to  believe  that  the  reason 
for  the  biennial  crop  in  many  orchards  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  during  the  crop  year 
the  trees  are  allowed  to  overbear,  and 
that  their  vitality  is  therefore  so  much 
reduced  that  it  is  impossible  for  them  to 
carry  a  satisfactory  crop  the  succeeding 
year.  The  thinning  of  the  fruit,  with  the 
result  that  a  crop  is  borne  each  year,  has 
convinced  practical  growers  that  over- 
bearing is  the  cause  of  the  biennial  fruit 
production. 

Prnning  for  Fruit 

With  fruit  trees  pruning  is  important 
because  it  can  be  used  for  the  purpose  of 
checking  the  growth  as  well  as  for  the  pur- 
pose of  thinning  the  fruit.  It  is  an  old 
and  well  established  maxim  among  fruit 


APPLES 


297 


growers  that  whatever  tends  to  check 
growth  increases  the  fruitfulness  of  the 
plant.  Pruning  can  be  used  to  accom- 
plish this  result  to  a  certain  limited  de- 
gree. Plantations  which  are  tardy  in 
coming  into  bearing  may,  therefore,  by 
judicious  pruning,  be  brought  into  profit- 
able production. 

Accelerating  Growth 
Contradictory  as  it  may  at  first  thought 
appear,  pruning  is  frequently  resorted  to 
to  accelerate  or  augment  growth  in  plants. 
Weak  growing  nursery  stock  is  frequently 
severely  cut  back  during  the  resting 
period  in  order  that  all  the  strength  of 
the  root  may  be  forced  into  the  formation 
of  a  single  upright  stalk  which  will  make 
the   plant  a   salable   nursery   tree. 

RejnTenation  of  Old  Trees 

Severe  pruning  is  also  resorted  to  with 
older  plants  for  the  purpose  of  rejuvenat- 
ing them.  Old  apple  trees  and  old  shade 
trees  are  frequently  so  treated,  in  order 
to  induce  them  to  throw  out  strong  new 
shoots. 

Effect   on   Fruit  Crop 

With  such  plants  as  the  peach,  which 
bears  its  fruit  upon  the  growth  of  the  pre- 
vious year,  pruning  is  of  great  impor- 
tance, as  the  grower  can  reduce  the  crop 
in  proportion  to  the  capacity  of  the  tree. 
Successful  fruit  growers  thoroughly  un- 
derstand the  importance  of  gauging  the 
quantity  of  fruit  allowed  to  be  borne  by  a 
tree  to  the  capacity  of  the  tree,  the  ability 
of  the  tree  in  this  respect  being  meas- 
ured by  the  rate  of  growth,  the  vai-iety, 
and  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  to 
which  it  is  subjected. 

Control  of  Disease 

Pruning  is  of  prime  importance  also  in 
controlling  the  action  of  some  of  our  most 
dreaded  plant  diseases.  The  study  of  pear- 
blight,  for  instance,  has  shown  that  this 
disease  is  very  generally  communicated 
from  plant  to  plant  by  insects,  through 
the  pollen,  as  they  pass  from  blossom  to 
blossom,  or,  later  in  the  season,  from  shoot 
to  shoot.  It  is  also  believed  that  the  dis- 
ease can  be  carried  by  the  wind  and  that 
infection  can  take  place  while  the  vegeta- 
tive  processes  are  active  and  the  tissue 


at  the  ends  of  the  branches  can  easily  be 
entered  by  the  germs  of  the  disease. 

L.   C.   CORBETT. 
Washincton,  D.  C. 

Prnning  as  Taught  by  W.  S.  Thornher 

Every  tree  is  a  rule  unto  itself  and  no 
two  trees  can  always  be  pruned  exactly 
the  same.  The  pruner  should  be  quick 
to  detect  the  weaknesses  as  well  as  the 
strong  marks  of  a  variety  or  individual. 
He  must  be  elastic  in  thought  and  percep- 
tion as  well  as  application  or  he  will  ruin 
many  a  valuable  tree.  His  duty  is  to  make 
the  best  of  every  individual  tree  regard- 
less of  its  condition  or  shape. 

While  it  may  be  possible  to  grow  a  suc- 
cessful orchard  in  some  places  without 
pruning,  it  is  an  absolute  impossibility 
here  in  the  West.  The  successful  grower 
must  prune  every  year  at  least  once  if  he 
would  have  perfect  trees. 

When  to  Prune 

There  can  be  no  best  time  to  prune  all 
varieties  and  ages  of  trees  in  all  cli- 
mates. The  vigorous  growers  and  shy 
bearers  on  rich  moist  soil  should  be  sum- 
mer pruned  as  well  as  winter  pruned,  or 
at  least  summer  pruned;  while  the  slow 
growers  and  heavy  bearers  should  always 
be  pruned  during  the  winter.  One  must 
constantly  remember  that  heavy  winter 
pruning  tends  to  stimulate  wood  growth 
while  heavy  summer  pruning  tends  to  de- 
velop fruit  buds. 

The  essential  thing  in  a  young  tree  is 
that  it  make  strong,  rapid  growth,  and 
so  it  should  be  pruned  during  the  dormant 
or  winter  season  to  induce  this  growth. 
As  soon  as  it  becomes  large  enough  and 
old  enough  to  bear  this  winter  pruning 
may  or  may  not  be  modified  or  even  sup- 
plemented by  summer  pruning.  The  es- 
sential thing  in  an  old  apple  tree  is  that  it 
produce  fruit  and  so  it  should  be  pruned 
in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  produce 
fruit.  In  Eastern  Washington  and  most 
of  the  irrigated  valleys  the  trees  produce 
fruit  too  young  and  tend  to  overbear, 
while  in  Western  Washington  the  reverse 
is  true.  With  these  facts  before  us  it  is 
easy  to  see  why  it  is  best  to  prune  the 
young  trees  and  most  of  the  old  ones  in 
the  central  and  eastern  parts  of  the  state 


298 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


during  the  winter  and  all  of  the  bearing 
trees  in  Western  Washington  during  the 
summer  season. 

How   to   Prune 

Pruning  is  an  operation  that  should  not 
be  done  carelessly  or  hurriedly.  The  prun- 
er  should  study  each  tree  as  he  prunes  it 
and  each  branch  as  he  removes  it. 

When  heading  back  young  trees  or  cut- 
ting off  the  tops  of  the  last  year's  growth 
out  of  older  trees,  the  cut  should  be  made 
slanting  away  from  and  about  one-six- 
teenth of  an  inch  above  the  first  bud  that 
is  intended  to  grow.  A  longer  stub  than 
this  will  dry,  crack  and  form  an  entrance 
for  fungi,  bacteria,  etc.  A  shorter  stub 
will  usually  result  in  the  death  of  the 
first  bud.    . 

When  pruning  trees  that  have  a  dense 
upright  habit  of  growth,  like  the  Wagener, 
Rome  Beauty,  etc..  cut  to  strong  outer 
buds  in  order  to  spread  the  naturally  nar- 
row, compact  top,  but  when  pruning 
spreading  or  slender  growing  trees,  cut  to 
buds  that  point  toward  the  center  of  the 
tree  in  order  to  throw  the  limbs  inward 
and  upward. 

Weak  growing  trees  or  weak  branches 
in  strong  trees  may  be  compelled  to  pro- 
duce strong  growths  by  severe  winter 
pruning.  In  the  removal  of  lateral 
branches  from  either  young  or  old  trees 
cut  parallel  with  and  close  to  the  main 
stem.  Never  leave  stubs  from  one  to  two 
inches  long  in  hopes  that  they  will  devel- 
op  into   fruit   spurs,   since   less   than   five 


The  Left  Hand  Figure  Shows  Where  1-tranches 
Should  Be  Cut  in  Pruning  Apple  Trees.  Such 
wounds  readilv  heal. 

The  night  Hand  Figure  Shows  the  Perfect  Heal- 
ing of  a  Wound  Made  b.v  Pruning  Away  a 
Branch. 


per  cent  ever  become  fruit  spurs  and  the 
other  95  per  cent  die,  dry  up  and  leave 
excellent  gateways  for  the  entrance  of 
disease  into  the  wood  of  the  tree.  Young 
lateral  branches  when  shortened  back, 
specially  after  the  spring  growth  has 
taken  place,  very  frequently  develop  fruit 
buds  and  spurs. 

In  the  removal  of  large  branches  from 
old  or  bearing  trees  always  make  the  cut 
parallel  with  the  branch  or  main  stem 
from  which  the  one  is  removed.  This 
frequently  means  a  larger  wound  than  it 
would  make  if  the  cut  is  made  at  right 
angles  to  the  limb  that  is  to  be  removed, 
but  such  wounds  will  heal  quicker  and  are 
less  injurious  to  the  tree  than  the  much 
smaller  ones  that  leave  the  collar  of  the 
branch  to  be  covered  with  healing  tissue. 
Do  not  hesitate  to  remove  large,  useless 
or  superfluous  limbs  from  trees,  but  al- 
ways make  smooth,  clean  cuts  with  a 
saw,  and  if  necessary  to  prevent  splitting 
the  stem  or  peeling  the  bark,  make  two 
cuts — the  first  from  six  to  twelve  inches 
out  from  where  the  limb  is  to  be  finally 
cut  off.  Nothing  can  be  applied  to  the 
wound  to  hasten  the  healing.  Wounds  an 
inch  or  less  in  diameter  need  not  be 
treated,  while  large  wounds  may  be  ad- 
vantageously treated  with  a  thick  coat  of 
lead  paint.  Cheap  mineral  paint  or  tar 
should  not  be  used  upon  fruit  trees  as  it 
kills  the  young,  tender  bark  while  graft- 
ing waxes  crack  and  peel  off  before  the 
wound  has  healed.  Any  antiseptic  that 
will  keep  the  moisture  out  makes  an  ex- 
cellent coating. 

The  early  training  of  young  trees  Is 
very  essential  since  it  is  necessary  to  de- 
velop a  good  frame  while  they  are  young 
if  it  is  ever  to  be  developed.  It  is  almost 
an  impossibility  to  make  a  first-class  tree 
out  of  an  old  neglected  tree.  One  of  the 
differences  between  eastern  and  western 
fruit  growing  is  in  the  method  of  the 
training  of  the  young  trees.  In  the  East 
the  high  headed  tree  is  the  rule  while 
in  the  West  it  is  the  exception.  Prac- 
tical fruit  men  no  longer  strive  to  head 
their  trees  high  enough  for  the  average 
horse  to  work  under,  but  head  their  trees 
low  and  then  secure  extension  tools  in 
order  to  till  all  of  the  ground. 


APPLES 


299 


The  low  headed  tree  has  many  advan- 
tages over  the  high  headed  tree.  As  a 
rule  no  apple  tree  should  be  permitted  to 
start  its  head  farther  than  IS  inches  from 
the  ground,  nor  closer  than  six  inches 
from  the  ground.  A  tree  with  more  than 
IS  inches  of  stem  places  its  fruiting  plane 
almost  entirely  out  of  reach  of  the  aver- 
age man  for  thinning,  harvesting,  etc., 
while  the  tree  with  less  than  six  inches 
of  stem  is  very  apt  to  have  trunk  rot  or 
to  readily  split  when  heavily  loaded  with 
fruit.  If  the  West  desires  to  continue  to 
lead  in  the  production  of  fancy  and  first- 
class  fruit  her  orchardists  must  keep  the 
fruiting  planes  of  their  trees  within  easy 
reach  of  the  ground  for  thinning,  spray- 
ing, and  harvesting.  Our  experiments 
and  observations  teach  that  the  following 
methods  give  the  best  results  for  the 
training  of  young  apple  trees: 

First  Tear 

Prune  the  newly  planted  one-year-old 
tree  in  the  spring  just  before  growth  be- 
gins to  a  straight  whip  unless  it  means 
the  removal  of  a  large  number  of  buds 
from  that  part  of  the  stem  between  12 
and  24  inches  from  the  ground:  in  the 
latter  case,  cut  the  laterals  back  to  short 
stubs  from  one  to  three  buds  in  length. 
The  smooth  pruning  gave  the  best  results 
where  it  was  possible  to  practice  it.  After 
pruning  to  a  whip,  cut  the  top  off  just 
above  a  bud  from  18  to  24  inches  from 
the  ground.  Varieties  like  the  Jonathan 
may  be  cut  at  IS  inches  or  less  while 
varieties  like  the  Rome  Beauty  and  Wag- 
ener  should  be  headed  a  little  higher.  It 
is  frequently  difficult  to  secure  sufficient 
well  placed  branches  upon  a  large  one- 
year-old  transplanted  Wagener  if  it  be  cut 
off  closer  than  24  inches  from  the  ground. 
If  the  lower  buds  for  the  first  12  inches 
from  the  ground  start  to  grow  they  should 
be  rubbed  off  early  in  July  unless  the 
stems  of  the  trees  are  slender  and  need 
to  be  thickened  when  the  buds  should  be 
permitted  to  grow  until  August  or  even 
the  following  spring,  unless  they  form 
very  strong  growths. 

Second  Year 

Select  from  five  to  seven  of  the  best 
placed  limbs  to  become  the  framework  of 


the  tree,  securing  as  many  as  possible  that 
point  in  all  directions  and  that  are  as  far 
apart  on  the  main  stem  as  possible.  Cut 
off  the  others  close  to  the  main  stem  and 
prune  the  selected  ones  back  to  from  one- 
third  to  one-half  of  their  original  length, 
leaving  the  most  central  one  as  a  leader 
which  should  be  cut  from  four  to  six 
inches  longer  than  the  others.  The  exact 
length  the  frame  work  limbs  should  be 
left  must  be  governed  entirely  by  the 
year's  growth.  Eight  inches  should  be 
considered  the  minimum  length  and  IS 
the  maximum  length.  In  the  case  of  up- 
right growing  varieties  prune  to  outer 
buds  while  in  the  case  of  spreading  sorts 
prune  to  inner  buds  and  thereby  correct 
the  evil.  In  windy  exposures  turn  as 
many  limbs  as  possible  toward  the  wind; 
also  prune  the  branches  very  severely  on 
the  windward  side. 

Third  Tear 

Select  from  two  or  three  limbs  per 
branch  of  the  frame,  remove  the  broken, 
diseased  and  superfluous  branches,  and 
cut  the  selected  ones  back  to  from  one- 
half  to  two-thirds  of  their  original  length. 
Again  the  best  length  to  leave  the 
branches  must  be  governed  by  the  growth. 
Eighteen  to  24  or  even  36  inches  are 
reasonable  lengths.  The  leader  should 
still  be  maintained  and  the  top  carefully 
balanced  in  order  to  avoid  undesirable 
growth.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  re- 
move one  or  more  of  the  framework 
branches  to  open  the  top.  This  is  always 
allowable  and  frequently  advantageous  in 
the  forming  of  the  top. 

Fourth  and  Fifth  Tears 

Select  from  one  to  three  limbs  per 
branch  that  were  left  the  preceding  year, 
remove  crossing,  diseased  and  superfluous 
wood  and  cut  back  the  selected  limbs 
very  little  and  unless  the  growth  is  very 
strong  little  or  no  topping  is  necessary. 
Thin  the  top  and  center  as  much  as  pos- 
sible without  leaving  it  entirely  open.  In 
the  case  of  long  growths,  cut  back  severe- 
ly to  a  branch  if  possible.  In  fact,  all 
pruning  from  now  on  should  be  of  a  thin- 
ning and  very  light  topping  nature.  In 
the  fourth  to  fifth  year,  summer  pruning 
should  begin   to  be  practiced  in  sections 


300 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


west  of  the  Cascades  and  may  be  advan- 
tageously used  with  shy  or  tardy  bearers 
anywhere. 

The  Pruning  of  a  Bearing  Tree 
An  old  apple  tree  that  is  in  full  bearing 
should  be  carefully  pruned  every  year, 
removing  almost  as  much  wood  each  year 
as  it  produced  the  preceding  year.  Care 
should  be  exercised  to  keep  the  top  open, 
balanced,  free  from  crossing  or  rubbing 
limbs  and  from  getting  too  high.  A  top 
can  be  lowered  or  raised  at  will  If  the 
pruner  will  study  his  branches.  Always 
cut  back  to  a  branch,  and  never  leave  a 
long  stub  unless  water  sprouts  are  desired. 
If  the  tree  has  been  neglected  for  years, 
remove  the  superfluous  wood  by  degrees 
about  one-third  of  the  total  amount  to  be 
removed  each  spring  and  summer  until 
the  desired  top  is  reached.  Pruning  is  a 
matter  of  common  sense  and  should  be 
practiced  as  such.  The  young  tree  is  elas- 
tic anil  can  be  easily  shaped  while  the  old 
tree  is  established  and  must  be  compelled 
by  severe  methods. 

W.  S.  Thokxber, 
Lewiston,    Idaho. 

Location  of  Fruit  Buds 

A  knowledge  of  how  and  where  fruit 
buds  are  formed  is  very  necessary  to  the 
best  results  In  pruning  as  the  ultimate 
object  of  pruning  is  to  produce  fruit.  The 
best  way  to  learn  where  the  buds  are  pro- 
duced on  trees  is  to  examine  trees  in  an 
orchard  under  the  direction  of  some  one 
who  can  explain  the  difference  between 
leaf  buds  and  fruit  buds.  We  can  point 
out  where  they  are  to  be  found,  thus  mak- 
ing it  possible  for  one  not  acquainted  with 
the  different  buds  on  trees  to  distinguish 
between  them  when  a  competent  instruct- 
or  is  not  available. 

On  apple  and  pear  trees  the  fruit  buds 
are  found  on  the  ends  of  short  spurs  which 
are  one  or  more  years  old.  The  terminal 
growth  of  these  spurs  is  produced  from 
the  topmost  lateral  bud  which  often 
causes  the  spur  to  be  more  or  less  zigzag 
in  shape.  When  the  fruit  spur  is  making 
terminal  growth  it  usually  will  not  at 
that  time  produce  fruit  nor  will  a  fruit 
bud  generally  be  formed  on  a  fruit 
spur  the   same  season  that  fruit   is   pro- 


duced. It  follows,  then,  that  fruit  spurs 
on  apples  or  pears  will  as  a  rule  bear 
only  in  alternate  years.  The  leaf  buds 
are  both  terminal  and  lateral,  the  flower 
bud  always  terminal.  Flower  buds  may 
be  distinguished  from  leaf  buds  by  being 
somewhat  larger,  with  a  point  that  is 
blunt  or  roiinded,  while  the  leaf  buds  are 
smaller  with  a  sharper  point.  The  fruit 
buds  of  cherries  and  most  plums  are  pro- 
duced much  the  same  as  those  of  apples, 
except  that  the  buds  are  often  in  clusters 
and  are  sometimes  lateral  on  short  spurs. 
The  fruit  buds  on  peach  trees  are  lat- 
eral and  are  not  found  on  fruit  spurs,  the 
buds  usually  being  formed  in  the  axils 
or  leaves  on  the  current  year's  growth. 
In  pruning  peach  trees  the  tree  should  be 
pruned  in  such  a  way  that  a  liberal  sup- 
ply of  new  wood  is  made  each  year,  while 
in  apples,  pears,  plums  and  cherries  the 
production  of  new  wood  is  not  so  neces- 
sary, as  the  fruit  spurs  on  these  will  con- 
tinue to  bear  for  a  number  of  years.  The 
fruit  buds  on  currants  and  gooseberries 
are  formed  much  the  same  way  as  on 
apples.  They  are  not  productive  for  as 
long  a  period,  however,  and  require  such 
pruning  as  will  produce  new  spurs  every 
three  or  four  years.  The  fruit  buds  on 
raspberries,  blackberries,  dew  berries,  etc., 
are  formed  the  same  season  that  the  fruit 
is  produced,  the  fruit  buds  being  formed 
on  the  ends  of  the  shoots  which  grow 
from  lateral  buds  on  the  main  stem  the 
same  season  that  the  fruit  is  ripened. 
R.  W.  Fisher. 
Bozcman,  Mont. 

Tree   Support   by  Intertwining  Branches 

A  method  of  supporting  the  branches 
of  a  tree,  without  propping,  has  been  tried 
and  found  to  possess  considerable  merit. 
It  is  a  method  of  wrapping,  or  twisting 
together  small  branches  projecting  from 
the  main  limbs.  These  branches  point  in 
different  directions,  and  tend  therefore  to 
meet  and  to  grow  beyond  each  other.  This 
makes  it  possible  to  intertwine  them,  by 
which  process  they  tend  to  grow  together 
and  to  become  permanently  attached.  Be- 
coming permanently  attached,  they  grow 
with  the  growth  of  the  tree  and  become 
permanent    supports    completely    binding 


APPLES 


301 


Fig.   1.     Live  Wood  Bolts. 

limbs  together.  This  is  better  than  any 
system  of  propping,  because  it  does  no 
injury  to  the  bark  of  the  limbs,  as  is  true 
with  props,  as  the  wind  sways  the 
branches  and  chafes  the  bark.  It  is  bet- 
ter than  the  system  of  wiring,  for  wires 
can  only  be  fastened  to  the  limb  by  means 
of  wrapping  around  the  branch,  or  by 
means  of  a  small  hole  through  it.  In 
either  case  the  limb  is  more  or  less 
injured. 

Gbanville  Lowtheb 

How  to  Grow  an  Annual  Crop  of  Apples 

The  habit  of  some  trees  to  bear  irregu- 
larly, or  to  bear  every  second  year,  has 
led  to  a  discussion  of  the  question,  "How 
to  make  our  trees  bear  a  crop  annually." 
This  has  been  done  in  many  instances  by 
pruning  and  thinning.  The  trees  are 
thinned  to  a  fair  crop  each  year  instead 
of  being  allowed  to  bear  heavily  one  year, 
and  then  a  light  crop  the  next  year. 
Further,  summer  pruning  causes  the  for- 
mation of  fruit  spurs,  and  tends  to  pro- 
duce a 'crop  the  following  year. 

Mr.  John  R.  Moulton  of  Weiser,  Idaho, 
gives  some  good  advice  adapted  to  condi- 
tions in  that  country,  and  we  believe 
adapted  to  many  other  sections  as  well. 
Mr.  Moulton  says:  "The  pruning  is  a  very 
important  part;  should  be  done  annually; 


not  too  heavily;  cut  out  all  the  dormant 
limbs,  and  on  an  old  tree  that  has 
been  bearing  heavily,  cut  out  part  of  the 
old  fruit  wood  and  allow  new  wood  to 
start.  By  so  doing  a  process  of  rebuilding 
and  rejuvenation  is  continually  going  on. 
The  tree  must  be  thinned  down  to  what 
it  will  bear  without  breaking.  All  clust- 
ers must  be  thinned  to  one  apple  on  a 
fruit  spur,  and  no  two  apples  should  be 
left  close  enough  together  to  touch.  The 
most  important  of  all,  is  the  question  of 
irrigation,  during  the  months  of  July  and 
August.  During  this  period,  the  orchard 
must  be  kept  wet  enough  to  lieep  the 
fruit  growing  continually.  I  believe  there 
are  more  mistakes  made  in  watering  an 
orchard,  than  in  any  other  one  thing  con- 
nected with  orchard  work.  The  orchard 
must  be  kept  wet  enough  to  mature  a  crop 
of  fruit  and  a  crop  of  buds  for  the  next 
year.  A  cover  crop  will  form  a  mulch  that 
will  prevent  the  sun  from  baking  the  soil." 

rnniiiiff  Relation  to  Fruit  Bearing 

The  purpose  of  every  plant  is  to  pro- 
duce seed,  and  this  seed  in  turn  a  like 
plant. 

So  in  order  to  produce  fruit,  which 
is  but  the  husk  or  covering  of  the  seed 
itself,  we  must  follow  Nature  as  much 
as  possible. 

To  begin  the  tree  at  planting  time,  we 
must  build  a  framework  that  will  per- 
mit of  the  most  exposure  of  foliage  to 
direct  or  indirect  sunlight.  Sunlight  is 
absolutely  essential  to  plant  life.  Nature 
has  arranged  the  leaves  on  the  branches 
in  such  a  way  as  to  receive  as  much  light 
as  possible.  AVe  therefore  choose  the  open- 
center  or  vase-shaped  tree  as  the  shape 
best  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  apple  or 
pear. 

Each  tree  should  have  three  to  five 
well  spaced  frame  limbs,  well  distributed 
upon  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  forming  thus 
a  strong  whorl  that  will  carry  heavy 
loads  without  splitting.  The  tree,  either 
apple  or  pear,  should  be  cut  back  and  lim- 
ited to  not  more  than  18  to  24  inches  of 
annual  growth  depending  upon  the  caliper 
and  strength  of  the  limbs. 

Starting  at  one  year  from  planting 
with  three  or  five  limbs  we  will  continue 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


these  in  vase  form  for  three  years  until 
we  have  reached  a  height  of  four  or  five 
feet,  with  a  top  spreading  at  least  three 
feet,  when  we  should  commence  the 
doubling  of  each  of  our  five  branches. 
We  should  always  attempt  to  keep  all 
the  tops  level  or  nearly  so,  as  the  doub- 
ling commences  the  third  or  fourth  year. 
Jleantime  there  has  been  more  or  less 
branching  of  small  limbs  on  the  main  lat- 
eral limbs.  Some  of  these  should  be  left, 
but  only  those  that  are  not  showing  a 
strong  tendency  to  produce  wood  too 
abundantly. 

In  thinning  out  these  trees  be  sure  to 
leave  a  few  of  these  cross-limbs  both 
inside  and  outside,  but  not  so  low  that 
they  will  interfere  with  close  cultiva- 
tion. 

They  should  be  so  left  that  the  upper 
ones  will  not  shade  the  lower  ones  too 
much,  and  yet  have  enough  left  that  the 
system  may  be  practical,  as  these 
branches  will  produce  the  first  fruit  and 
this  puts  the  fruit  farther  away  from 
the  frame  limbs,  thus  preventing  heavy- 
loss  from  blight  infection  as  the  buds  on 
the  hea\T  limbs  sometimes  do. 

Each  of  these  short  limbs  should  be 
tipped  slightly  to  insure  development  of 
all  buds  on  each  limb. 

The  production  of  fruit  spurs  being  de- 
pendent upon  the  first  and  second  year's 
development  of  the  bud,  it  is  very  neces- 
sary to  allow  as  much  sunlight  as  pos- 
sible inside  the  tree.  In  many  cases 
there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  over-prune 
and  cut  back  heavily,  which  should  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible  and  yet  pro- 
duce a  strong  frame  work. 

In  all  normal  plants  there  is  a  heavy 
root  pressure  that  is  caused  by  the  rapid 
absorption  by  root  tips  of  soil  water  and 
this  is  forced  upward  into  the  limbs  and 
small  branches.  This  root  pressure  which 
can  be  measured  in  pounds  of  pressure 
must  be  reckoned  with  when  we  cut  off 
the  tops  of  rapidly  growing  trees  and 
thus  increase  the  pressure  in  the  remain- 
ing limbs. 

The  early  fruiting  limbs,  before  men- 
tioned, help  to  equalize  this  increased 
pressure  and  help  to  maintain  a  better 
balance  between  top  and  roots  and  hold 


the  tree  in  check  more  or  less.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  these  limbs  absorb  their  share 
of  plant  food  and  if  not  tipped  too 
heavily  will  set  in  their  second  year  an 
abundance   of   fruit   spurs. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  years 
growth  of  these  side  branches,  if  the  buds 
are  prominent  on  the  older  part  of  the 
limb  and  look  like  fruit  spurs,  the  branch 
can  then  be  cut  back  to  allow  only  as 
many  blossoms  as  needed  to  appear. 
While  the  tree  has  been  busy  setting  this 
fruit,  the  tops  have  been  making  rapid 
growth  of  three  or  four  feet  annually, 
which  must  be  cut  back  some  to  prevent 
the  tree  arching  too  near  the  ground.  We 
should  never  allow  more  than  three 
limbs  to  remain  at  the  tops  and  two  are 
really  better.  In  all  cases  of  early  bear- 
ing due  consideration  must  be  given  for 
future  crops  and  the  small  amount  of 
fruit  we  get  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  years 
is,  although  commercial,  useful  in  bring- 
ing the  tree  into  earlier  bearing  than 
heavy  pruning  methods  and  also  does  not 
hinder  development  as  some  people  fear 
when  the  tree  is  cropped  too  heavily. 

Our  aim  from  the  fifth  year  on  should 
be  to  have  sufficient  two-year-old  wood 
always  in  readiness  to  produce  an  even 
crop  on  all  parts  of  the  tree. 

This  can  only  be  obtained  by  thinning 
the  branches  both  inside  and  outside  each 
year,  and  after  the  sixth  year  topping 
should  not  be  resorted  to  in  the  apple 
except  in  exceptional  cases  and  then  to  a 
lateral  if  possible. 

Pears,  however,  as  a  general  rule,  need 
to  be  topped  annually  to  prevent  termin- 
al fruits  which  are  of  little  commercial 
value. 

Winter  pruning  is  recommended  for  gen- 
eral practice,  as  the  work  is  more  satis- 
factory, can  be  done  quicker  and  better, 
as  the  limbs  show  their  ages  better  when 
dormant  and  as  the  tree  grows  older,  we 
should  try  to  cut  three  and  four-year-old 
wood  that  is  not  frame  wood,  rather 
than  so  much  young  wood  on  the  outside 
of  the  tree. 

Summer  pruning  is  very  useful  in  the 
training  of  young  trees  as  any  low,  su- 
perfluous limbs  can  be  removed,  as  also 
any  that  tend  to  pull   a   frame  limb  out 


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303 


of  position,  or  that  crowd  too  tliickly  in 
the  center  and  obstruct  the  light  too 
much.  Heavy  limbs  that,  helped  by  the 
prevailing  winds,  are  twisting  strong  lat- 
erals out  of  position  should  be  cut  and 
allow  the  limb  to  right  itself. 

Tipping  the  side  fruiting  branches 
slightly  during  the  summer  has  a  tend- 
ency to  help  the  setting  of  fruit  spurs. 

The  low  temporary  fruiting  branches 
can  be  used  for  a  few  years  until  they 
have  been  superseded  by  higher  limbs 
when  these  first  useful  limbs  can  be  cut 
away  and  leave  a  clean  open  frame  work, 
proof  against  blossom  infection. 

Clyde    B.\rnum. 
I^hoenix.  Oreiinn. 

Forcing  Xewtowns  Into  Bearing 

(Rogue  River  Valley) 
The  writer  had  quite  a  large  block  of 
Newtown  apples  growing  in  a  heavy, 
black  deposit  soil,  which  was  very  rich  in 
plant  food.  The  trees  had  reached  an 
age  of  eight  years  and  were  large,  healthy 
■and  beautifully  shaped,  but  not  a  single 
fruit  bud  had  appeared.  The  ninth  year 
started  with  the  same  conditions  when 
it  was  decided  to  radically  change  the 
methods  of  growing  these  to  see  if  they 
could  not  be  brought  into  bearing.  These 
trees  had  been  pruned  regularly  each 
year  and  the  wood  growth  was  enormous. 
This  being  the  fact,  pruning  was  discon- 
tinued and  not  a  bianch  was  cut.  At 
the  end  of  the  season  the  trees  were  a 
mass  of  brush  but  still  no  fruit.  The  fol- 
lowing season  one  or  two  large  branches 
were  removed  from  trees  needing  it  and 
some  of  the  brush  removed  from  others, 
care  being  taken  not  to  cut  out  much 
from  any  one  tree  and  never  to  head  back. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  third  season  a 
few  blossoms  were  noticed,  but  the  soil 
was  so  strong  that  it  seemed  to  push  the 
growth  of  the  trees  into  wood  instead  of 
fruit,  no  matter  what  was  done.  It  was 
then  decided  to  plant  the  orchard  to  bar- 
ley. This  was  done  and  the  entire  block 
seeded  right  up  to  the  tree  trunks.  The 
grain  was  allowed  to  ripen,  and  threshed 
out  over  40  bushels  to  the  acre. 

This  block  was  not  ploughed  and  when 
spring  came  the  barley  had  come   up  as 


a  volunteer  crop  and  the  trees  had  a 
good  sprinkling  of  blossoms.  It  was  de- 
cided to  try  and  save  both  the  apples  and 
the  intercrop  of  grain,  so  about  four  fur- 
rows were  ploughed  next  to  the  trees  and 
this  was  kept  cultivated.  When  the  grain 
was  prime  for  hay  it  was  cut.  Immedi- 
ately afterwards  it  was  plowed  and  cul- 
tivated so  as  to  keep  a  good  mulch  to 
conserve  the  moisture  in  the  soil.  This 
was  necessary  as  irrigation  was  not  used. 
When  the  apples  were  picked  the  trees 
averaged  about  two  boxes  each  and  the 
fruit  was  all  good  size  and  quality. 

In  the  spring  the  soil  was  ploughed 
and  has  been  cultivated  and  kept  free 
from  all  growth  between  the  trees  as 
the  trees  were  well  set  with  fruit. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  soil 
conditions  were  such  as  to  produce  a 
strong,  heavy  growth  of  wood,  and  the 
discontinuance  of  pruning  did  not  act 
quickly  enough  to  arrest  this  as  desired. 
Therefore  it  required  the  additional  crop- 
ping between  the  trees  to  check  this 
growth  of  wood.  The  block  is  now  in 
bearing  and  will  undoubtedly  continue  to 
bear  and  we  still  follow  the  rule  to  prune 
lightly  and  not  head  back. 

A.  C.  Allen. 
Hollywood    Orchards. 

REJUVEyATING  OLD  ORCH.VRDS 

With  renewed  interest  in  the  fruit  in- 
dustry, there  has  arisen  a  question  as  to 
the  practicability  of  renewing  or  rejuve- 
nating old  orchards.  There  are  orchards 
in  some  states  which  have  reached  an 
age  of  more  than  50  years  and  show  every 
evidence  of  neglect.  Will  it  pay  to  at- 
tempt rejuvenation?  That  depends  on 
the  circumstances,  but  in  general  I  would 
say  it  will  not,  and  for  the  following 
reasons : 

First:  The  trees  can  never  be  made  to 
bear  as  good  fruit  as  new  trees  that  have 
been  properly  cultivated  and  have  never 
been  neglected. 

Second:  New  trees  can  be  grown  at 
about  the  same  cost,  or  perhaps  at  less 
cost  than  that  of  expensive  pruning  and 
rejuvenating  the  old  orchard. 

Third:  In  these  old  orchards  are  many 
vacant  spaces  where  trees  have  died.     In 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


order  to  fill  these  spaces  it  would  be  nec- 
essary to  set  new  trees,  but  new  trees 
do  not  grow  as  well  in  these  spaces  as 
they  would  in  ground  that  had  not  form- 
erly been  occupied  by  trees.  Consider- 
able difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to 
why  this  is  true.  Among  the  reasons 
assigned  are  that  the  old  trees  have  ab- 
sorbed a  large  proportion  of  the  soil  fer- 
tility, and  that  insect  pests  or  diseases 
will  attack  the  new  tree  in  large  num- 
bers and  with  considerable  vigor.  These 
pests  or  diseases  may  be  on  the  old  roots 
where  the  new  tree   is   planted. 

Fourth:  The  fruit  grown  in  these  old 
orchards  can  not  be  marketed  success- 
fully in  competition  with  fruit  grown  un- 
der other  conditions. 

Fifth:  The  life  of  a  rejuvenated  or- 
chard, counting  from  the  time  of  rejuve- 
nation, is  not  long.  In  the  nature  of 
things  it  could  not  live  to  bear  profitably 
for  very  many  years,  while  the  young  or- 
chard when  it  comes  into  bearing  would 
naturally  have  a  long  life. 

Sixth:  These  old  orchards  are  gener- 
ally not  the  best  selections  of  fruit.  The 
experiences  of  the  past  generation  have 
taught  us  very  many  things,  in  regard 
to  the  best  market  varieties,  which  could 
not  have  been  known  when  the  old  or- 
chards were  planted.  Therefore  the  new 
orchards  are  much  more  profitable  than 
the  old. 

I  think,  ordinarily,  it  would  pay  to 
plant  a  new  orchard,  perhaps  letting  the 
old  one  stand  until  the  new  one  comes 
into  bearing,  and  certainly  not  planting 
the  new  on  the  land  of  the  old  one. 
However,  there  may  be  circumstances 
where  it  would  pay,  and  where  it  is  for 
other  reasons  desirable.  The  views  of  sev- 
eral experienced  and  observant  men  are 
therefore  given. 

Granville  Lowther 

An  Iiiiliiinn  Tiew 

Nearly  every  farmer  in  Indiana  has 
been  or  is  now  interested  to  some  degree 
in  fruit  growing.  Many  have  been  inter- 
ested enough  to  set  out  a  home  orchard 
and  then  on  account  of  the  demands  of 
the  other  farm  work  have  neglected  the 
orchard  and  have  allowed  it  to  degener- 


ate until  it  presents  an  appearance  which 
the  fruit  tree  lover  is  pained  to  see. 
Many  an  orchard,  set  by  the  passing  gen 
oration,  during  its  earlier  years  a  source 
of  pleasure  and  profit,  is  now  apparently 
in  the  "downhill  of  life"  and  to  all  ap- 
pearances good  for  little.  A  large  propor- 
tion of  these  orchards  might,  by  proper 
methods,  be.  so  rejuvenated  and  have  their 
youth  so  renewed  that  they  would  again 
bear  good  crops  of  sound  fruit.  Where 
this  can  be  done,  it  is  surely  much  better 
than  to  set  a  young  orchard  and  wait  sev- 
eral years  for  it  to  begin  to  bear. 

At  the  present  time  a  revival  of  inter- 
est is  taking  place  in  the  question  of  home 
fruit  growing,  and  many  who  own  ne- 
glected orchards  are  seeking  information 
as  to  the  right  thing  to  be  done  to  restore 
them  to  usefulness  and  how  to  set  about 

'J"'"^   "•  J.  Troop, 

C.  G.  Woodbury, 

LaFayette.    Ind. 

An   Ohio   "View 

Nearly  every  Ohio  homestead  has  a 
greater  or  lesser  number  of  old  apple  trees 
— usually  of  desirable  varieties.  As  a 
rule  they  have  attained  such  extreme  size 
and  height  that  it  is  with  great  difficulty 
that  the  all-important  work  of  spraying 
can  be  accomplished.  If  these  trees  were 
originally  headed  quite  low  and  yet  retain 
their  lower  branches  in  fairly  vigorous 
condition,  the  topmost  branches  may  be 
cut  back  severely,  lowering  the  height  of 
the  trees  materially  and  rendering  the 
work  of  spraying,  gathering  fruit,  etc, 
much  more  readily  done.  The  type  of 
trees  which  cannot  be  successfully  headed 
down  are  those  which  have  long,  naked 
branches  extending  to  a  considerable 
height  before  diverging  into  smaller 
branches.  In  heading  back  an  old  tree  it 
is  well  to  make  the  cuts  just  above  diverg- 
ing branches,  if  possible,  as  the  wounds 
thus  made  will  heal  much  more  easily 
than  if  made  midway  between  diverging 
branches.  All  wounds  should  be  well 
painted  with  a  thick  lead  and  oil  paint. 

Heading  back  large  trees  will  result  in 
a  vigorous  growth  of  young  shoots  spring- 
ing up  from  the  upper  branches,  and  in 
the  entire  tree  taking  on  new  life.     The 


APPLES 


305 


stronger  shoots  in  the  tops  of  the  trees 
should  not  only  be  thinned  out  each  sea- 
son where  too  thick,  but  those  remaining 
after  thinning  should  be  cut  back  with  the 
pruning  shears  from  one-third  to  one-half 
their  length.  In  a  few  seasons  this  new 
wood,  thus  restricted,  will  begin  to  form 
fruit  buds  and  bear  fruit.  In  the  mean- 
time, with  thorough  fertilizing,  cultivation 
or  mulching  and  spraying  of  the  trees, 
their  lower  parts  should  be  producing 
plenty  of  fine  fruit. 

F.   H.   Ballou, 
Wooster.   Ohio. 

Factors  To  Be  Considered 

In  the  campaign  for  the  revival  of  the 
apple  industry  in  New  England,  the  first 
item  to  present  itself  is  the  improvement 
of  the  existing  orchards.  Logically  it  is 
the  business  of  the  fruit  grower  to  first 
make  the  best  use  of  what  he  has  on  his 
farm.  The  interim  between  the  planting 
of  a  young  orchard  and  the  gathering  of 
its  first  fruit  may  profitably  be  spent  in 
improving  some  of  the  best  run-down 
apple  trees.  The  possibility  and  the  ad- 
vantages of  renovating  neglected  apple  or- 
chards have  been  so  clearly  demonstrated, 
that  during  recent  yea:rs  many  old  or- 
chards have  been  purchased  with  this 
object  in  view. 

The  neglected  orchard  is  the  usual 
thing  in  New  England  and  the  well-cared- 
for  orchard  the  exception.  In  every  sec- 
tion can  be  found  apple  orchards  that 
are  not  as  profitable  as  they  should  be. 
Some,  consisting  mostly  of  small  plant- 
ings around  old  homesteads,  were  started 
during  the  early  part  of  the  last  century 
and  have  passed  their  period  of  useful- 
ness. Others,  of  more  pretentious  dimen- 
sions, were  planted  about  1850  and,  if 
they  had  been  properly  cared  for,  they 
would  be  producing  profitable  crops  at  the 
present  time.  There  are  also  many  oth- 
ers that  vary  in  age  from  20  to  40  years, 
and  that,  under  rational  management, 
should  be  producing  maximum  profits. 

Will  It  Pay 

In  the  matter  of  orchard  renovation  the 
first  question  to  present  itself  is,  "Will  it 
pay?"     In  order  to  answer  this  question 


intelligently  several  points  should  be  con- 
sidered: 

1.  The  attitude  of  the  man.  The  own- 
er of  the  orchard  should  first  decide 
whether  in  the  future  he  will  give  the 
trees  proper  treatment  with  regard  to  till- 
age, fertilization,  pruning,  thinning,  and 
spraying.  If  the  orchard  is  under  new 
management,  it  is  more  likely  to  get  sat- 
isfactory treatment  than  if  under  the  man- 
agement of  the  man  who  previously  ne- 
glected it.  Not  every  man  can  make  a 
success  of  fruit  growing.  Some  men  have 
not  the  taste  and  would  do  well  to  leave 
this  phase  of  agriculture  to  those  who  are 
more  interested. 

2.  Age  and  vigor.  It  will  seldom  pay 
to  undertake  the  renovation  of  apple  trees 
that  are  over  30  or  40  years  of  age,  or 
those  that  show  serious  lack  of  vigor. 
Trees  that  have  been  repeatedly  defoliated 
by  canker  worms,  usually  lack  vigor  and 
respond  to  treatment  very  slowly.  Or  if 
the  disease  known  as  apple  canker  is 
abundant,  manifested  by  many  dead  limbs 
and  decayed  spots  on  the  trunk  and  main 
branches,  it  would  probably  be  more  prof- 
itable to  relegate  the  trees  to  the  wood 
pile. 

3.  The  position  of  the  head  and  the 
general  shape  of  the  tree.  In  earlier  plant- 
ings, high  headed  nursery  stock  was  com- 
monly used  and  the  close  planting  of  the 
trees  has  tended  to  make  them  higher. 
On  account  of  the  difficulty  of  spraying 
high  headed  trees  and  the  added  expense 
in  harvesting  the  fruit  from  such  trees,  it 
is  not  advisable  to  undertake  the  improve- 
ment of  an  orchard  composed  largely  of 
very  high  headed  trees.  Providing,  how- 
ever, that  the  trees  are  not  too  old,  good 
results  may  be  expected  from  the  renova- 
tion of  moderately  high  headed  and  long- 
armed  trees  by  severely  "heading  in." 

4.  The  stand  of  trees.  It  will  not  pay 
to  cultivate  and  fertilize  an  orchard  if 
there  are  many  vacancies.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  some  orchards  the  trees  are  so 
closely  planted  that  it  becomes  necessary 
to  remove  a  number  of  them,  and  in  such 
cases,  a  vacant  space  here  and  there  may 
prove  to  be  an  advantage.  It  is  not  ad- 
visable  to   attempt   to   grow   other   crops 


306 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP"  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


in  the  vacant  spaces,  nor  is  it  satisfactory 
to  start  young  trees  in  an  old  orchard. 
When  the  trees  to  be  renovated  are  along 
the  roadside  or  a  line  fence,  the  vacancy 
factor  may  be  ignored.  In  orchards  where 
less  than  60  per  cent  of  the  trees  remain, 
the  best  practice  would  probably  be  to  pull 
them  all  out  and  start  a  young  orchard. 

5.  Character  of  soil.  The  apple  thrives 
well  on  a  great  variety  of  soils,  varying 
from  sandy  loam  to  heavy  clay,  providing 
it  is  well  drained  and  otherwise  well  cared 
for.  The  chances  for  success  are  much 
better,  however,  where  the  orchard  to  be 
renovated  is  located  on  sandy  or  gravelly 
loam,  or  even  clay  loam,  than  where  lo- 
cated on  either  light  sand  or  heavy  clay. 

6.  Exposure.  Many  of  the  older  or- 
chards are  on  "bottom  lands"  along  the 
valleys,  where  they  are  more  likely  to  be 
affected  by  late  spring  frosts,  as  also  are 
those  located  on  the  southern  slopes. 
Others  are  found  on  sites  exposed  to  the 
strong  west  winds,  where  much  loss  is 
often  occasioned  by  the  fruit  being  blown 
off.  Again  orchards  are  often  found  on 
cold,  springy  hillsides  where  the  soil  does 
not  warm  up  readily  in  the  spring.  Such 
a  condition,  however,  may  be  improved 
by  either  surface  ditching  or  underdrain- 
ing.  The  renovation  of  such  orchards, 
will  prove  less  satisfactory  than  of  those 
located  on  a  high  and  protected  northern 
or   eastern   well-drained   slope. 

7.  Presence  of  scale.  The  control  of  the 
San  .Jose  scale  in  old  apple  orchards  is  a 
difficult  problem,  and  requires  unusual  per- 
severance and  determination  on  the  part 
of  the  grower.  Unless  one  has  had  exper- 
ience in  controlling  the  scale  in  apple  or- 
chards, it  probably  would  be  unwise  to 
undertake  the  renovation  of  a  scale-in- 
fested orchard.  By  severely  cutting  back 
the  branches,  by  scraping  off  all  rough 
bark,  and  by  repeated  sprayings  one  is 
likely  to  succeed,  but  it  is  certainly  very 
expensive  and  discouraging  work,  at  the 
best. 

8.  Varieties.  The  question  of  varieties. 
while  by  no  means  the  least  important 
factor  in  successful  renovation,  is  con- 
sidered last,  for  the  reason  that  this  Is 
a   fault  that  may   often   be   corrected   by 


top-grafting.  If,  however,  an  orchard  is 
made  up  of  a  large  percentage  of  unde- 
sirable varieties,  it  might  better  be  used 
to  increase  the  size  of  the  wood  pile,  for 
it  is  a  long,  tedious,  and  expensive  job 
to  graft  over  large  apple  trees. 

In  summing  up,  then,  we  may  say  that 
success  in  renovating  neglected  apple  or- 
chards depends  upon  the  age,  shape,  stand 
and  vigor  of  the  trees;  upon  the  location  of 
the  orchard  with  regard  to  soil,  altitude 
and  exposure;  and,  most  of  all,  upon  the 
attitude  of  the  man. 

How  to  Proceed 

As  no  two  orchards  are  just  alike,  each 
will  require  special  treatment,  and,  for 
this  reason,  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down 
any  hard  and  fast  rules  to  be  followed 
in  all  cases  of  orchard  renovation.  While 
it  is  true  that  in  some  orchards  particu- 
lar attention  should  be  given  to  one  or 
more  phases  of  the  renovating  process, 
the  best  results  will  come  from  giving 
the  ver.v  best  treatment  all  along  the 
line.  After  going  to  the  expense  of  culti- 
vation and  fertilization  it  would  be  a 
short-sighted  policy  to  allow  the  apples 
to  be  eaten  up  by  worms  or  to  be  disfig- 
ured by  disease. 

Orchard  renovation  is  necessarily  a  re- 
juvenating process  and  the  treatment, 
with  some  modification,  is  the  same  as 
that  required  for  a  young  orchard.  The 
trees,  after  being  stimulated  into  activity, 
are  maintained  in  a  healthy  condition  by 
regular  methods  of  tilling,  feeding,  prun- 
ing and  spraying. 

Having  decided  that  the  orchard  is 
worth  renovating,  the  trees  should  be 
given  a  general  awakening.  The  severity 
of  treatment  will  depend  largely  upon 
the  condition  of  the  trees.  The  index  to 
the  health  of  a  tree  is  the  amount  of  an- 
nual growth,  which  with  a  normal  tree 
is  from  6  to  18  inches.  The  spur-like 
growth,  usually  observed  on  neglected 
trees  denotes  a  lack  of  vigor.  When  the 
annual  growth  at  the  ends  of  the  twigs 
is  small,  or  not  more  than  one  or  two 
inches,  the  treatment  should  be  more  se- 
vere in  every  way,  than  when  the  yearly 
growth  exceeds  this  amount. 


APPLES 


307 


I'mniiii; 

If  the  orchard  is  coiiiposed  of  suitable 
varieties,  and  the  trees  are  not  to  be  top- 
grafted,  the  first  operation  will  be  that 
of  pruning.  In  many  orchards  the  trees 
are  too  closely  planted.  That  they  have 
not  commenced  to  crowd  is  due  more  often 
to  a  lack  of  vigor  than  to  proper  spacing. 
The  renovated  orchard  under  favorable 
conditions  will  soon  require  more  room. 
The  larger  growing  varieties  like  Bald- 
win, Rhode  Island  Greening,  Northern 
Spy,  Roxbury  Russet  and  many  others 
will  eventually  require  40  feet  between 
the  trees.  With  the  small  growing  sorts 
like  Transparent.  Oldenburg,  Wealthy. 
Mcintosh  and  others.  20  to  30  feet  may 
be  sufficient. 

Thiniiinsr  the  Orchard 

The  first  step,  then,  is  to  determine  if 
the  trees  are  properly  spaced.  If  they 
are  found  to  be  too  closely  planted  and 
if  some  of  them  must  be  removed,  it  is 
well  to  follow  some  regular  order  so  as  to 
retain  the  conformity  of  the  orchard. 

Where  trees  are  planted  in  squares,  as 
is  commonly  the  case,  every  alternate  tree 
in  the  row  nia.v  be  removed.  If  the  first 
tree  of  the  first  row  is  retained,  the  first 
tree  of  the  second  row  should  be  removed. 
This  is  done  by  taking  out  ever.v  second 
row  diagonally.  This  method,  it  will  be 
seen,  leaves  the  rows  cornerwise  of  the 
orchard.  If  the  squares  between  the  trees 
were  originally  25x25  feet,  they  would 
now  be  35.3x35.3  feet.  If  originally  they 
were  30x30  feet  they  would  now  be  42. 4x 
42.4  feet.  So  that  by  removing  half  the 
trees  it  does  not  follow,  as  is  commonly 
supposed,  that  the  trees  will  be  twice  as 
far  apart  as  before. 

In  order  that  the  diagonal  rows  to  be 
removed  may  contain  the  largest  possible 
number  of  vacancies  and  inferior  trees,  it 
is  well  to  make  a  diagram  of  the  orchard, 
locating  on  it  all  desirable  trees  by  a  par- 
ticular sign,  all  weak  trees  and  trees  of 
undesirable  varieties  by  another  sign,  and 
all  vacancies  by  another.  The  result 
would  be  something  like   Fig.   1. 

As  to  whether  one  should  start  by  re- 
moving the  first  diagonal  row.  or  the  sec- 
ond,  may    readily    be    determined    by    re- 


+     *     + 
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"     -+■     "* 


+    £>*.raWa  r,,rt 
J^       U    UndnirBblrTrTes       C^ 


I-'i.i;.  1.  l)iai;ram  Sliowinfj  Method  of  Thinnins 
Orchards.  The  dotted  lines  show  the  tows 
that  are  retained. 

ferring  to  the  diagram.  The  even  rows,  as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  in- 
clude 19  vacancies  and  18  weak  or  un- 
desirable trees,  while  the  odd  rows  in- 
clude only  four  vacancies  and  11  unde- 
sirable trees.  In  this  particular  case, 
then,  it  would  be  advisable  to  remove  the 
even,  diagonal  rows,  which  include  37  out 
of  the  total  of  52  vacancies  and  undesir- 
able trees.  The  rows  that  remain  include 
four  vacancies,  and  the  question  may 
arise  as  to  whether  the  trees  adjacent  to 
these  vacancies  should  be  removed.  In 
some  cases  it  may  be  advisable  to  leave 
such  trees,  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  each  one  so  situated  is  likely  to 
crowd  one  side  of  three  other  trees.  An 
investigation  by  the  Qornell  Exiieriment 
Station  shows  that,  within  certain  limits, 
the  more  trees  per  acre,  the  less  the  yield. 
Their  results  are  based  on  the  records  of 
hundreds  of  orchards  and  cover  a  period 
of  four  years.    A  brief  summary  follows:* 

Bushels 
Pet  Acre 

Not  over  30x30  feet 186 

31x31   to  35x35   feet 222 

36x36  to  40x40  feet 229 

SliapiuK  and  Thinning  the  Trees 

Most   trees   are    too   high   and   may   be 
greatly    improved    by    cutting    back    the 


•  Cornell  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  L'2ti.  n 
.•SOI.  1905. 


308 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


upper  branches.  A  tree  that  is  30  feet 
or  over  in  height  often  may  be  shortened 
by  10  or  15  feet,  and  one  between  25  and 
30  feet  often  may  be  cut  back  to  about 
15  or  20  feet.  The  horizontal  branches, 
as  well  as  the  upright  ones,  may  be  cut 
back  to  advantage,  especially  with  trees 
seriously  lacking  in  vitality,  and  also 
those  infested  with  scale.  In  heading 
back  the  upright  branches,  the  cut  is  usu- 
ally made  just  above  a  side  branch  that 
points  outward.  This  tends  to  make  the 
tree  more  spreading  in  habit.  With  trees 
that  are  naturally  spreading  and  where 
a  more  upright  growth  is  desired,  the  cut- 
ting may  be  done  just  beyond  an  upright 
side  branch.  If  this  method  is  followed 
with  all  horizontal  branches,  a  much 
stronger  structure  will  be  the  result. 

The  severity  of  heading-in  will  depend 
largely  upon  the  vigor  of  the  tree.  Noth- 
ing will  start  a  tree  into  renewed  vigor 
like  severe  pruning  during  the  dormant 
season.  The  cutting-back,  therefore, 
should  be  more  severe  with  weakened 
trees.      With    moderately    vigorous    trees, 


-...,-ia 


PlR.  2.  A  Fairly  Common  Form  of  Apple  Tree. 
The  white  lines  indicate  the  points  where 
the  chief  cuts  should  be  made  in  pruning  a 
tree  of  this  kind.  Besides  the  branches  in- 
dicated, much  of  the  brush  should  be  re- 
moved from  all  parts  of  the  tree.  Many  of 
the  best  branches  have  been  removed  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  tree  in  former  years. 


there  is  danger  of  producing  a  rank 
growth  in  the  form  of  water  sprouts.  If 
it  is  desirable  to  severely  head  back  such 
trees,  it  is  better  to  do  it  gradually,  a 
little  each  year,  and  withhold  all  nitrog- 
enous fertilizers.  A  still  better  plan 
would  be  to  remove  about  half  of  the  re- 
quired amount  of  brush  during  the  winter, 
and  the  remainder  during  the  growing 
season.  The  effect  of  summer  pruning 
upon  the  vigor  of  the  tree  is  just  the  op- 
posite to  that  of  winter  pruning  and  will 
counteract  the  stimulating  effect  of  the 
latter.  With  most  of  the  neglected  or- 
chards, however,  the  vitality  is  so  low 
that  most  of  the  pruning  may  be  done, 
without  fear  of  injury,  during  a  single 
dormant  season. 

The  severity  of  cutting  back  will  also 
depend  upon  the  presence  of  scale.  The 
work  of  spraying  is  greatly  simplified  and 
the  chances  for  success  in  controlling  the 
scale  are  greatly  enhanced  by  extreme 
methods  of  pruning. 

After  the  trees  have  been  sufficiently 
headed  in,  all  dead  and  diseased  branches 
should  be  removed,  and  also  such  other 
branches  as  are  necessary  to  produce  a 
condition  favorable  to  the  free  circulation 
of  air  and  the  admission  of  sunlight. 
While  it  is  possible  to  over-do  the  pruning 
process,  especially  with  the  best  of  neg- 
lected orchards,  the  average  man  is  more 
likely  to  err  in  the  other  direction. 

Taking  Care  of  Wounds 

The  universal  rule  in  pruning  is  that 
all  cuts  should  be  closely  and  smoothly 
made  and  that  the  larger  wounds  should 
be  painted  over  to  keep  out  wood  decaying 
fungi.  The  smaller  wounds  heal  over 
quickly  and  will  take  care  of  themselves. 
Before  applying  the  paint,  the  wood  should 
be  allowed  to  dry.  Common  lead  paint, 
made  up  of  white  lead  and  boiled  linseed 
oil,  is  very  suitable  for  this  purpose.  If 
desired,  a  small  amount  of  coloring  mat- 
ter, such  as  lamp-black,  may  be  mixed 
with  the  paint  so  that  the  spots  will  be 
less  conspicuous. 

C.  D.  Jarvis. 
Storrs.  Conn. 


APPLES 


309 


THI>M>« 

Excessive  Bearing 

There  is  the  tendency  on  the  part  of 
some  trees  to  overbear,  of  others  to  not 
bear  enough.  This  tendency  can,  in  a 
large  measure,  be  regulated  by  pruning, 
thinning  and  fertilizing.  Whatever  tends 
to  excessive  wood  growth  tends  to  de- 
crease the  fruit  production,  and  whatever 
tends  to  excessive  fruit  production  tends 
to  small  wood  growth. 

Winter  pruning  tends  to  stimulate 
wood  growth  and  to  reduce  the  number 
of  fruit  spurs,  therefore  to  reduce  the 
number  of  apples.  Excessive  soil  fertiliza- 
tion tends  also  to  excessive  wood  growth, 
and  therefore  to  reduce  the  number  of 
apples.  Summer  pruning  reduces  wood 
growth,  multiplies  fruit  spurs  and  in- 
creases the  fruit  crop.  Root  pruning  will 
have  the  same  effect  because  it  retards 
wood  growth.  Lack  of  fertilization  re- 
tards wood  growth  and  results  the  same 
as  root  pruning  and  summer  pruning  of 
the  top. 

The  remedy  is  fertilization  which  will 
prolong  the  life  of  the  tree.  A  tree  that 
bears  excessively  from  year  to  year  is  not 
long-lived.  We  are  generally  anxio\is  that 
our  trees  should  bear  heavily,  but  to 
overbear  shortens  the  life  of  the  tree, 
while  lack  of  bearing  quality  reduces  the 
profit  derived  from  it. 

Because  of  these  facts  the  habit  of  thin- 
ning the  fruit  to  the  desired  amount  has 
become  prevalent,  and  if  the  crop  cannot 
be  regulated  by  fertilization  and  pruning, 
thinning  becomes  a  very  important  opera- 
tion. In  fact,  a  certain  amount  of  thin- 
ning is  advantageous  in  any  case,  because 
even  when  the  general  crop  is  not  heavy 
two  or  more  apples  will  form  on  one 
fruit  spur  and  so  crowd  each  other  that 
neither  one  becomes  a  perfect  or  market- 
able apple.  It  is  a  good  rule  to  permit  but 
one  apple  to  develop  on  a  single  spur. 
This  avoids  crowding  and  at  the  same 
time  prevents  the  breaking  of  the  limbs 
and  the  necessity  for  propping  the  trees. 
Gr.\xville  Lowther 

Orerbearinff  in  .Vrkansas 

Trees  here,  especially  the  Ben  Davis, 
our    main    variety,    have    a    tendency    to 


overbear.  Limbs  which  had  snapped 
under  the  load  the  past  season  were  often 
numerous  in  orchards.  The  limbs  are  fre- 
quently not  removed  until  the  following 
spring,  and  in  the  case  of  smaller  ones 
often  escape  attention  altogether.  Not 
infrequently  examples  were  seen  of  fatal 
fungus  diseases  attacking  such  limbs, 
and  passing  from  the  broken  to  the  main 
limbs.  Allowing  such  limbs  to  remain  is 
rather  a  defect  of  human  nature  than  of 
practice,  as  is  also  the  condition  which 
first  caused  the  breaking.  Many  hold  to 
the  belief  that  a  tree  ought  to  be  able 
to  carry  to  maturity  all  the  fruit  it  sets; 
and  doubtless  the  basis  of  this  belief  is 
that  a  dollar  in  the  pocket  is  worth  the 
promise  of  two  next  year.  But  this  is 
short-sighted.  An  apple  orchard  should 
continue  to  be  a  profitable  investment  for 
25  years  at  least*  Overbearing  not  only 
so  weakens  the  trees  as  to  result  in  "off 
years"  and  causes  mutilation  of  the  trees 
and  disease,  but  is  particularly  trying 
here  where  close  planting  is  so  common, 
where  supplementary  fertilizing  of  or- 
chards is  often  neglected,  and  where  trees 
loaded  with  fruit  have  the  root  louse 
regularly  to  contend  with,  and  often 
"smart"  touches  of  drought  thrown  in  at 
the  time  they  are  heavy  with  fruit. 
Aside  from  this  there  is  a  great  loss  in 
the  proportion  of  first  grade  apples.  There 
may  be  over-production  of  poor  fruit,  but 
hardly  of  first  grade  apples  where  the 
facilities  for  transportation  to  good  mar- 
kets are  at  hand,  and  those  markets  eas- 
ily accessible.  Aside  from  the  demand, 
first  grade  fruit  tends  to  increase  the 
consumption  and  enlarges  the  market. 
And  lastly,  preservation  of  the  "hen  that 
lays  the  golden  egg"  is  business,  and 
money  in  the  pocket.  The  proper  care 
and  preservation  of  orchards  tends  to 
cheapen  the  production  of  first-class  fruit, 
by  stopping  a  number  of  big  leaks,  helps 
the  market  by  enabling  us  to  supply  its 
wants  at  a  reduced  figure,  with  an  equal 
profit  to  the  producer.  And  such  is  in- 
variably the  testimony  of  the  best  fruit 


*  We  think  an  apple  nrchard  well  located, 
with  a  deep  rich  soil,  well  cultivated,  sprayed 
and  pruned,  should  live  and  bear  for  100  years. 
—Ed. 


310 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


growers.     As   a   writer   has   said,   a  man 
can  make  $10  a  day  tliinning  liis  fruit. 
Ernest  Walker. 

FayettevilU'.  Ark. 

Spraying  Results  iu  >"eeds  for  Thinning 

A  new  problem  promptly  presents  itself 
along  with  the  first  results  of  thorough 
work  in  spraying  —  overloading  of  the 
trees  with  fruit.  The  trees  set  and  per- 
sistently retain,  oftentimes,  twice,  thrice 
or  four  times  the  number  of  apples  that 
they  can  mature.  Where  these  conditions 
occur  there  is  no  work  that  will  pay  bet- 
ter returns  than  carefully  thinning  the 
fruit.  A  surplus  apple  or  a  defective  ap- 
ple should  be  considered  as  a  "weed  ap- 
ple," as  it  will  not  only  be  worthless  it- 
self, but  will  prevent  the  fullest  devel- 
opment of  the  perfect  apples  which  it 
crowds.  It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  relieve 
overloaded  trees  by  removing  the  defec- 
tive apples  and  thinning  those  remaining 
until  they  hang  from  six  to  eight  inches 
apart.  The  total  quantity  in  bushels,  at 
picking  time,  will  not  be  appreciably  les- 
sened, because  individual  specimens  of 
the  smaller  number  of  apples  will  attain 
much  larger  size. 

In  addition  to  the  profitable  results 
of  thinning,  so  far  as  the  size  and  quality 
of  the  fruit  is  concerned,  the  effect  is  very 
beneficial  to  the  trees  in  various  ways,  as- 
sisting them  materially  in  retaining 
health  and  vigor  and  promoting  in  a 
greater  or  lesser  degree  a  regularity  of 
crop  production. 

F.  H.  B.\i.Loi'. 
Wooster.    Ohio. 

>vil|    It   Vayl 

Most  mature  apple  trees  have  a  tend- 
ency to  overbear  and  during  recent  years 
it  has  been  demonstrated  that  it  pays  to 
remove  a  half  or  two-thirds  of  the  apples 
on  all  heavily  loaded  trees.  Surplus  ap- 
ples may  be  regarded  as  weeds.  They 
are  of  not  much  value  in  themselves  and 
restrict  the  growth  of  others.  Thinning 
does  not  necessarily  reduce  the  yield,  but 
on  the  contrary  greatly  increases  the 
yield  of  first-grade  fruit.  Besides  that 
of  improving  the  size  and  quality  of  the 
fruit  there  are  several  reasons  why  a  tree 
should  be  thinned.    There  is  a  great  drain 


Fig.  1.  A  .Small  Branch  Bearins  Ten  Apples. 
This  number  should  bo  reduced  by  half,  leav- 
ing the  apples  spaced  somewhat  as  shown  in 
the  figure  to  tlae  right.  The  same  branch 
after  live  apples  have  been  removed.  These 
apples  were  allowed  to  become  too  large  be- 
fore thinning. 

on  the  vitality  of  a  tree  in  the  maturing 
of  so  many  individuals.  Each  apple  has 
its  supply  of  seeds,  and  these  form  the 
most  concentrated  part  of  the  fruit.  By 
removing  one-half  of  the  apples  we  relieve 
the  tree  of  the  necessity  of  maturing  half 
the  seeds  and  in  doing  so  we  do  not  re- 
duce the  crop  of  fruit.  By  relieving  the 
strain  upon  a  tree  during  the  growing 
season,  the  fruit  buds  for  the  following 
year  are  likely  to  be  better  developed, 
and  it  is  believed  also  that  thinning  tends 
to  encourage  the  annual  bearing  habit. 
Thinning  lessens  the  loss  from  the  break- 
ing of  limbs  and  gives  the  grower  an  op- 
portunity to  destroy  insect-infected  fruit 
and  thus  reduce  the  number  of  insects 
for  the  following  season. 

The  common  objection  to  thinning  is 
the  time  it  takes.  There  is  no  weight  to 
such  an  argument  for  there  is  only  a  cer- 
tain  number  of  apples  to  be  picked  and 


APPLES 


311 


it  costs  no  more  to  pick  them  in  Jime 
than  it  does  in  September  or  October. 
In  fact,  it  is  much  easier  to  do  the  work 
at  thinning  time  for  the  fruit  may  simply 
be  thrown  upon  the  .ciround  and  raked 
up.  A  good  man  should  thin  eight  to  ten 
good  sized  trees  in  a  day. 

When  and  How  to  Tliiii 

The  worlv  should  commence  tlie  latter 
part  of  June  or  the  first  of  .July.  The 
defective  and  wormy  specimens  are  first 
removed.  Sometimes  the  thinner  carries 
a  bag  over  his  shoulder  for  the  wormy 
apples,  but  this  is  not  necessary  if  all  the 
thinned  apples  are  afterward  raked  up 
and  destroyed.  The  thinner  next  relieves 
the  crowding.  As  a  rule  no  more  than 
one  apple  should  be  left  on  a  single  fruit 
spur,  and  those  on  the  tips  of  the  branches 
usually  should  be  removed,  for  they  sel- 
dom make  first  grade  fruit.  The  result 
should  be  that  the  remaining  apples  are 
about  six  inches  apart.  Some  of  the 
smaller  sized  varieties  may  be  left  closer 
and  some  of  the  larger  growing  sorts 
should  be  given  more  room.  Some  vari- 
eties seldom  need  thinning  and  there  are 
others  that  habitually  overbear. 

Tliiiinintr  the  Winesap 

-The  Winesap  ap]ile.  as  a  rule,  does  not 
(in  Colorado!  attain  sufficient  size  to 
meet  the  requirements  for  packing  in  the 
higher  grades.  This  is  especially  true  of 
heavil.v  loaded  old  trees.  It  is  not  a  "shy" 
bearer,  but  has  a  tendency  to  bear  a  heavy 
crop  every  year. 

Does  Thiuuiiig:  Pay  J 
It  often  happens  that  the  fruit  grower 
does  not  like  to  do  a  thing  unless  he  is 
sure  that  he  will  get  quick  returns  for 
his  labor.  He  so  often  does  not  look 
far  enough  into  the  future  to  regulate  and 
manage  certain  factors  over  which  he 
may  have  control  that  would  Insure  fu- 
ture returns  which  would  more  than  pay 
for  any  extra  effort  that  he  might  put 
forth.  From  this  standpoint  it  is  neces- 
sary to  consider  other  phases  than  that 
of  the  net  returns  of  a  single  year,  to 
tell  whether  or  not  thinning  pays.  These 
may   be   stated   as   follows: 

1.     .Maintaining  the  vigor  of  the  trees. 


2.  Securing  annual  crops  instead  of  al- 
ternate. 

3.  To  be  able  to  produce  fruit  of  maxi- 
mum  size,  color  and   quality. 

^Uaiiituliiiiiti!:  the   Yigor 

This  is  a  very  important  factor,  for 
any  fruit  tree  when  injured  or  impaired 
in  an.v  manner,  will  not  be  able  so  suc- 
cessfully to  resist  insect,  fungus  and  freez- 
ing effects. 

Thinning  annually  and  uniformly  will 
have  much  to  do  in  preserving  this  vital- 
ity.    *     *     * 

The  breaking  down  of  limbs  is  the  re- 
sult of  overbearing  and  can  only  be 
avoided  by  either  propping  or  pruning 
and  thinning.  We  firmly  believe  that 
props  have  no  place  in  an  orchard  and 
when  used  are  only  a  sign  of  very  poor 
orchard  management.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  pruning  has  a  very  important  place 
in  orchard  management  and  should  not, 
by  any  means,  be  neglected.  Especially 
is  this  true  for  the  young  trees.  If  a 
tree  is  properly  pruned  every  year  from 
the  time  it  is  set  out,  the  amount  of  prun- 
ing can  be  decreased  somewhat  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  tree  when  it 
has  become  full-grown.  The  word  full- 
grown  is  used  more  or  less  arbitrarily, 
but  generally  conveys  the  idea  that  the 
tree  is  capable  of  bearing  a  full  crop. 
Some  think  that  every  apple  tree  can  be 
thinned  enotigh  with  the  pruning  shears 
in  the  winter  time,  thereby  doing  away 
with  the  necessity  of  thinning  by  hand 
in  the  summer.  These  people  forget  that 
the  plant  food  that  goes  to  make  and  ma- 
ture the  apple  is  manufactured  by  the 
leaves  and  not  the  roots  of  the  tree.  Keep 
a  tree  defoliated  in  the  summer  for  any 
length  of  time  and  you  will  kill  it.  It 
is  not  best  to  obtain  all  of  the  leaf  sur- 
face possible,  as  would  be  the  case  with 
an  unpruned  tree,  for  this  would  mean 
wood  growth  at  the  expense  of  fruit,  and 
a  greater  amount  of  hand  thinning. 
There  would  also  be  too  much  shade  for 
the  fruit  and  a  poor  color  would  be  the 
result.  A  well  balanced  and  well  cared 
for  tree,  bearing  a  good  crop  of  uniform 
sized    apples    every    year   will    retain    its 


*  K.    R.    Bennett.    Storrs.    Conn..    Experiment 
Station    Report,    1903. 


312 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICL'LTURE 


vigor,  while  a  tree  allowed  to  bear, an 
enormous  crop  one  year  and  none  the 
next  may  suffer  the  consequences  of  over- 
production. 

Securing'  Annual  Crops  Instead  of 
Alternate 

A  tree  will  produce  quantity  at  the  ex- 
pense of  quality,  and  at  the  same  time 
utilize  plant  food  that  should  be  used  in 
making  the  fruit  buds  for  the  next  year's 
bloom.  The  law  of  Nature  is  to  reproduce 
its  kind  and  it  tends  to  do  it  even  at  the 
expense  of  the  welfare  of  the  tree.  An- 
nual thinning  tends  to  throw  a  tree  into 
annual  bearing.  When  a  tree  has  been 
in  the  habit  of  bearing  alternate  crops,  it 
may  take  some  time  to  induce  it  to  bear 


every  year  by  thinning.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  in  the  orchard  where  this 
experiment  was  carried  on  that  by  annual 
thinning  the  Jonathan  can  be  made  to 
bloom  well  every  year. 

Frnit  of  Maximnm  Size,  Color  and 
Qnality 

The  total  averages,  as  given  in  the  table 
found  in  the  different  grades,  illustrates 
the  points  of  size  and  color,  for  apples 
have  to  be  of  a  certain  size  and  a  certain 
color  to  be  packed  In  the  first  two  grades. 
The  following  table  illustrates  the  com- 
parative values  of  the  different  grades. 
The  culls  were  selling  at  the  cannery  and 
evaporator  at  $7  per  ton,  or  the  equal  of 
$0,17.5  per  50-pound  box. 


Ex.  F. 
Boxes 

at  $1.75 

Ex.  C. 
Boxes 

at  $1.50 

Standard 

Boxes 

at  $0.85 

Cull              p,„  .    f 

Boxes           T^ostof 

at  $0.75     I    Thinnmg 

Thinned 

Unthinned 

5,34=$9.35 
2.5  =.$4.38 
Gain=«4.97 

3.07=$4.61 
1      =$1.50 
Gain=$3.11 

3.2  =$2.72 
9      =$7.65 
Loss=$4.93 

1.11=$0.19 
5.08=$0.89 
Loss=$0.70 

$0.64 

Thinned 

Loss=$6.64 

$8.08— $6.23=$1.85,  total  gain  per  tree. 


When  trees  are  set  16x32  feet,  there  are 
85  to  the  acre.  A  gain  of  $1.85  per  tree 
would  make  a  total  gain  of  $157.25  to  the 
acre. 

This  seems  strong  evidence  that  thin- 
ning the  Winesap  gives  large  returns  for 
time  and  labor  expended.  The  above  fig- 
ures are  conservative  in  at  least  two  re- 
spects: First.  Many  of  the  windfalls 
which  were  counted  as  culls  could  never 
have  been  sold  for  any  purpose;  espe- 
cially was  this  true  of  the  early  dropped 
windfalls.  Also  there  is  much  doubt  as 
to  whether  the  amount  received  for  the 
culls  would  have  paid  for  the  extra  labor 
required  in  picking,  hauling  and  sorting. 
Second.  The  extra  amount  of  time  that 
it  took  to  grade  the  apples  from  the  un- 
thinned trees  for  packing  was  consider- 
able. These  two  expenses  would  alone 
almost  offset  the  cost  of  thinning.  Uni- 
formity of  size  was  very  characteristic 
of  the  apples  from  the  thinned  trees,  while 
the  apples  from  the  unthinned  ones  were 
of  all   sizes. 

Better  colored   fruit  was  always   found 


on  the  thinned  trees  than  on  the  un- 
thinned, due  largely  to  the  fact  that  the 
fruit  on  the  unthinned  trees  was  crowded 
and  consequently  more  or  less  shaded. 

The  lessened  percentage  of  wormy  ap- 
ples, due  to  picking  and  destroying  the 
apples  infested  by  the  first  brood  of 
worms,  would  probably  be  a  saving  suf- 
ficient to  largely  bear  the  expense  of  thin- 
ning. 

How  to  Thin 

Study  each  tree  individually  and  thin 
so  that  at  picking  time  the  tree  will  hold 
up  well  under  a  load  of  uniform,  good 
sized  and  well  colored  apples.  It  takes 
experience  and  study  to  get  the  very  best 
results  from  thinning. 

The  experiment  indicates  that  best  re- 
sults in  thinning  the  Winesap  can  be  at- 
tained when  the  apples  are  thinned  to  a 
distance  of  from  nine  to  ten  inches.  It 
is  well  to  commence  at  the  top  of  the 
tree  and  work  down.  Perhaps,  if  there 
is  any  difference  in  distance  to  be  made, 
it  would  be  better  to  thin  the  apples  on 
the  lower  limbs  next  to  the  trunk  of  the 


APPLES 


313 


tree  a  little  farther  apart  on  account  of 
beins  more  shade  in  this  part  of  a  tree. 
Although  some  shade  is  a  good  thing,  as 
it  prevents  sun-scalded  fruit,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  have  too  much. 

A  very  good  type  of  thinning  shears  is 
shown  in  the  cut.  Take  off  all  terminal 
branches  on  long,  slender  branches  and 
break  all  doubles.  Take  off  all  wormy 
apples  and  all  those  that  are  much 
smaller  than  the  average.  Take  off  all 
limb-bruised  or  badly  frost  marked  ap- 
ples, and  also  those  that  are  liable  to  be- 
come limb-bruised  as  they  grow  in  size. 
Leave  the  apples  in  singles  and  in  such 
a   position   that   they   can   have   the   best 


Fig.   1.     A  Good  T.vpe  of  Thinnins  Shears. 

chance  to  grow  in  size,  color  and  uni- 
formity, and  be  as  free  as  possible  from 
blemish. 

There  is  another  phase  of  thinning  that 
would  help,  and  that  is  the  cutting  out  of 
every  other  tree  in  rows  that  have  the 
trees  so  close  together  that  they  are 
crowding  each  other.  Trees,  when 
crowded,  are  bound  to  grow  upward  rath- 
er than  outward,  and  if  let  alone  will,  ia 
a  little  while,  have  most  of  the  fruit 
bearing  wood  in  the  tops.  This  is  truer 
of  peaches,  perhaps,  than  of  apples,  never- 
theless apple  trees  when  crowded  cannot 
do  as  well  as  when  they  have  plenty  of 
room.  For  this  reason  it  is  necessary  to 
cut  out  every  other  tree  in  the  row,  or 
the  alternates  in  every  row.  this  depend- 
ing on  the  way  and  the  distance  the  trees 
are  set. 

Conclnsion 

1.  That  thinning  of  the  mature  Wine- 
sap  tree  pays  in  money  returns  the  first 
year. 

R.  S.  Herrick, 
Fort  Collins,  Colo. 

FEBTILIZATIOX 

Liniitine'  Factors 

1.  Fertilizers  are  but  one  of  many  fac- 
tors that  affect  success  in  orcharding. 
Among  the  others  are  soil,  location,  vari- 


eties,   cultural   methods,   thinning,    spray- 
ing, pruning  and  general  orchard  care. 

2.  The  weakest  factors  largely  control 
and  limit  the  crop  and  through  them  it 
can  be  affected.  Consequently  the  value 
of  attention  to  any  factor  is  essentially 
proportional  to  its  need.  In  general, 
therefore,  applications  of  plant  food  will 
be  of  most  value  when  it  is  the  limiter. 
In  the  presence  of  other  still  weaker 
factors  its  effect  may  be  wholly  lost. 

3.  The  best  orchard  treatment  probably 
consists  in  the  discovery  of  crop-limiters, 
their  elevation  to  the  level  of  the  other 
factors,  and  the  maintenance  of  a  prop- 
erly balanced  treatment  thereafter. 

4.  The  recognition  of  plant  food  as  a 
limiter  is  often  difiicult  and  the  fact  is 
liest  determined  by  trial.  Its  need,  how- 
ever, may  be  indicated  by  the  trees  being 
deficient  in  growth,  foliage  or  fruit  after 
the  other  factors  are  apparently  right. 
Under  such  conditions  the  addition  of 
manures  and  fertilizers  has  yielded  most 
abundant  results. 

5.  Nitrogen  is  apparently  of  much 
greater  value  in  apple  orchards  than  is 
generally  supposed.  Its  addition  has 
greatly  increased  the  quantity  of  fruit. 
Many  failures  with  potash  and  phosphates 
have  doubtless  been  due  to  a  deficient 
nitrogen  supply.  It  should  be  used  ju- 
diciously, however,  because  of  an  indi- 
rect reduction  in  color,  and  sometimes 
also  in  size  of  the  fruit.  It  can  be  used 
most  freel.v  on  the  earlier  soils  or  in  lo- 
calities  with   long   growing  seasons. 

6.  Nitrogen  may  be  secured  in  stable 
manure,  cover  crops,  or  in  commercial 
forms.  If  applied  in  very  soluble  forms, 
especially  on  leachy  soils,  the  time  of  ap- 
plication must  be  right.  This  is  probably 
somewhat  after  petal-fall,  when  the  stored 
food  is  exhausted  and  the  need  is  greatest. 

7.  In  general,  where  plant  food  is 
needed,  phosphate  and  potash  should  also 
be  supplied.  This  prevents  their  becom- 
ing limiters  in  turn,  and  may  also  check 
some  of  the  ill  effects  of  nitrogen  on  the 
appearance   of  the   fruit. 

8.  Both  lime  and  "floats."  when  ap- 
plied alone,  have  thus  far  failed  to  show 
any   marked    beneficial    effects. 

9.  None    of   the    fertilizers    applied    in 


314 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


our  work  have  shown  any  consistent  abil- 
ity to  improve  color  or  size  of  fruit.  Color 
is  doubtless  chiefly  dependent  upon  ma- 
turity in  sunlight,  while  average  size  is 
apparently  mainly  dependent  upon  the 
amount  of  moisture  available  per  indi- 
vidual  fruit. 

10.  Our  present  general  recommenda- 
tion of  fertilizer  for  apples  in  this  state. 
In  amounts  per  acre,  is  the  following 
combination:  30  pounds  of  actual  nitro- 
gen. 60  to  75  pounds  of  actual  phosphoric 
acid  (P,0.-.),  and  50  pounds  of  actual 
potash  (KoO).  This  may  well  be  supple- 
mented by  cover  crops,  through  which  all 
the  nitrogen  may  be  obtained,  and  alter- 
nated with  stable  manure  at  the  rate  of 
about  10  tons  per  acre  at  least  every 
third   or   fourth   year. 

11.  Proper  moisture  conditions  are  es- 
sential to  the  securing  of  best  results 
from  fertilizers.  In  most  jjlaces  moisture 
conservation  is  best  accomplished  by  the 
soil  or  dust  mulch  maintained  by  fre- 
quent tillage.  Where  tillage  is  advisable, 
it  can  also  be  done  very  satisfactorily 
with  a  good  mulch  of  foreign  materials, 
such  as  straw,  chaff,  leaves,  manure  or 
dead   weeds. 

12.  Leguminous  crops  apparently  make 
less  draft  upon  soil  moisture  than  the 
grasses  or  cereals.  This,  together  with 
their  favorable  nitrogen  relations,  makes 
them  decidedly  preferable  to  the  latter  in 
apple  orchards,  whether  used  as  inter- 
crops, cover  crops,  or  permanent  covers 
in  connection  with  a  mulch. 

13.  Accompanying       the       fertilization 


above,  a  good  plan  of  soil  management 
for  many  situations  is  tillage  with  a 
leguminous  cover  crop  while  the  orchard 
is  young,  followed  by  a  mixed  grass  and 
leguminous  sod-mulch  when  bearing  age 
and  size  is  reached.  After  the  bearing 
habit  is  established,  a  return  to  tillage 
at  least  every  second  or  third  year  should 
be  made,  increasing  the  frequency  of  till- 
age with  the  age  of  the  orchard  and  the 
demands  of  the  fruit. 

14.  Current  orchard  practice  may  be 
improved  by  the  owners  adopting  the 
methods  apparently  best  for  their  or- 
chards as  a  whole,  and  then  maintaining 
some  parts  for  experimentally  determin- 
ing whether  the  methods  chosen  are  really 
best  for  their  conditions. 

JoHX  P.  Stewart. 

The     Pennsylvania     State     College     Experiment 
Station. 

Soil  Constituents   Removed  1))   tlie  Apple 

One  of  the  most  natural  questions 
which  arises  when  considering  the  sub- 
ject of  fertilizing  an  orchard  is.  What  soil 
constituents  are  removed  by  the  apple  and 
in  what  proportions?  An  answer  to  this 
question,  together  with  an  analysis  of  the 
particular  soil  under  consideration,  will 
give  the  clue  to  the  fertilizing  needs  of 
that  particular  orchard. 

Composition  of  Fruit 

The  general  composition,  viz.,  the  per- 
centage of  water,  organic  matter  and  ash 
which  make  up  the  whole,  and  the  amount 
of  nitrogen,  are  given  for  the  four  vari- 
eties examined  in  the  following  tabulated 
form: 


Name  or  Variety  of  A|iplp 

Duchess  of  Oldenburg 

Wealthy 

Fameuse 

Northern  Spy 

Average 


Water 

Organic 
Matter 

Ash 

Nitrogen 

88.61 

11.14 

.25 

.0382 

87.00 

12.71 

.29 

.0375 

85.22 

14.46 

.32 

.0512 

87.08 

12.65 

.27 

.0445 

86.98 

12,74 

.28 

.0428 

APPLES 
Percentage  of  Important  Constituents  in  Ash 


315 


Name  of  Variety  of 
Apple 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Soda 

Oxide 
of  Iron 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Silica 

Duchess  of  Oldenburg 

8.90 

53.67 

3.28 

1.77 

5.80 

5.20 

.36 

Wealthy 

8.15 

57.00 

2.65 

1  76 

3.33 

3,84 

.63 

Fameuse i 

7.19 

56.25 

2.56 

1  26 

3.55 

4.03 

.32 

Northern  Spy 

11.68 

54.11 

1.94 

2.13 

3.86 

3.99 

1.11 

Average 

8.98 

55.26 

2.61 

1.72 

4.38 

4.27 

.60 

In  this  table  the  composition  of  the 
ash  In  detail  is  given.  Of  its  components, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  the  prin- 
cipal. The  latter  constitutes  over  half  of 
the  ash  (55.26  per  cent),  while  the  for- 
mer is  about  9  per  cent,  the  average  being 
8.98  per  cent. 

No  great  differences  between  the  vari- 
eties are  here  to  be  noticed,  though  the 
Northern  Spy  presents  some  striking  va- 
riations from  the  average.  Its  ash  con- 
tains nearly  3  per  cent  more  phosphoric 
acid,  nearly  1  per  cent  less  soda,  about 
.5  per  cent  more  silica  than  the  ash  of 
the  other  apples. 

The  ratio  of  the  potash  to  the  ])hos- 
phoric  acid  in  the  ash  of  the  fruit  is  0 
to  1 :  in  the  ash  of  the  old  leaves  it  is  2 
to  1.  Relatively,  therefore,  the  demands 
of  the   leaf  and   the   fruit   on   the   soil   of 


these  two  constituents  are  very  different. 
It  might  here  be  remarked  that  the 
greater  quantity  of  the  ash  ingredients 
of  the  fruit  is  contained  in  the  seeds  and 
walls  of  the  ovary,  comparatively  little 
being  found  in  the  flesh  of  the  apple. 

A  comparison  of  this  table  with  that 
showing  the  composition  of  the  ash  in 
the  leaf,  will  reveal  further  interesting 
features.  The  total  percentages  of  ash  in 
similar  weights  of  leaf  and  fruit,  are  as 
3.46  to  .28.  Lime  is  much  more  abundant 
in  the  ash  of  the  leaf,  while  magnesia, 
oxide  of  iron  and  silica  are  about  the 
same,  taking  the  older  leaves  for  com- 
parison. 

For  the  purpose  of  a  practical  presenta- 
tion of  the  subject,  the  data  presented  in 
the  following  table  have  been  prepared: 


Weight  of  Important  Fertilizing  Constituents  Withdrawn  from  the  Soil 


i 

Average  ; 

weight 

per 

bushel  in 

pounds 

Nitr 

Lbs.  per 

barrel 

ogen 

Lbs.  per 
acre,  or 

160 
barrels 

Phospho 

ric  Acid 

Potash 

Name  of  Variety  of 
Apple 

Lbs.  per 
barrel 

Lbs.  per 
acre,  or 

160 
barrels 

Lbs.  per 
barrel 

Lbs.  per 
acre,  or 

160 
barrels 

Duchess  of  Oldenburg 

44 

.046 

7.359 

.027 

4.307 

.162 

25.975 

Wealthy :. 

50 

.057 

8.220 

.032 

5.181 

.226 

36.232 

Fameuse 

50 

.070 

11  223 

.031 

5  043 

.256 

39.456 

Northern  Spy 

46 

.056 

9.006 

.039 

6.383 

.185 

29.570 

Average 

47.5 

.0.57 

S'J52 

.032 

5.228 

.217 

32.880 

316 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Note. — In  the  above  calculations  the 
following  data  are  used:  Forty  trees  per 
acre  in  an  orchard  25  years  old  yield,  on 
an  average,  one  hundred  and  sixty  (160) 
barrels.  One  barrel  contains  two  bushels 
and  three  pecks. 

We  have  here  the  number  of  pounds  of 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  es- 
timated as  contained  in  one  barrel  of  the 
fruit,  and  the  amounts  removed  per  acre 
by  a  good  crop.  None  of  the  quantities 
are  at  all  excessive,  and  the  cost  of  re- 
turning them  would  not  be  great.  The 
largest  demand  is  on  the  potash  in  the 
soil;  next  comes  the  nitrogen,  and  lastly 
the  phosphoric  acid.  In  the  case  of  the 
leaves,  the  nitrogen  stood  first. 

For  the  vigorous  development  of  the 
tree  and  an  abundant  crop  of  fruit,  the 
soil  must  contain  these  constituents  in  a 
more  or  less  immediately  available  con- 
dition. It  is  for  this  reason,  as  well  as 
to  replace  the  exhausted  plant  food,  that 
fertilizers  are  necessary  to  profitable 
apple  growing. 

Tiitrogen 

To  supply  nitrogen,  some  organic  ma- 
nure is  perhaps  the  most  economical. 
Barnyard  manure  or  the  turning  under 
a  leguminous  crop  (the  latter  being  rich 
in  nitrogen)  are  to  be  recommended.  Be- 
sides adding  nitrogen,  they  furnish  hu- 
mus or  decaying  vegetable  matter,  which 
serves  a  useful  function  by  liberating 
carbonic  acid,  and  which  in  turn  sets 
free  locked-up  forms  of  mineral  food. 
Humus,  moreover,  has  much  to  do  in 
bringing  about  good  tilth  and  in  the  re- 
tention of  soil  moisture.  As  the  period  of 
growth  and  fruit  development  In  the  ap- 
ple is  comparatively  long,  organic  ma- 
nures in  most  instances  will  probably 
give  better  returns  than  those  containing 
more  soluble  forms  of  nitrogen,  such  as 
nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia. 

Potash  and  Pliospliorio  .Void 

To  furnish  potash  and  phosphoric  acid, 
we  would  first  mention  wood  ashes.  In 
many  parts  of  the  country  they  are  the 
cheapest  form  in  which  to  purchase  these 
constituents.  Moreover,  they  possess  them 
in  the   relative  proportion   best  suited   to 


tree     requirements     and     in     a    condition 
that  renders  them  easily  available. 

If  wood  ashes  are  not  obtainable,  kainit 
and  muriate  of  potash  may  be  substituted 
to  supply  potash;  and  bone  meal  and  sup- 
erphosphate, the  phosphoric  acid.  Bone 
meal  contains  two  per  cent  to  three  per 
cent  of  nitrogen,  in  addition  to  the  phos- 
phoric acid,  but  requires  a  greater  length 
of  time  in  the  ground  to  give  up  its  con- 
stituents: its  effects  naturally  last  longer. 
For  this  very  reason  it  is  often  advocated 
for  orchard  fertilization. 

Both  wood  ashes  and  bone  meal  furnish 
lime,  which  we  have  seen  to  be  a  neces- 
sary and  somewhat  important  element. 

Soils  differ  so  much  in  composition 
that  it  is  impossible  to  state  definitely 
the  amounts  of  these  fertilizers  that 
should  be  employed  in  all  cases.  The 
wants  of  the  tree  for  fruit  and  leaves 
have  been  given  and  the  principles  for  an 
economical  return  of  these  requirements 
indicated.  In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  best  and  most  profitable  crops 
can  be  obtained  only  when  the  soil  con- 
tains what  might  be  thought  to  be  a  large 
amount  of  plant  food,  the  greater  part  of 
which  is  more  or  less  assimilable.  A 
.good  tilth,  among  other  advantages,  tends 
to  a  good  root  development.  In  such  the 
rootlets  are  able  to  procure  food  from  a 
much  larger  area  than  otherwise;  but  in 
every  orchard,  owing  to  the  disposition  of 
the  roots,  there  must  of  necessity  be 
much  unoccupied  soil,  and  hence  the  im- 
portance of  supplying  liberally  and  in  ex- 
cess of  that  which  is  absolutely  needed 
for  a  season's  growth  and  fruit,  those 
forms  of  plant  food  which  we  have  been 
considering. 

About  200  pounds  of  ground  bone  and 
200  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash,  applied 
annually  to  bearing  orchards  should  fur- 
nish an  abundant  supply  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash. 

Leaves  in  proportion  to  their  weight 
contain  a  much  larger  amount  of  plant 
food  than  the  fruit.  The  amount  con- 
tained in  1,000  pounds  of  leaves  gathered 
in  September  was  8.87  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen. 1.94  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  3.92 
pounds  of  potash,  this  being  the  average 
of  five  varieties  analysed. 


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317 


Although  there  is  a  great  similarity  in 
composition  in  the  varieties  examined, 
and  none  differ  much  from  the  average 
deduced  from  them  all,  it  is  of  interest 
to  note  that  the  Fameuse  is  the  richest  in 
organic  matter,  in  ash  constituents  and 
iu  nitrogen.  The  Wealthy  and  Northern 
Spy  contain  almost  identical  amounts  of 
organic  matter  and  ash,  and  the  Duchess 
of  Oldenburg  has  the  largest  percentage 
of  organic  matter  and  ash. 

F.  T.  Shutt. 
Chemist  of  the  Dominion  Experimental   Farms. 

Sign  of  Need 

As  to  the  indications  when  a  bearing 
orchard  needs  stimulating,  the  eminent 
pomologist.  Doctor  Warder,  once  said: 
"When  the  growth  of  the  terminal 
branches  fails  to  make  an  annual  exten- 
sion of  at  least  one  foot  in  length,  the 
tree  should  be  stimulated  by  manuring 
the  land  and  giving  it  thorough  cultiva- 
tion." 

For  ToTiiii?  Orchards 

The  young  orchard  will  require  just 
enough  feeding  to  keep  it  growing,  and 
the  amount  of  manurial  elements  ap- 
plied should  increase  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  trees.  It  is  difficult  to 
give  any  definite  information  on  this 
point,  for  so  much  depends  upon  the 
character  of  the  soil,  the  method  of  man- 
agement, and  the  character  of  the  crops 
grown  between  the  trees.  For  the  first 
year,  just  after  planting,  about  two 
ounces  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  two  ounces 
of  muriate  or  sulphate  of  potash  may  be 
scattered  around  each  tree,  and  a  gen- 
eral application  of  about  400  pounds  of 
basic  slag  and  300  pounds  of  raw  ground 
bone  per  acre,  scattered  over  the  whole 
area.  The  following  year  the  basic  slag 
may  be  omitted  and  the  nitrate  of  soda 
and  sulphate  of  potash  doubled.  The 
third  and  subsequent  years,  if  a  cover- 
crop  is  turned  under  and  the  trees  are 
making  satisfactory  growth,  the  nitrate  of 
soda  may  be  omitted  and  a  general  ap- 
plication given  consisting  of  200  pounds 
of  sulphate  of  potash  and  300  pounds  of 
raw  ground  bone,  to  the  acre.  If  at  any 
time  the  cover  crop  should  fail,  an  appli- 
cation of  about  100  pounds  to  the  acre  of 


nitrate  of  soda  may  need  to  be  applied. 
It  is  believed  that  in  the  past  too  much 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  use  of  ni- 
trogenous fertilizers  for  young  trees,  and 
that  if  more  attention  is  given  to  the 
mineral  elements  the  trees  are  likely  to 
commence  bearing  earlier.  The  use  of 
lime  has  also  become  necessary  on  many 
soils,  and  for  this  reason  an  occasional 
application  of  basic  slag,  which  contains 
a  large  proportion  of  lime,  may  be  sub- 
stituted  for  the   raw  ground  bone. 

While  these  suggestions  and  recom- 
mendations concerning  fertilization  may 
prove  valuable  for  certain  soils  and  con- 
ditions, there  are  undoubtedly  many  spe- 
cial cases  where  such  advice  would  be  of 
no  value  and  may  be  entirely  misleading. 
On  many  soils  heavy  applications  of  any 
one  element  of  plant  food  may  be  un- 
necessary. A  soil  that  fails  to  respond 
to  the  application  of  any  particular  kind 
of  plant  food,  is  probably  well  supplied 
with  that  element.  For  these  reasons, 
each  grower  should  determine  by  experi- 
ment the  peculiar  fertilizer  requirements 
of  his  soil.  * 

Feedinia:  the  Apple  Tree 

Of  all  the  intricate  problems  relating  to 
orchard  management,  that  of  feeding  the 
apple  tree  is  probably  the  most  perplex- 
ing. To  a  large  proportion  of  the  New 
England  farmers  this  problem  has  never 
presented  itself,  for  they  have  assumed 
that  the  orchard  did  not  require  fertiliza- 
tion. The  specialized  apple  growers  are 
just  coming  to  realize  the  peculiar  fertil- 
izer requirements  of  the  apple  and  the 
importance  of  ascertaining  the  fertilizer 
requirements  of  their  various  orchard 
lands. 

Elements  >'eeded 

In  general,  plants  require  three  ele- 
ments of  plant  food,  and  the  apple  tree  is 
no  exception.  These  elements  are  nitro- 
gen, potash,  and  phosphoric  acid.  While 
not  usually  considered  a  necessary  ele- 
ment of  plant  food,  which  must  be  sup- 
plied, lime  is  of  much  benefit  to  most 
crops  and  its  value  should  be  considered 
when    buying    fertilizers.      If    these    ele- 


*  Or    send    sample    of    soil    to    state    chemist 
for  analysis. — E<3. 


318 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


ments  are  not  in  the  soil  in  available 
form  they  must  be  applied.  It  is  not  only 
necessary  that  they  be  present  in  the 
soil,  but  they  must  be  in  a  soluble  form, 
for  in  such  form  only  can  plants  make 
use  of  them.  Some  kinds  of  fertilizers 
dissolve  readily  when  applied  to  the  soil. 
There  are  other  kinds  that  become  avail- 
able gradually  and  some  others  that  are 
so  nearly  insoluble  that  most  plants  can- 
not make  use  of  them.  The  apple,  being 
a  long  lived  crop,  can  make  use  of  the 
slow  working  fertilizers,  but  the  tendency 
among  careful  apple  growers  is  to  use  sol- 
uble fertilizers  and  apply  them  just  when 
needed.  The  experienced  apple  grower 
who  keeps  a  close  watch  of  his  trees  will 
probably  get  best  results  from  soluble  fer- 
tilizers, but  the  average  farmer  will  do 
well  to  adhere  to  the  use  of  fertilizers 
that   become  available  gradually. 

C.   D.   Jarvi.s. 
Storrs.   Conn. 

Bearing  Orchards 

The  fertilizing  of  bearing  orchards  sel- 
dom receives  adequate  attention.  Bear- 
ing trees  in  the  crops  removed  make 
heavy  drafts  on  the  elements  of  plant 
food  in  the  soil.  The  most  important 
elements  which  are  removed  are  nitro- 
gen, potash,  and  phosphoric  acid.  Rob- 
erts*, in  an  experimental  study  of  the 
question,  found  that  allowing  35  trees 
to  an  acre,  and  a  yield  of  15  bushels  to 
a  tree,  the  plant  food  removed  in  20 
crops  of  apples,  and  the  leaves  tor  the 
same  period  amounted  in  round  numbers 
to  1,337  pounds  of  nitrogen,  3in  pounds 
of  phosphoric  acid,  and  1.S95  pounds  of 
potash.  Comparing  the  amounts  used 
with  those  required  by  ordinary  wheat 
crops  (15  bushels  per  acre  and  35  pounds 
of  straw ) ,  for  an  equal  length  of  time, 
the  apples  removed  practically  three 
times  the  quantity  of  jiotash,  half  again 
as  much  phosphoric  acid,  and  twice  as 
much   nitrogen. 

The  roots  of  a  tree  are  constantly  ex- 
tending over  a  larger  area,  but  it  is  plain 
that  if  we  would  maintain  our  trees  in 
the  best  condition  and  improve  the  aver- 

•  Itoherts.  "Soil  Depletion  in  Respect  to  the 
Care  of  Ti-ees."  Cornell  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin    108. 


age  size  of   fruit  from   year  to  year,   we 
cannot   neglect   attention    to   this   matter. 

The  tendency  of  increased  feeding,  es- 
pecially in  connection  with  thinning  of 
the  fruit,  would  be  to  do  away  with  "off 
years,"  and  reduce  the  damage  due  to 
insects  and  fungi.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact 
that  vigorous  trees  do  not  suffer  from 
the  attacks  of  these  organisms  as  much 
as  those  which  have  been  more  or  less 
enfeebled  from  some  unfavorable  condi- 
tion or  circumstance.  In  good  soils  trees 
will  get  along  for  some  years,  but  after 
bearing  begins  it  is  only  a  few  years 
before  the  trees  will  begin  to  feel  the 
need  of  plant  food  to  compensate  for  that 
removed.  Of  these  nitrogen  is  most 
cheaply  supplied  by  means  of  good  tillage 
and  the  judicious  use  of  green  manures, 
like  cowpeas,  and  winter  covers  of  vetch 
and  rye.  Diminished  growth  and  pale- 
ness in  the  color  of  foliage  are  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  guides  in  determining 
the  need  of  nitrogen.  Frequently  too 
much  dependence  is  placed  on  the  vir- 
tues of  legumes  to  the  exclusion  of  appli- 
cations of  other  fertilizers.  Excess  of 
nitrogen  should  be  avoided.  There  should 
be  a  balanced  "ration."  In  the  case  of 
bearing  trees  applications  of  potash  are 
called  for;  also  of  phosphoric  acid.  Cow- 
peas  do  not  increase  the  supply  of  these 
elements  as  they  do  of  nitrogen. 

Stable  Manures 

Practical  men  report  excellent  results 
from  the  use  of  stable  manures.  There 
is  no  objection  to  their  reasonable  use  on 
apples.  Commercial  fertilizers  may  sup- 
ply the  same  manurial  elements  in  less 
bulk  and  with  relatively  greater  profit. 
But  especially  on  the  lighter  soils  humus 
is  needed,  so  it  is  well  to  make  use  of  all 
the  methods  of  supplying  the  elements 
needed.  A  good  plan  would  be  to  let 
an  application  of  stable  manure — 20  to 
25  tons  per  acre — take  the  place  of  leg- 
umes once  in  four  or  five  years.  Whether 
the  leguminous  crops  are  kept  up  annu- 
ally in  the  interval  will  depend  on  the 
needs  of  the  trees.  An  application  of 
50  to  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  per 
acre  just  before  the  growing  season  might 
be  desirable  under  conditions  where  there 


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319 


is  an  immediate  need  of  nitrogen.  Tliis 
element  is  mostly  needed  early  in  the 
season  to  provide  for  a  good  growth  of 
branch  and  root  and  abundance  of  foliage. 
An  excess,  especially  late  in  the  season, 
tends  toward  continued  growth  and  late 
maturing,  and   poorer  color  in  the  fruit. 

Quantity  Xeeded 

In  case  dependence  is  placed  on  the 
commercial  forms  of  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid,  the  conditions  will  ordinarily 
call  for  at  least  200  pounds  of  ground 
bone,  100  pounds  of  Carolina  superphos- 
phate and  100  to  200  pounds  of  muriate 
of  potash.  The  amounts  mentioned  would 
ordinaril.v  prove  moderate  applications. 
The  potash  may  he  increased  to  400  or 
500  pounds  per  acre  without  injury,  but 
of  course  large  amounts  must  not  be 
placed  immediately  about  the  roots,  es- 
pecially near  the  trunk.  The  commer- 
cial forms  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid 
tend  to  produce  a  firmer  wood  than  stable 
manures,  or  natural  fertility,  and  this 
means  less  tenderness  under  winter  con- 
ditions. The  application  should  com- 
monly be  made  previous  to  a  plowing 
when  it  will  be  mixed  with  the  soil.  Fer- 
tilizers on  the  surface,  if  slowly  soluble, 
have  a  tendency  to  invite  the  feeding 
roots  to  the  surface.  To  reduce  the  ef- 
fects of  drouths  to  the  minimum  the 
plan  from  the  start  would  be  to  encour- 
age a  deeper  root  system,  which  early 
plowing,  fertilizing  and  subsequent  till- 
age will  encourage  if  thoroughly  done. 
Ernest  Walker. 
Fa.vetteville,   Ark. 

Soil  Balancers 

We  know  what  it  means  to  have  a 
balanced  ration  of  human  food.  No  mat- 
ter how  good  an  article  of  food  may  be, 
if  the  individual  is  compelled  to  eat  that 
and  nothing  else,  he  not  only  tires  of 
it,  but  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  main- 
tain on  that  food  alone  a  good  degree  of 
health. 

This  has  been  discovered  to  be  true  in 
the  feeding  of  stock,  and  it  is  a  com- 
mon remark  among  the  breeders  of  poul- 
try that  hens  in  order  to  lay  large  quan- 
tities of  eggs  must  have  a  balanced  ra- 
tion.    The  same  is  true  of  vegetable  life. 


The  elements  necessary  for  plant  growth 
must  be  in  proper  proportions  if  the 
plant  is  to  thrive. 

Some  soils  act  as  balancers  for  others. 
It  is  known  that  clay  is  a  fertilizer  for 
sandy  loam,  that  is,  the  clay  when  added 
to  the  sand  improves  the  soil  by  mak- 
ing a  balanced  ration,  thus  fertilizing  it. 
Sand  will  also  fertilize  a  clay  soil.  In 
like  manner,  it  will  fertilize  a  boggy  soil, 
a  gumbo  or  an  adobe  soil,  and  in  turn 
the  boggj'  soil  will  fertilize  the  sand  or 
the  clays  of  the  upland.  A  soil  rich  in 
humus  will  fertilize  both  sand  and  clay, 
while  gypsum  is  a  good  top  dressing  for 
alkali  soils,  and  alkali  is  a  fertilizer  for 
soils  deficient  in  the  alkali  substances. 
Alkali  is  a  fertilizer  up  to  a  certain 
point,  after  which  it  becomes  injurious. 
The  proper  balance  of  food  substances 
for  the  different  kinds  of  vegetables  and 
fruits  may  be  hard  to  determine,  but  in 
his  ability  to  discover  this  balance  lies 
the  difference  between  the  ordinary 
farmer  and  the  one  who  succeeds  in  the 
highest    degree. 

Granville    Lowtheb. 

Manufactured  Fertilizers 

There  are  many  kinds  of  manufactured 
fertilizers,  some  of  which  are  valuable 
onl.v  for  special  soils  or  special  crops. 
It  is  diflBcult  to  determine  what  fertilizer 
it  is  best  to  use  without  knowing  what 
elements  are  lacking  in  the  soil.  The 
three  elements  most  commonly  needed 
by  soils  are  nitrogen,  potash,  and  phos- 
phoric acid;  and  chemical  fertilizers  that 
contain  the  largest  percentages  of  these 
substances  in  available  form  will  be  the 
most   valuable. 

A  fertilizer  containing  l'^  to  2  per 
cent  of  nitrogen,  7  to  9  per  cent  of  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid,  and  10  to  12  per  cent 
of  potash  will  give  excellent  results  when 
applied  to  orchard  land  in  quantity  rang- 
ing from   400  to  600  pounds  per  acre. 

Fertilizer  Formulas 

It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  formulate  any 
rule  for  the  fertilization  of  apple  or- 
chards. Briefly  stated,  the  manurial  rec- 
ommendations are  dependent  upon  the 
age  of  the  trees:  the  vigor,  as  indicated 
by  the  annual  growth;   the  nature  of  the 


320 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


varieties;  the  character  of  the  soil;  the 
cultural  system  employed;  the  kind  of 
cover  crop;  the  kind  of  filler  used;  the 
nature  and  amount  of  other  crops  grown 
in  the  orchard;  the  availability  of  fer- 
tilizing materials;  the  severity  of  prun- 
ing; the  size  of  the  expected  crop;  and, 
to  some  extent,  the  character  of  the  sea- 
son. The  formula  mentioned  below 
should  be  taken  as  a  suggestion  only, 
and  should  be  modified  to  suit  special 
conditions. 

For  mature  apple  trees  on  soil  that  is 
apparently  in  need  of  a  complete  fer- 
tilizer the  following  formula  is  suggested: 

Nitrate  of  soda  (15  per  cent  or  its 
equivalent)  200  pounds. 

Muriate  or  sulphate  of  potash  (50  per 
cent  potash  or  its  equivalent)  250  pounds. 

Raw  ground  bone  (20  per  cent  phos- 
phoric acid  and  3  per  cent  nitrogen  or  its 
equivalent)   400  pounds. 

These  amounts  are  intended  for  the 
annual  treatment  of  one  acre  of  orchard 
land. 

Soil  Analysis 

The  soil  constituting  the  proposed  or- 
chard site  should  be  carefully  studied. 
and  if  found  to  be  lacking  in  the  essential 
elements  of  fertility  necessary  to  main- 
tain a  fairly  vigorous  wood  growth,  fer- 
tilizers should  be  added  before  plowing, 
that  they  may  become  thoroughly  incor- 
porated with  the  soil  in  preparing  the 
land  for  planting. 

Scientists  and  practical  orchardists 
are  generally  agreed  on  the  gi'eat  value 
of  well-rotted  barnyard  manui-e  for  an 
apple  orchard.  It  not  only  supplies  hu- 
mus, but  it  contains  a  large  per  cent  of 
other  necessary  nutritive  elements  tor 
maintaining  health,  vigor,  and  fruitful- 
ness  of  trees  and  for  the  development  of 
the  proper  qualities  for  a  fine  fruit  prod- 
uct. But  as  the  stock  of  this  sort  of 
manure  Is  not  always  sufficient  for  the 
general  demand,  other  agents  have  to  be 
resorted  to;  and  next  in  value  and  in  a 
concentrated  form  are  unleached  wood 
ashes,  which  will  supply,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, the  elements  necessary  to  plant 
growth.  It  is  maintained  by  some  au- 
thorities that  one  ton  of  unleached  wood 
ashes  contains  as  much   plant  nutriment 


as  five  tons  of  ordinary  barnyard  man- 
ure; therefore,  whenever  obtainable, 
ashes  should  be  used  in  preference  to 
any    other    fertilizer. 

G.  B.  Brackett, 
Washineton,  D.  C. 

Stable  Manure 

Stable  manure  is  the  standard  fertilizer 
of  the  diversified  farmer  and  the  stock 
raiser.  The  commercial  fruit  growers, 
however,  rarely  use  this  form  of  fertilizer 
in  their  orchards.  The  chief  objection 
to  its  use  is  that  it  is  relatively  rich  in 
nitrogen,  which  becomes  available  late  in 
the  season.  The  liberation  of  nitrogen 
late  in  the  season  is  likely  to  keep  up 
growth  so  late  that  the  trees  will  not 
ripen  their  wood  properly  before  the  ar- 
rival of  cold  weather.  Stable  manure  is 
a  complete  fertilizer  and,  when  applied 
to  the  soil,  supplies  in  addition  to  the 
three  elements  of  plant  food,  a  large 
amount  of  vegetable  matter.  For  this 
reason  it  is  well  suited  to  the  enriching 
of  vegetable  gardens  and  corn  fields. 
C.  D.  Jarvis, 
Storrs.  Conn. 

PICKIIVG  .VPPLES 

There  are  two  important  questions  on 
picking  apples.  One  is.  when  to  pick,  and 
the  other  is,  how  to  pick.  When  to  pick 
depends  largely  upon  the  time  of  ripen- 
ing and  whether  the  apples  are  to  be  used 
for  the  local  market  or  shipped  to  a  dis- 
tant market.  If  they  are  to  be  used  for 
the  local  market,  they  may  be  left  on  the 
trees  longer  than  if  they  are  to  be  shipped 
a  considerable  distance,  and  in  remaining 
longer  on  the  trees  will  become  more 
highly  colored,  more  fully  ripened  and 
more  highly  flavored.  A  general  rule  Is 
that  the  apple  is  ready  to  pick  when  the 
seed  is  brown.  At  this  time  the  apple, 
according  to  this  theory,  is  supposed  to 
have  reached  its  full  growth  and  develop- 
ment, and  after  that  the  changes  which 
occur  in  the  direction  of  the  ripening  or 
the  breaking  down  process  will  go  on  as 
well  off  as  on  the  tree.  Some  orchard- 
ists, however,  depend  more  on  the  color 
of  the  fruit  than  on  anything  else.  An 
expert  can  walk  through  an  orchard  and 
tell   when    looking   at  the   trees,   without 


APPLES 


321 


particularly  examining  the  seed,  as  to 
when  the  fruit  is  ripe  enough  to  pick. 
Some  apples  begin  to  fall  as  soon  as  they 
are  ripe,  and  should  be  picked  before  they 
fall,  because  they  are  damaged  in  falling. 
A  little  observation  and  experience  will 
teach  persons  at  what  time  the  different 
varieties  of  apples  should  be  picked. 

The  second  question  is.  how  to  pick. 
There  are  various  mechanical  devices  for 
picking.  They  are  generally  unsatisfac- 
tory. Our  observation  is  that  picking 
should  be  done  by  hand,  and  that  the  hand 
should  be  carefully  guided  by  intelligence 
so  that  the  fruit  may  be  picked  at  the 
right  time  and  without  bruising  or  break- 
ing the  skin.  Generally,  there  should  be 
more  than  one  picking,  since  the  apples 
ripen  irregularly.  At  a  time  when  one- 
third  of  the  apples  which  are  the  earliest 
in  developing,  are  ready  for  picking,  per- 
haps another  one-third  should  hang  on  the 
trees  several  days  longer,  and  another  one- 
third  longer  still.  In  order  to  obtain  the 
best  results,  have  the  largest  number  of 
well-colored,  well-flavored,  and  well-devel- 
oped apples,  it  is  better  to  have  two  or 
three  pickings.  This  costs  more,  but  it 
more  than  pays  the  extra  cost  in  the  in- 
creased value  of  fruits.  It  is  especially 
important  to  have  pickers  trained,  if  ap- 
ples are  to  be  shipped  and  sold  In  fancy 
markets  at  high  prices.  Pickers  should  be 
trained  so  that  they  can  pick  the  apples 
without  bruising  them,  without  denting 
them  with  the  finger  nails,  without  break- 
ing the  skin  by  pulling  off  the  stems,  and 
without  pulling  the  fruit  spurs  from  the 
tree.  If  the  fruit  spurs  are  pulled  off, 
there  will  be  no  more  fruit  on  those  spurs. 

Considerable  controversy  has  arisen  as 
to  what  is  the  best  vessel  to  use  in  pick- 
ing. Baskets  with  padding  on  the  bot- 
toms to  prevent  bruising,  can  be  used,  but 
they  have  been  found  to  be  somewhat 
cumbersome.  Buckets  are  better,  because 
it  is  easy  to  fasten  them  with  hooks  to 
the  limbs  of  the  tree,  and  thus  be  free  to 
pick  with  both  hands.  Some  use  the  ordi- 
nary galvanized  iron  pail.  Others  use  a 
bucket  with  a  canvas  bottom  so  devised  as 
to  open  at  the  bottom,  allowing  the  apples 
to  roll  out  without  injury.  Picking  bags  or 


aprons  are  also  in  use.  These  bags  are 
so  arranged  as  to  swing  around  the  neck, 
hanging  down  in  front.  They  can  be 
opened  at  the  bottom  for  emptying  the 
fruit  without  bruising.  They  are  held 
open  at  the  top  by  a  wire  so  that  it  is  easy 
to  place  the  apples  in  them.  They  are 
closed  at  the  bottom  by  a  flap  which  folds 
up  and  is  fastened  to  the  side  by  means  of 
a  hook  and  a  ring,  so  that  it  is  easy  to 
empty  them  into  the  boxes  in  which  the 
apples  are  hauled  from  the  orchard.  It  is 
better  to  haul  the  fruit  boxes  on  low- 
wheeled  trucks  or  on  sleds  and  to  empty 
from  the  boxes  on  to  assorting  tables  with 


Fig.  1.  This  form  of  Picking  Bucket  is  car- 
ried over  the  neck  hy  a  strap  which  is  fur- 
ther equipped  with  a  hook  which  may  be 
used  for  hanging  the  bucket  to  a  limb  or  the 
picking  ladder.  The  bucket  is  designed  to 
be  placed  with  its  load  in  an  apple  box.  A 
catch  is  released  which  allows  the  bucket  to 
part  at  the  bottom,  permitting  the  apples  to 
roll  out  into  the  box  without  bruising. 


tops  made  of  canvas.  In  case  assorting 
machines  are  used  especial  provisions  are 
made  to  prevent  bruising.  If  apples  are 
to  be  kept  for  the  best  markets,  too  much 
care  cannot  be  exercised  to  prevent  bruis- 
ing, and  pickers  should  be  trained  to  know 
how  to  do  this  work  in  the  best  way.  If 
apples  are  bruised  the  keeping  quality  is 
impaired:  if  the  stem  is  pulled  out  or  the 
skin  broken,  fermentation  and  decay  begin 
very  soon.  Bruised  apples,  or  apples  with 
the  skin  broken,  belong  with  the  culls,  and 
very  often  apples  that  are  otherwise  of 
the  very  best  quality  and  would  bring  the 
highest  price  in  the  market  are  thrown 
into  the  "cull  pile"  because  of  a  little  care- 
lessness or  indifference  on  the  part  of  the 


322 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig. 


Scene    on    Thompson    Fruit    liant'li    Allowing    Type    of    Bucliet    I'sed    lor    All    I'iinds 

of  Fruit. 


picker.  Perhaps  no  work  in  tlie  orchard 
requires  the  exercise  of  more  care  and 
good  judgment  than  the  work  of  picking. 
A  low  step-ladder  to  be  used  in  picking 
the  fruit  just  out  of  reach  of  a  man  stand- 
ing on  the  ground  and  another  tall  enough 
to  reach  the  upper  branches  ot  the  large 
trees  will  usually  be  sufficient.  Various 
types  are  illustrated.  The  tripod  or  three- 
legged  type,  is  by  far  the  best  adapted  to 
average  conditions. 

Gl!.\NVILLE    LowrllER 

Time  to  Pick 

Picking  is  one  of  the  most  important 
phases  of  getting  the  apple  upon  the  mar- 
ket. It  has  a  marked  influence  upon  the 
keeping  qualities,  color,  size  and  flavor  of 
the  fruit.  Too  much  attention  is  frequent- 
ly given  to  getting  depth  of  color,  and,  as 
a  consequence,  over-ripeness,  caused  by  the 
fruit  hanging  too  long  upon  the  tree,  is 
very  often  the  result.  The  time  of  pick- 
ing is  influenced  very  markedly  by  the 
variety,  climate,  soil,  elevation,   shipping 


distance,  and  season.  Apples  may  be 
divided,  according  to  their  condition  at 
maturity,  into  several  different  classes. 

Among  the  apples  that  drop  when  they 
are  ripe,  we  may  mention  the  Grimes 
Golden,  Wagener.  Wealthy  and  Winesap. 
Other  apples  that  drop  before  they  are 
ripe  are  such  varieties  as  the  Graven- 
stein,  Mcintosh  and  Snow.  Many  apples 
that  hang  too  long  on  the  tree  develop 
core  rot,  and  we  find  that  the  Jonathan, 
Gravenstein,  Delicious,  and  Ortley  come 
under  this  class.  Others,  if  they  hang 
too  long,  get  mellow  or  soft  after  pick- 
ing, and  have  a  short  season  of  consump- 
tion. In  this  class  we  would  include  such 
apples  as  .Jonathan.  King,  and  Baldwin. 
Some  varieties,  such  as  Earlj-  Harvest, 
Duchess,  Red  Astrachan,  and  the  Jona- 
than are  troubled  with  cracking  at  the 
calyx.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  vari- 
eties like  the  Spy  and  Ben  Davis  that 
may  hang  after  maturity  before  i)icking. 
Summer  apples  should  be  picked  green 
for    shipment.     They    should    have   some 


APPLES 


323 


color,  but  should  not  be  soft.  These  vari- 
eties drop  badly  if  too  ripe.  The  grower 
himself  must  be  the  judge  of  his  local 
conditions  of  season,  soil,  shipping  dis- 
tance, and  the  like. 

The  time  of  picking  has  a  marked  in- 
fluence upon  the  color  of  all  apples.    The 


Fig.  3.  "Eclipse"  Orchard  Ladder  Having  an 
Especially  Wide  Base.  A  low  ladder  like  this 
may  be  used  for  gathering  the  fruit  from 
the  lower   limbs. 

yellow  and  green  colors  change  after  pick- 
ing but  the  reds  change  very  little.  With 
many  varieties  it  will  pay  to  make  sev- 
eral pickings:  especially  is  this  true  of 
red  and  striped  varieties.  The  increase 
in  size  and  added  depth  of  color  gained 
by  leaving  the  immature  fruit  for  a  sec- 
ond picking  more  than  repays  the  grower 
for  the  additional  trouble.  Summer  apples 
usually  attain  their  best  flavor  upon  the 
tree,  but  late  fall  and  winter  apples  are 
better  some  time  after  picking. 

Most  of  our  commercial  varieties  of 
pears,  if  allowed  to  mature  on  the  tree, 
become  granular,  and  also  have  a  ten- 
dency to  develop  core  rot.  In  order  to 
have  juicy,  fine  and  smooth  grained  fruit, 
it  is  necessary  to  harvest  the  pear  while 
it  is  still  hard  and  green.  The  most  com- 
mon practice  has  been  to  recommend  that 
the  pear  be  severed  from  the  tree  as  soon 
as  the  stem  will  separate  easily  from  the 
spur  by  giving  the  wrist  a  gentle  twist. 
In  some  cases  it  is  recommended  that  the 
pears  be  picked  when  they  reach  a  certain 
diameter.  With  some  pears,  at  least,  it 
will  be  found  advantageous  to  pick  the 
fruit  over  an  extended  period.  The  Bart- 
lett,   for  example,   can   be   picked   over   a 


period  of  six  weeks,  and  where  an  extend- 
ed period  like  this  is  allowed,  the  total 
weight  of  the  fruit  gathered  from  the 
trees  is  very  materially  increased. 

Occasionally  pears  are  picked  by  clip- 
ping the  stems  with  scissors  or  knives. 
This  is  done  in  order  to  place  the  fruit 
on  an  early  market  and  thus  reap  a  fancy 
price.  If  the  fruit  is  picked  too  early, 
however,  it  will  be  very  insipid,  and  tend 
to  shrivel;  it  will  have  a  tendency  to 
scald;  and  the  texture  will  be  leathery. 
As  concerns  the  Bartlett  pear,  recent  in- 
vestigations conducted  in  the  Rogue  River 
valley  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  have  shown  that  it  is  better 
to  allow  the  pears  to  hang  from  ten  days 
to  two  weeks  longer  than  is  now  the  com- 
mon practice:  that  when  this  is  done  the 
fruit  becomes  larger,  develops  a  better 
quality,  and  keeps  better. 

Picking  Operations 

One  of  the  first  lessons  a  foreman  must 
give  a  picker  is  to  tell  him  not,  under  any 
circumstances,  to  bruise  or  puncture  the 
skin  of  the  fruit  or  to  rub  off  fruit  spurs 
or  injure  the  tree  in  any  way.  If  the  fruit 
is  bruised  or  punctured  it  soon  decays, 
and   thus  losses  which   are   attributed   to 


Fig.  4.  A  Strong  Type  of  Orchard  Ladder. 
Special  claims  are  made  for  this  ladder  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  no  nails  are  used 
in  its  construction.  A  tall  ladder  like  this 
or  similar  type  is  useful  in  gathering  fruit 
hiffh  up  in  the  tree. 

the  commission  man  are  often  the  fault 
of  the  fruit  grower  himself. 

The  organization  and  distribution  of 
labor  is  always  a  problem  of  orchard  man- 
agement. In  picking,  it  is  usually  ad- 
visable to  divide  the  pickers  into  crews, 
giving  to  some  of  the  older  men  and  to 


324 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the  women  and  girls  the  job  of  picking 
from  the  lowei-  branches,  which  they  can 
reach  from  the  ground  or  from  short  step 
ladders.  The  fruit  on  the  upper  branches 
can  be  picked  by  another  crew  working 
on   taller  ladders. 

The  ladder  should  never  be  leaned  into 
the  tree  if  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it.   Fruit 


Fig.  5.  Poi-table  Orchard  Ladder.  Folded, 
spurs  often  cover  the  ground  under  such 
conditions,  and  not  only  is  the  crop  tor 
the  succeeding  year  damaged,  but  open- 
ings for  disease  are  left  in  the  tree  itself. 
The  act  of  picking  is  a  very  simple  one. 
A  simple  twisting  movement  up  and  down 
on  the  fruit  removes  it  from  the  spur 
without  loss  of  stem,  and  this  easy  re- 
moval is  usually  a  fair  indication  of  the 
maturity  of  the  fruit.  There  are  some 
special  varieties,  notably  the  Ortley  apple, 
which  very  often,  though  mature,  break 
their  stems  and  puncture  the  fruit,  if 
not  carefully  handled.  The  stem  may  be 
broken  without  hurting  the  salability  of 
the  fruit  but  should  never  puncture  the 
skin  or  be  pulled  out  of  its  socket. 

Picking  Pails 

The     receptacle     selected     for     picking 
should  prevent  all  bruising,  as  far  as  pos- 


sible, and  should  give  ease  in  handling. 
Theoretically,  it  would  seem  that  bags  or 
canvas  bottom  pails  would  be  the  best 
for  picking,  but,  practically,  such  is  not 
the  case.  There  is  a  bad  tendency  among 
pickers  to  let  the  fruit  fall  into  the  re- 
ceptacle and,  unless  this  fruit  can  be 
heard  by  the  foreman  as  it  falls,  there  is 
no  way  to  prevent  consequent  injury. 
Bags  allow  the  fruit  to  be  damaged  by 
not  protecting  it  against  bruising  when 
coming  in  contact  with  ladder  or  tree. 
When  the  bottomless  bags  are  used  the 
pickers  very  frequently  will  allow  the 
fruit  to  shoot  into  the  field  box  when 
emptying,  thus  causing  damage. 

A  galvanized  pail  about  ten  inches  high 
and  narrow  enough  to  fit  down  into  the 
apple  box  when  it  is  emptied,  so  that  the 
apples  can  be  poured  into  the  box  very 
carefully  without  bruising,  is  a  good  one 
for  this  purpose.  Such  a  pail  should  have 
a  hook  attached  to  the  bail  for  hanging 
on  the  ladder  or  tree  limb.  Several  so- 
called  bottomless  pails  have  been  con- 
structed of  galvanized  iron,  or  tin,  which 
allow  the  fruit  to  be  emptied  into  the 
bottom  of  the  box  and  the  pail  to  be  lifted 
without  rolling  or  bruising  the  fruit. 
Some  of  these  pails  have  merit,  and, 
where  not  too  expensive,  should  be  money- 
savers  for  the  grower.  In  the  case  of 
peaches  and  plums  and  other  stone  fruits, 
shallow  pails  or  baskets  should  be  used, 
as  these  fruits  bruise  easily  when  piled 
one  upon  the  other  to  any  depth. 


Fl-'  6  Portable  Orchard  Ladder  Ready  for  Use.  The  run- 
ning board  enables  the  picker  to  cover  a  wider  ranse 
than    would    be    possible    with    the    ordinar.v    step    ladder. 


APPLES 


325 


Ladders 

There  are  many  different  types  of  lad- 
ders, some  of  them  very  awkward  and 
clumsy.  A  ladder  should  be  light  and 
easily  handled,  braced  strongly,  and  so 
constructed  that  it  will  not  tip  over 
easily.  All  joints  should  be  tight  so  that 
there  will  be  as  little  wobble  to  the  lad- 
der as  possible.  For  picking  the  lower 
parts  of  the  tree  the  short  step-ladder, 
three  or  four  feet  high,  and  made  rigid, 
is  good.  For  lighter  work,  the  tripod 
step-ladder  is  fine.  It  combines  lightness 
with  ease  of  operation,  and  is  also  very 
strong  and  solid.  In  some  sections  the 
so-called  Japanese  tripod  ladder  is  used 
to  quite  an  extent.  Other  ladders,  such 
as  the  rail  ladder,  consisting  of  a  single 
strong  stake  with  a  wide  base  and  rounds 
projecting  from  it,  are  used  for  very  high 
work.  In  the  East  the  wire  apple  picker 
is  sometimes  used  to  pluck  some  of  the 
very  highest  apples  growing  in  the  center 
of  the  tree;  but  in  the  Northwest  these 
pickers  have  been  needed  very  little  as 
yet  because  our  trees  are  lower. 


Fig.  7.  Another  Type  of  l^ortatilp  (Orchard 
Ladder  which  enables  the  picker  to  get  close 
in  to  the  tree  without  breakins  the  branches 
or   bruising   the  fruit. 

— Courtesy  WnotiD  <£  Soule,  Payette,  Idaho. 


Fig.  8.     The  Japanese  Ladder. 

Picking'  Boxes 

The  picking  or  lug  box  should  prefer- 
ably be  somewhat  larger  than  the  packing 
box,  in  order  to  keep  it  separate  from 
the  latter.  This  size  also  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  holding  about  a  packed  bushel 
of  apples.  The  box  should  have  slits  cut 
in  the  ends  so  that  the  fingers  may  enter 
for  lifting  the  box,  and  these  ends  prefer- 
ably should  be  higher  than  the  sides  so 
that  as  one  box  is  set  upon  the  other 
there  will  be  no  jamming  of  the  fruit. 

Some  orchardists  have  a  very  light  port- 
able stand  which  pickers  working  on  the 
ground  among  the  lower  branches  take 
with  them  for  setting  the  picking  box  on. 
The  picker  then  does  not  have  to  stoop 
to  deposit  his  fruit  in  his  box,  and  bruis- 
ing is  minimized. 


326 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.  9.  Picking  Scene  in  Rogue  River  Valley. 
Showing  t.vpe  of  orchard  ladders,  picking 
buckets  and  lug  boxes  in  use  in  the  orchard 
of  Mr.  W.  G.  V.  Campbell.  The  picking 
bucket  is  the  canvas  bottom  type. 

Orchard  Trucks 

Orchard  trucks  should  be  low  for  ease 
in  loading;  should  be  easy  riding;  and 
preferably  should  have  a  cross  reach  so 
that  the  rear  wheels  follow  in  the  track 
of  the  front  wheels  in  turning  sharp 
angles. 

C.  I.  Lewis, 
Corvallis.  Oregon. 

Date  of  Picking  and  Size  of  .Vpples 

H.  H.  Braggins,  of  Cashmere,  Wash., 
has  made  some  experiments  in  picking  in 
wiich  he  reaches  the  following  conclu- 
sions: "There  has  been  considerable  talk 
about  picking  the  largest  and  best  Jon- 
athan and  King  David  apples  from  the 
18th  to  the  28th  of  August  in  order  that 
the  apples  remaining  on  the  tree  may 
have  a  better  chance  to  grow  larger.  1 
had  doubts  if  it  would  be  profitable  for 
several  reasons,  provided  the  apples  were 
properly  thinned  in  June.  One  reason 
was  that  it  costs  two  to  three  times  as 
much  to  pick  a  box  of  apples  where  you 
only  pick  one  here  and  there,  as  it  does 
where  you  can  pick  them  all  in  one  or 
two  pickings.  Another  reason  is  that  you 
are  liable  to  bruise  and  mar  the  apples, 
more  or  less,  that  are  to  remain  on  the 
tree.     This  bruising  is  done  mostly  with 


the  ladder.  On  August  18,  I  had  a  num- 
ber of  apples  measured,  a  tag  tied  on  the 
stem  of  the  apple  and  the  date  and  cir- 
cumference written  on  it.  When  we 
picked  the  apples  we  measured  them  and 
marked  the  results  on  the  tag.  We  found 
that  the  Jonathans  averaged  a  little  more 
than  1%  inches  in  circumference  more 
than  when  first  measured.  The  Rome 
Beauties  measured  1%  inches  more  than 
when  first  measured. 

"The  Winesaps  averaged  a  growth  of 
1%  inches  more.  It  will  be  noted  that 
the  later  varieties  made  the  largest 
growth,  because  they  had  from  one  to 
three  weeks  longer  to  grow.  Apples  that 
will  pack  from  138-163  per  box  in  August 
with  a  growth  of  from  1^4  to  1%  inches 
larger  later  in  the  season,  will  bring  15 
to  25  cents  per  box  more.  Does  the  apple 
remaining  on  the  tree  have  enough ' 
greater  growth  to  make  up  for  the  loss 
on  those  picked  early?" 

The  grower  in  this  case  would  not  only 
have  more  boxes  of  apples  on  account  of 
the  larger  size  of  the  apples  but  he  would 
have  apples  which  are  worth  more  per 
box.  If  there  were  no  loss  from  falling 
apples  to  counterbalance  these  gains,  it 
would  pay  to  leave  the  apples  on  longer. 
—Ed. 

PACKI\G  OR  PREPARIJJG  APPLES 
FOR  MARKET 

Frank   S.   Kinsey 

PACKAGES 

As  in  marketing  other  farm  products, 
two  methods  are  used  in  marketing  ap- 
ples. One  is  handling  in  bulk,  where,  if 
any  receptacle  is  used,  it  is  retained  by 
the  seller;  the  other,  handling  in  pack- 
ages which  go  with  the  apples,  constitut- 
ing "gift"  packages.  The  present  exten- 
sive use  of  the  latter  method  is  the  re- 
sult of  modern  transportation  and  stor- 
age facilities,  which  have  made  the  apple 
a  profitable  article  of  commerce.  What- 
ever qualities  a  successful  apple  or  other 
fruit  package  may  possess,  it  must  have 
cheapness,  neatness,  lightness,  a  certain 
amount  of  durability,  and  uniformity. 
Three  forms  of  package  are  in  use  for 
apples — the  basket,  the  barrel  and  the 
box. 


APPLES 


327 


Basket 

The  basket  can  be  used  successfully 
only  for  home  markets,  and  for  apples 
that  are  to  be  sold  for  immediate  use, 
such  as  summer  apples.  The  style  of  bas- 
ket most  used  in  New  York  state  contains 
approximately  a  bushel;  is  tall,  narrow  at 
the  base,  and  flaring  wide  at  the  top.  A 
style  used  to  a  great  extent  in  the  Middle 
states  holds  approximately  one-third  of 
a  bushel  and  is  rectangular  in  shape. 
These  baskets  are  standard  packages  for 
many  of  the  fruits  and  vegetables  in  the 
sections  where  they  are  popular.  On  the 
Pacific  coast  the  basket  is  not  used  for 
even  the  summer  apple,  the  box  or  half- 
box  taking  its  place. 

Standard  Barrel 

The  United  States  standard  for  apple 
barrels  as  established  by  the  enactment 
of  the  "Sulzer"  bill  in  1912.  calls  for 
the  "length  of  stave,  28^2  inches; 
diameter  of  head,  17%  inches;  dis- 
tance between  heads,  26  Inches;  cir- 
cumference of  bulge,  64  inches  outside 
measurement,  representing  as  nearly  as 
possible  7,056  cubic  inches."  The  law 
further  provides  that  "barrels  packed 
with  apples  shall  be  deemed  to  be  below 
standard  if  the  barrel  bears  any  state- 
ment, design,  or  device  indicating  that 
the  barrel  is  a  standard  barrel  of  apples." 
as  to  size,  and  the  capacity  of  the  barrel 
is  less  than  the  capacity  indicated  above, 
"unless  the  barrel  shall  be  plainly  marked 
on  end  and  side  with  the  words  'short 
barrel,'  or  with  words  or  figures  showing 
the  fractional  relation  which  the  actual 
capacity  of  the  barrel  bears  to  the  ca- 
pacity prescribed  by  *  *  *  this  act." 
And,  further,  that  such  "marking  re- 
quired shall  be  in  block  letters  of  size 
not  less  than  72-point,  one-inch  gothic." 
The  penalty  for  selling  or  offering  for 
sale  apples  in  barrels  in  violation  of  the 
provisions  of  this  act  is  $1.00  for  each 
barrel   sold  or  offered   for  sale. 

The  legal  apple  barrel  in  the  state  of 
New  York  has  the  same  dimensions  as 
the  United  States  standard,  except  that 
the  distances  between  heads  or  the  cubic 
capacity  are  not  specified.  Provision  is 
made    that   if   the    barrel    is    straight    on 


the  side,  or  without  a  bulge,  it  shall  con- 
tain the  same  number  of  cubic  inches  as 
the  standard  barrel.  The  standard  apple 
barrel  as  adopted  by  the  International 
Apple  Shippers'  Association  in  1S95  is 
the  same  as  the  New  York  standard.  The 
legal  apple  barrel  in  Virginia  has  been: 
head  diameter,  17%  inches;  length  of 
stave,  271,0  inches;  bulge,  not  less  than 
64  inches  outside  measurement.  The 
minimum  dimensions  of  a  legal  barrel  in 
Canada  are:  26^0  inches  between  heads: 
17  inches  diameter  of  heads;  18'-;  inches 
diameter  of  middle,  all  inside  measure- 
ments. This  barrel,  in  common  use  in 
Nova  Scotia,  is  made  of  28-inch  staves. 
The  barrel  in  use  in  Ontario  is  made  of 
30-inch  staves.  Its  dimensions  are:  be- 
tween heads,  27 1 2  inches:  head  diameter, 
17  inches;   middle  diameter,  19^^   inches. 

Barrel  Speciflcations 

The  specifications  for  a  good  apple  bar- 
rel call  for  a  sound  stave,  nine-sixteenths 
inch  jointing,  cut  five  inches  to  two  inches 
and  averaging  four  inches  in  width  at  the 
bulge.  The  head  to  be  not  less  than  one- 
half  inch  in  thickness,  dressed,  and  the 
barrel  to  have  eight  hoops.  The  material 
preferred  is  elm. 

Standard  Box 

Several  unsuccessful  attempts  have 
been  made  to  establish  a  national  stan- 
dard apple  box  in  the  United  States. 
The  proposed  "Porter"  box  was  to  con- 
tain 2,564  cubic  inches;  the  "Lafean" 
box,  2,343  cubic  inches.  Three  sizes  have 
found  favor  sufficient  to  establish  them 
as  standard  in  certain  sections.  The  "Col- 
orado" box.  which  is  used  mostly  in  Col- 
orado and  Utah,  measures  1114x1114x18^4 
inches,  and  contains  2,261.625  cubic 
inches.  The  Canadian,  or  "special,"  box 
measures  10  inches  deep,  11  inches  wide 
and  20  inches  long,  and  contains  2,200 
cubic  inches.  The  "Northwest  Standard" 
box  is  lOH  inches  deep,  llio  inches  wide 
and  18  inches  long,  and  contains  2,173.5 
cubic  inches.  All  the  foregoing  dimen- 
sions are  inside  measurements.  The 
bulge  on  the  top  and  bottom,  with  which 
it  is  customary  to  pack  a  box  of  apples, 
adds,  it  is  usually  figured,  about  150  cubic 
inches  to  its  contents.    A  struck  Winches- 


32S 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


ter  bushel  contains  2,150.42  cubic  inches. 
The  Canadian  national  apple  box  is 
obligatory  for  the  export  trade.  The  Col- 
orado box  was  designed  originally  for 
the  "jumble"  pack;  the  Northwest  stan- 
dard and  the  special,  for  the  "layer" 
pack.  "The  committee  of  the  Northwest 
Fruit  Growers'  Association  on  the  matter 
of  securing  uniform  apple  packages,  re- 
ported to  the  meeting  at  Portland  in  1901 
in  favor  of  using  only  the  'standard' 
and  'special'  boxes.  At  the  meeting  the 
following  year  at  Walla  Walla  the  asso- 
ciation reaffirmed  by  resolution  the  adop- 
tion of  these  sizes,  and  urged  all  mem- 
bers to  use  the  same."*  Up  to  this  time 
there  had  been  great  confusion  in  the 
matter  in  the  Northwest.  Even  as  late 
as  1904  Mr.  Maxwell  Smith,  Dominion 
Fruit  Inspector  at  Vancouver,  found  no 
less  than  seven  different  sizes  of  apple 
box  in  the  Seattle  market.  The  only 
boxes  now  used  in  the  American  North- 
west are  the  standard  and  the  special, 
and  even  the  latter  has  all  but  gone  out 
of  use. 

\ortliwest  Standard  Box 
This  was  legalized  in  the  state  of  Wash- 
ington in  1903  and  in  Montana  in  1913. 
Two  objections  have  been  raised  against 
this  box.  The  first,  from  some  Eastern 
fruit  dealers,  who  are  used  to  the  barrel 
as  the  unit  of  measurement  for  apples, 
who  believe  that  three  boxes  of  apples 
should  fill  one  barrel,  and  who  variously 
state  that  it  takes  from  three  and  one- 
eighth  to  three  and  one-quarter  boxes  of 
packed  apples  to  pack  one  barrel.  The 
other  objection  comes  from  some  growers 
and  packers  in  certain  districts  of  the 
Northwest,  and  is  one  which  they  would 
still  urge  against  any  box,  viz.,  that  no 
one  box  Is  suitable  for  all  counts  of  ap- 
ples, sized  after  the  manner  of  the  North- 
west. The  answers  usually  given  to  the 
first  of  these  objections  are:  (1)  it  is 
not  necessary  for  the  contents  of  a  box 
to  be  a  denominator  of  the  contents  of  a 
barrel;  (2)  the  packed  box  makes  a 
heaped  bushel,  as  can  be  seen  by  pour- 
ing the  apples  from  a  packed  box  into  a 

•  Note,  page  7,  University  of  Idaho  Agricul- 
ture Experiment  Station  Bulletin  54,  1906. 
Lowell  B.  .Tudson,  Picking,  Packing,  and  Mar- 
keting the  Apple. 


bushel  measure;  f3j  this  is  the  only  re- 
quirement which  is  founded  on  good  rea- 
son; (4)  the  box  apple  is  a  product  en- 
tirely different  and  separate  from  the  bar- 
rel apple,  and  not  to  be  considered  or  con- 
fused with  it;  (5)  the  inconvenience  and 
confusion  which  would  arise  among  the 
packers  of  the  Northwest  at  any  change 
in  the  package  to  which  10  or  1-5  years 
of  use  has  accustomed  them,  would  offset 
any  inconvenience  to  the  dealer  in  not 
being  able  to  think  always  In  denomina- 
tions of  the  barrel.  WTiere  the  objection 
takes  the  form  of  a  complaint  that  the 
Northwest  Standard  box  does  not  con- 
tain a  heaped  bushel,  or  four  pecks,  the 
trouble  is  usually  not  with  the  box,  but 
with  the  pack.  If  it  cannot  be  done 
through  rules  of  associations  and  con- 
tracts of  dealers,  legislation  should  en- 
force a  firmness  and  fullness  of  pack,  and 
a  minimum  weight  for  a  box  of  each  of 
the  commercial  varieties.*  As  influenced 
by  the  variety  and  size,  a  properly  pack- 
ed box  will  weigh  from  4,5  to  .55  pounds 
gross.  As  to  the  second  objection,  name- 
ly, that  the  Northwest  Standard  box  is 
not  suitable  for  all  sizes  of  apples,  the 
elimination  of  the  "square"  pack  and  the 
adoption  of  the  113  and  125  counts  of  the 
"diagonal"  pack,  together  with  the  favor 
with  which  the  new  system  has  been 
received  by  the  trade,  has  demonstrated 
beyond  a  doubt  the  lack  of  necessity  for 
the  two  box  system.  It  should  be  stated 
that,  whatever  the  size  of  an  apple  box, 
it  should  not  be  disproportionately  long 
or  narrow  in  shape  One  will  be  im- 
pressed with  this  fact  if  he  makes  the 
rounds  of  the  produce  district  in  the 
city  of  New  York  contiguous  to  Pier  20, 
where  the  Northwest  Standard  is  dubbed 
the  "chunky"  box,  and  is  preferred  to  the 
special.  The  latter  box,  although  real- 
ly containing  more  cubic  inches,  looks 
smaller,  because  slimmer. 

Box  Speciflcations 

The  standard  specifications  for  the  ap- 
ple box  call  for  three-quarter  inch  ends, 
three-eighths  inch  sides,  and  one-quarter 
inch    tops    and   bottoms.      Thinner    ends 


•  See    Canadian    Fruit    Marks    Act      Sec.    C, 
under  Law. 


APPLES 


329 


split  too  easily:  thinner  sides  endanger 
the  good  condition  of  the  fruit;  like- 
wise thicker  tops  and  bottoms,  by  lack 
of  pliableness  for  the  bulge.  It  is  im- 
portant that  the  lumber  come  up  to 
these  specifications.  No  little  complaint 
came  from  the  trade,  both  domestic  and 
foreign,  during  the  season  of  1911,  on  ac- 
count of  the  flimsiness  of  much  of  the 
material  in  the  boxes  sent  out  from  the 
Northwest.  For  export,  the  tops  and  bot- 
toms are  frequently  double,  with  the 
swell  not  greater  than  the  thickness  of 
the  box  cleats.  One-piece  sides  are  used, 
and  two-piece  tops  and  bottoms,  all  of 
which  are  a  little  narrow,  thus  furnishing 
ventilation.  A  cleat  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  thick  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
wide  is  used  on  either  end  of  the  top  and 
bottom,  nails  being  driven  only  through 
the  cleats.  In  the  East  some  boxes  come 
with  the  tops  and  bottoms  already  cleat- 
ed.  Six  or  eight  5d.  or  6d.  cement 
coated  box  nails  are  used  on  each  side, 
eight  on  the  bottom,  and  eight  on  the  top. 
The  larger  size  of  nail  is  to  be  recom- 
mended, also  eight  to  the  side. 

A  few  panel  ends  are  offered  both 
in  the  Northwest  and  the  East:  but  they 
are  objectionable,  because  they  prevent 
handling  with  the  clamp  truck  and  do 
not  make  so  neat  and  strong  a  pack- 
age. 

Spruce  has  been  the  material  usually 
recommended.  It  imparts  no  disagreeable 
flavor  to  the  apples  in  storage,  and  is 
easier  to  secure  clear  of  knots.  It  splits 
more  easily  than  pine,  however,  in  mak- 
ing up,  unless  green.  The  ignorant  pur- 
chaser is  also  likely  to  have  hemlock 
sold  to  him  for  spruce,  which  former  is 
cheaper,  splits  even  more  easily,  and  is 
even  rougher,  if  not  surfaced.  The  Yaki- 
ma Valley  Fruitgrowers'  Association  pur- 
chases pine  for  its  members,  finding  that 
it  makes  a  better  looking  box,  holds  nails 
more  firmly,  and   does  not  split. 

Mr.  A.  V.  Stubenrauch,  pomologist  and 
horticulturist  in  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, says: 

"Regarding  the  absorption  of  flavors  by 
fruits  in  cold  storage.  I  would  state  that 
so  far  as  our  experience  has  gone,  we 
have  not  found  that  apples  stored  in  pine 


boxes  absorb  the  flavor  of  the  wood  to 
any  deleterious  extent.  We  have  found 
fruits  affected  by  foreign  odors  in  storage 
rooms,  but  these  have  been  largely  flavors 
or  odors  of  highly  pungent  or  strong  na- 
tures. The  temperature  at  which  the 
fruit  is  held  does  not  seem  to  affect  this 
property  of  absorption  to  any  great  ex- 
tent. For  example:  We  have  found  that 
apples  stored  at  32  degrees  in  a  room  in 
which  peppers  were  held  absorbed  the 
pepper  flavor  and  odor  to  a  marked  de- 
gree." 

"Fire-killed  timber"  is  "almost  odorless 
and  does  not  impart  an  unnatural  flavor 
to  the  fruit."  *  Some  boxes  offered  in 
New   York   state    are   made   of   gum. 

Apple  boxes  cost  in  the  Northwestern 
states  from  9  to  11  cents;  in  Colorado, 
from  12  to  13  cents:  in  New  York  state, 
about  12  cents;  in  the  Virginias,  from 
13  to  18  cents. 

Box  Making 

"Box  shocks"  are  usually  hauled  to  the 
packing  house  and  made  up  on  the  spot. 
To  perform  this  operation  rapidly  [by 
hand]  make  a  form  by  nailing  two  cleats 
a  foot  long  on  the  work  bench,  just  the 
length  of  a  side  board  apart,  and  about 
seven-eighths  of  an  inch  inside  each  of 
these  nail  another,  thus  making  two  slots 
to  receive  the  end  boards.  In  the  same 
manner  cleat  a  short  board  and  nail  it 
on  edge  just  back  of  the  cleats  on  the 
bench,    meeting    them    at    a    right    angle. 


1.   Box    Form    lor    Making    Apple    and 
Pear  Boxes. 

End  boards  thrust  into  these  slots  are 
thus  held  upright  while  being  nailed. 
Instead  of  the  upright  cleats  at  the  back 
of  this  form,  some  prefer  to  arrange  two 
sets  of  arms  made  of  short  boards  a  few 
inches  above  the  bench  to  engage  the  box 


•  Outlook.   Vol.   101,   p.   665,   1912. 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


ends  and  keep  them  from  wabbling.  First 
one  side  board  is  nailed  to  the  ends,  then 
the  bottom,  then  the  other  sides.  If  the 
box  cleats  split  in  nailing,  they  can  be 
soaked  in  water  previous  to  using.  A 
nail  stripper  is  a  necessity.  It  will  cost 
between  $4  and  $5.  One  of  rather  poor 
make  can  be  seen  attached  to  the  box 
press  in  Fig.  26.  A  new  self-feeding 
stripper  is  on  the  market  at  $6,  its  auto- 
matic feed  resulting  from  the  jar  of 
the  bench  to  which  the  stripper  is  at- 
tached as  the  nailer  pounds.  An  ex- 
perienced nailer  can  make  40  boxes  an 
hour.  One  cent  a  box  is  usually  paid 
for  making. 

Barrel  Versus  Box 

The  barrel  and  the  box  are  the  two 
packages  suitable  for  use  in  long  distance 
shipments  and  in  storage.  The  barrel  is 
distinctively  an  Eastern  package,  and  the 
box  a  Western.  One  reason  for  this  is 
that  hard  wood  suitable  for  making  the 
barrel  has  been  cheaper  in  the  East,  and 
soft  box  wood  cheaper  in  the  West.  The 
Western  growers  have  also  been  forced 
to  put  out  a  package  more  uniform  in 
quality  and  size  of  fruit,  in  order  to  com- 
pete with  Eastern  growers  in  Eastern 
markets,  under  the  disadvantage  of  higher 
transportation  charges,  and  this  end  has 
been  more  readily  gained  by  the  use  of 
the  box. 

For  the  Barrel 

The  barrel,  however,  has  some  advan- 
tages over  the  box  as  a  package  for  apples. 
It  can  be  packed  well  with  less  skill,  and 
more  rapidly.  It  can  be  handled  more 
easily,  by  rolling,  than  any  other  package 
for  equal  bulk.  Until  recently  it  has  been 
a  cheap  package;  although  "it  now  costs 
most  fruit  growers  from  30  to  40  cents 
instead  of  15  to  30  as  formerly."  Also, 
"many  varieties  export  better  in  the  tight 
barrel,  not  permitting  entrance  of  salt  air 
into  the  package."* 

For  the  Box 

The  advantages  of  the  box  are:  first, 
that  its  small  size  is  more  suitable  for 
use  as  a  carrier  for  some  soft  varieties 

•  E.  W.  Bailev.  TTniversity  of  Illinois,  in  Re- 
port of  Illinois  State  Hoi-tioulture  Society. 
into,      o  Ibid. 


of  apples;  because  when  so  many  are 
placed  together  as  in  a  barrel,  they  will, 
when  they  mellow,  bruise  from  their  own 
weight.  Second,  "the  box  holds  a  more 
convenient  quantity  of  fruit  for  the  'ulti- 
mate consumer,'  "  being  especially  adapt- 
ed to  the  use  of  "the  average  city  person 
who  wishes  to  buy  only  such  a  quantity 
of  fruit  as  will  keep  at  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature of  the  home,  while  it  is  being 
used.""  Third,  the  smallness  of  its  size 
in  itself  induces  the  customer  to  believe 
that  the  quality  of  the  contents  is  such 
as  to  make  up  in  value  any  lack  of 
quantity.  Fourth,  it  is  better  adapted 
for  use  as  a  display  package.  Dress 
an  apple  box  with  a  white  lining  on  its 
inside  and  lithographs  on  its  ends,  tak- 
ing care  that  the  others  of  its  whitewood 
surfaces  are  smooth  and  spotless;  then 
note  the  result.  A  barrel  at  an  apple 
show — an  extreme  case,  to  be  sure — looks 
incongruous.  Also,  the  use  of  the  box 
practically  forces  a  uniform  size  and  at- 
tractive arrangement  of  the  apples  them- 
selves, aod  renders  easy  the  securing  of 
an  intense  effect  of  color  by  the  oppor- 
tunity afforded  for  massing  the  boxes 
solidly. 

Question  of  Economy 
After  all,  however,  the  matter  of  wheth- 
er it  is  better  to  use  boxes  or  barrels,  will 
have  to  be  decided  by  considering  the  eco- 
nomic conditions  in  the  locality  of  the 
producer  and  the  standards  and  possibil- 
ities of  the  market  to  which  the  apples 
are  sent.  "The  barrel  has  been  the  stand- 
ard and  practically  the  only  package  for 
winter  apples  for  over  half  a  century." 
The  objections  to  the  use  of  the  box  in 
the  East,  besides  that  of  cost,  are:  "The 
average  [Eastern]  grower  cannot  grow  a 
crop  of  fruit  of  high  quality  varieties 
yielding  around  90  per  cent  'Fancy,'  or 
No.  1.  Skillful  and  experienced  packers 
are  not  obtained  in  these  sections.  Scarce- 
ly any  grower  is  able  to  put  a  large 
quantity  of  box  fruit  on  the  market 
year  after  year,  thus  establishing  a 
reputation  for  his  brand.  The  average 
market  does  not  take  kindly  to  the 
Eastern  packed  box.  (I  think  they  are 
becoming  educated.)"  On  the  other 
hand,  it  can  be  said  that  the  use  of  the 


APPLES 


331 


box  in  the  East  is  increasing.  Expert 
packers  from  tlie  Nortliwest  are  be- 
ing employed  by  various  organizations  of 
the  East  to  teach  the  growers  the  science 
and  art  of  apple  packing,  and  information 
on  the  subject  is  being  disseminated  by 
the  agricultural  colleges.  Prof.  E.  W. 
Bailey  goes  so  far  as  to  say,  "The  trend 
of  the  times  in  all  commodities  is  toward 
the  smaller  type  of  package,  and  the  box 
package  will  doubtless  sometime  supplant 
the  barrel."  It  is  generally  conceded  in 
the  East,  however,  that  at  the  present 
only  the  best  grades  of  apples  will  pay 
there  in  boxes,  and  by  some  it  is  believed 
that  only  then  is  the  use  of  the  boxes 
feasible  under  the  direction  of  a  co-opera- 
tive association,  with  its  trained  manager 
and  crew  of  expert  packers. 

There  are  some  who  believe  that  the 
growers  of  the  Northwest  will,  with  the 
increasing  output  of  the  section,  be  forced 
to  the  use  of  the  barrel  for  the  cheaper  va- 
rieties and  grades.  This,  it  is  believed, 
will  come  about,  first,  because  of  a  short- 
age of  labor.  It  requires  less  time  to  pack 
apples  in  barrels  than  in  boxes,  using  the 
Northwest  methods.  Second,  because  of 
a  necessity  of  reducing  the  packing  ex- 
pense, in  order  to  market  the  fruit  with 
a  profit,  with  the  decline  in  price  which 
these  persons  expect,  somewhat  in  pro- 
portion to  the  increase  in  volume  of  out- 
put. 

Problem  of  Labor 

As  to  the  first  point,  that  of  the  coming 
scarcity  of  labor,  it  is  in  reality  one  of 
the  serious  problems  now  before  the  fruit 
growers  of  the  Northwest.  But  little 
thought  has  been  given  to  its  solution, 
and  no  steps  taken  toward  future  relief. 
A  few  possible  methods  are  here  out- 
lined, although  no  one  method  will  prob- 
ably be  sufficient  by  itself.  Transient 
labor  at  its  best  is  inexpert  and  irrespon- 
sible, and  at  that  is  far  from  being  plenti^ 
ful.  If  it  must  be  employed,  however,  it 
can  be  placed  under  foremen,  provided  the 
latter  are  available;  and  the  supply  can  be 
increased  by  advertising  and  by  conces- 
sions in  transportation  charges.  An 
available  resident  population  outside  the 
fruit  industry  that  would  be  sufficient 
to  care  for  the  crop  during  a  short  space 


of  time  means  a  load  upon  the  community 
during  the  remainder  of  the  year,  unless 
other  industries  are  established  that  will 
absorb  it  after  the  harvest  season  and 
that  can  afford  to  run  short  or  shut  down 
during  the  fruit  rush;  while  at  the  same 
time  under  this  system  the  fruit  industry 
will  not  receive  the  benefit  of  any  great 
efficiency  in  its  workers,  which  can  come 
only  from  practice.  However,  this  system 
is  better  than  none — in  fact,  such  a  sys- 
tem is  already  practiced  to  some  extent. 
It  may  pay  to  foster  seriously  these  other 
accommodating  industries. 

The  most  satisfactory  solution  is  one 
that  will  enable  a  large  part  of  the  work 
to  be  done  by  responsible  and  expert  help. 
It  is  encouraging  that  at  least  three  meth- 
ods can  be  suggested  to  accomplish  this 
end.  One  is  a  reduction  in  the  size  of 
large  orchard  holdings,  thus  placing  a 
larger  population  in  the  industry  itself. 
This  is  of  course  impossible  without  main- 
taining a  certain  amount  of  profit  in  the 
production.  Another  is  the  employment 
of  all  possible  machinery  to  take  the 
place  of  hand  labor,  and  to  set  a  pace  for 
the  workers.  There  is  no  work  at  which 
a  man  can  waste  more  time  than  that  of 
grading  entirely  by  hand.  If  he  has  a  siz- 
ing machine  to  feed  at  the  same  time  that 
he  is  grading  for  quality,  his  eye  and  fin- 
gers may  develop  twice  their  usual  speed. 
A  third,  and  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory 
method,  will  be  to  prolong  the  packing 
season.  The  Northwest  apple  growers  are 
fortunate  in  at  least  three  respects:  the 
plantings  of  apples  have  been  mostly  of 
late-keeping  sorts;  the  successful  cold 
storage  of  apples  is  an  established  fact; 
nature  covers  the  apples  in  this  section 
with  an  unusually  heavy  coating  of  wax, 
which  makes  it  possible  for  them  to  be 
stored  in  many  localities  without  refrig- 
eration. Elsewhere  in  this  work  is  urged 
the  necessity  of  picking  at  the  proper 
time  and  of  rushing  the  apples  into  some 
proper  sort  of  storage,  if  their  keeping 
qualities  are  not  to  be  impaired.  This 
method  would  seem,  then,  to  lie  in  send- 
ing all  help  possible  into  the  orchards  in 
order  to  pick  at  the  proper  time;  to  store 
loose;  and  then  to  pack  up  as  ordered,  or 
at  leisure.     Briefly  stated,  store  at  home 


332 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


loose,  rather  than  at  the  market  packed. 
A  certain  number  of  men  who  will  thus 
be  employed  during  the  fall  and  winter 
can  be  used  in  the  orchards  in  early 
spring  for  pruning  and  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  year  for  spraying,  irrigat- 
ing, and  the  other  orchard  labors. 

Problems  of  Expense 

As  to  the  point  of  expense,  many  deny 
that  an  increased  production  necessarily 
means  an  overproduction  and  resultant 
decrease  in  price.  Others  believe  that 
even  if  the  price  of  apples  is  to  be  lower, 
it  would  not  be  a  menace  to  the  industry, 
but  rather  a  benefit  by  increasing  demand, 
provided  that  means  of  reducing  propor- 
tionately the  cost  of  growing  and  mar- 
keting are  employed.  They  further  be- 
lieve that  the  reduction  in  the  cost  of 
marketing  is  not  to  come  through  the 
replacing  of  perfect,  though  comparatively 
costly  methods  of  packing  by  imperfect, 
though  cheap  methods,  but  rather  through 
the  employment  of  co-operative  packing 
and  co-operative  and  direct  buying  and 
selling;  and  that  the  reduction  in  the 
cost  of  production  is  to  come  through  the 
dissemination  of  knowledge  and  the  em- 
ployment of  more  efflcient  methods  in  or- 
chard management.  As  to  the  disposal 
of  the  low  grade  of  apples,  if  it  is  not 
profitable  or  for  other  reasons  is  not  ad- 
visable under  the  present  methods  em- 
ployed, it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that 
the  barrel  is  to  be  used.  The  expense  of 
putting  out  a  box  with  a  jumble  pack 
would  be  not  far  from  the  expense  of 
putting  out  a  like  amount  in  the  barrel, 
and  by  many  the  box  for  this  purpose 
would  be  preferred.  Many  would  dispose 
of  any  apples  that  are  not  profitable  when 
packed  according  to  the  Northwest  meth- 
od, by  turning  them  into  by-products 
before  placing  them  before  the  public, 
thus  avoiding  any  lowering  of  the  stand- 
ard by  which  the  Northwest  apple  has 
become  known.  Others  would  find  a  lim- 
ited market  for  such  grade  in  certain 
sections  of  the  West,  where  the  apples 
could  be  sent  in  bulk  loose  in  the  car. 
This  practice  would  save  at  least  $90  on 
the  expense  of  each  car  put  out. 

In  some  instances  Western  box  apples 
that   have   not   met  a   ready   sale   in    the 


East,  have  been  transferred  into  barrels 
and  disposed  of  at  a  profit.  This  is  not 
an  argument  in  favor  of  the  barrel,  how- 
ever, as  in  such  cases,  if  the  grade  and 
pack  have  been  up  to  standard,  it  will 
usually  be  found  that  the  consumer  has 
not  been  accustomed  to  the  box;  fre- 
quently because  he  has  looked  upon  it  as 
an  article  beyond  the  reach  of  his  purse. 
The  remedy  for  this  is  a  campaign  of  edu- 
cation of  the  retailer  and  consumer,  and 
a  reduction  of  the  cost  to  him  through 
the  use  of  the  means  indicated  above. 
One  fact  is  certain:  wherever  Western  box 
apples  have  been  introduced,  the  result, 
so  long  as  the  standard  of  grade  and  pack 
have  been  maintained,  has  been  an  in- 
creasing demand. 

I5ARREL  PACKING 
Grades 

The  United  States  standard  grades  for 
barrel  apples  as  established  by  the  en- 
actment of  the  "Sulzer"  bill  in  1912,  gov- 
erning the  shipment  of  apples  in  inter- 
state commerce  and  the  sale  of  apples  in 
the  District  of  Columbia  or  the  territories, 
is  as  follows:  "Apples  of  one  variety, 
which  are  well  grown  specimens,  hand 
picked,  of  good  color  for  the  variety, 
normal  shape,  practically  free  from  insect 
and  fungus  injury,  bruises,  and  other  de- 
fects, except  such  as  are  necessarily 
caused  in  the  operation  of  packing,  or 
apples  of  one  variety  which  are  not  more 
than  ten  per  centum  below  the  foregoing 
specifications  shall  be  'Standard  grade 
minimum  size  two  and  one-half  inches,'  if 
the  minimum  size  of  the  apples  is  two 
and  one-half  inches  in  transverse  diam- 
eter; 'Standard  grade  minimum  size  two 
and  one-fourth  inches.'  if  the  minimum 
size  of  the  apples  is  two  and  one-fourth 
inches  in  transverse  diameter;  or  'Stand- 
ard grade  minimum  size  two  inches,'  if 
the  minimum  size  of  the  apples  is  two 
inches  in  transverse  diameter."  Provi- 
sion is  also  made  that  if  "the  barrel  bears 
any  statement,  design,  or  device  indicat- 
ing that  the  apples  contained  therein  are 
'Standard'  grade  and  the  barrel  fails  to 
bear  also  a  statement  of  the  name  of  the 
variety,  the  name  of  the  locality  where 
grown,   and   the   name   of   the   packer   or 


APPLES 


333 


the  person  by  whose  authority  the  apples 
were  packed  and  the  barrel  marked,"  the 
barrel  shall  be  deemed  to  be  misbranded, 
and  the  negligent  person  or  persons  shall 
be  liable  to  a  fine  of  one  dollar  for  each 
barrel  concerned. 

The  requirements  of  the  International 
Apple  Shippers'  Association  for  "No.  1" 
apples,  as  adopted  by  that  body  in  1895 
(amended  1897)  are  as  follows:  "The 
standard  size  *  *  *  shall  not  be  less 
than  two  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter 
and  shall  include  such  varieties  as  Ben 
Davis,  Willow  Twig,  Baldwin,  Greening 
and  other  varieties  of  kindred  size.  The 
standard  for  such  varieties  as  Romanite. 
Russet,  Winesap,  Jonathan,  Missouri 
Pippin  *  *  *  shall  not  be  less  than 
two  and  one-quarter  inches.  And  further, 
No.  1  apples  shall  be  at  the  time  of  pack- 
ing practically  free  from  the  action  of 
worms,  defacement  of  surface  or  breaking 
of  skin;  shall  be  hand  picked  from  the 
■tree,  a  bright  and  normal  color  and 
shapely  form."  The  following  determin- 
ing what  a  No.  2  apple  shall  be,  was 
adopted  by  the  same  body  in  1900:  "No. 
2  apples  shall  be  hand  picked  from  the 
tree.  Shall  not  be  smaller  than  two  and 
one-quarter  inches  in  diameter  and  of  fair 
color  for  the  variety.  The  skin  must  not 
be  broken  nor  apple  bruised,  and  must  be 
practically  free  from  scab  and  other  de- 
fects. This  grade  must  be  faced  and 
packed  with  as  much  care  as  No.  1  fruit." 

Grading-  and  Packinsr  Table 

The  table  shown  in  Pig.  2  is  adapted 
for  use  either  in  the  orchard  or  the  pack- 
ing house.  "The  table  in  the  illustration 
is  six  feet  long  by  four  feet  wide,  side 
eight  inches  high.  Slats  in  the  bottom 
of  the  bed  are  one  inch  square  and  are 
spaced  one  inch  apart.  The  legs  at  the 
lower  end  are  39  inches  long,  allowing 
the  bottom  of  the  bed  to  clear  the  top 
of  the  barrel.  The  legs  at  the  upper  end 
are  45  inches,  giving  a  six-inch  pitch  to 
the  table.  The  apples  can  easily  be  in- 
spected as  they  roll  into  the  apron  and 
Imperfect  ones  thrown  out.  When  the 
apron  is  filled  it  can  be  slowly  lowered 
into  the  barrel  without  bruising  the  fruit. 
This  packing  table   may   be   mounted   on 


wheels  for  convenience  in  orchard  work 
or  may  be  built  larger  with  two  funnels 
allowing  two  barrels  to  be  filled  at  once."* 
This  table,  w'ithout  the  bed  and  sides 
padded,  would  not  be  tolerated  in  the 
apple  districts  of  the  Northwest.  It 
should  be  used  with  a  piece  of  burlap 
or  carpet  spread  over  it  that  can  be 
shaken  frequently  to  remove  the  litter, 
rather  than  with  a  slat  bottom  to  allow 
the  twigs  and   leaves  to  tall  through. 


W'.,.^_U 


Fig.   2.   Grading    and    Packing    Table    for 

Barrel   Packing. 

West  Virginia  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  139. 

OPEEATION  OF  PACKING 

Facing 

In  packing  a  barrel  of  apples,  the  pack- 
age is  faced,  in  order  to  increase  its  at- 
tractiveness. By  facing  is  meant  the 
placing  by  hand  of  one  layer  or  more, 
frequently  of  two,  into  the  bottom  of  the 
barrel,  the  intention  being  that  when  the 
package  is  ready  for  market  the  bottom 
shall  be  marked  and  considered  as  the 
top.  To  the  end  that  this  facing  shall 
present  a  really  attractive  appearance, 
each  apple  is  laid  with  the  stem  end 
down,  the  stem  having  been  previously 
cut  off  with  a  stemmer;  the  apples  are 
selected  for  uniformity  of  size  and  color 
and  freedom  from  serious  blemishes  and 
are  arranged  regularly  in  concentric  cir- 
cles.    The  facing  apples  should  as  nearly 

•  W.  H.  Alderman.  West  Virginia  E.xperlment 
Station    Bulletin    139,    1912. 


334 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


as  possible  represent  the  contents  of  the 
barrel. 

"Care  should  be  taken  to  select  fruit 
that  will  just  fill  up  the  circles  without 
leaving  any  spaces  or  requiring  any  to  be 
placed  on  edge.  When  the  center  is 
reached  it  should  be  filled  with  either  one, 
three  or  four  apples  (figs.  3  and  4). 
Never  use  a  large  or  small  apple  to  fill 
out  the  center  space  as  it  would  spoil 
the  looks  of  the  whole  face.  By  selecting 
apples  measuring  three  to  three  and  one- 
eighth  inches  in  diameter  the  outer  circle 
may  be  filled  with  fifteen  apples,  the  sec- 
ond ring  by  nine  and  three  will  fill  the 
center  (fig.  3).  The  next  smaller  size 
that  can  be  used  measures  two  and  three- 
quarters  to  two  and  seven-eighths  inches 
in  diameter.  It  will  take  seventeen  of 
these  to  fill  the  outer  circle,  eleven  to 
fill  the  second  and  four  to  fill  the  center 
(fig.  4).  A  size  of  fruit  intermediate  be- 
tween these  two  could  not  be  used. 
Many  growers  face  all  their  barrels  using 
only  these  two  sizes.  In  case  the  fruit 
runs  smaller  than  either  of  these  two 
sizes  one  must  select  that  size  which  will 
make  three  circles  and  leave  the  center 
to  be  filled  with  one  apple.  In  the  case 
of  very  large  apples  like  Fallawater  they 
may  be  arranged  in  two  circles  with  a 
space  in  the  center  to  be  filled  with  one 
apple."* 


Fig.  3. 


FiK.   4. 


Fig.  3.  Ananaement  of  the  Face  When  tlip 
Apple  Runs  from  Three  to  Three  and  One- 
eiRhth   Inches  in  Diameter. 

Fiff.  4.  Arrangement  of  the  Face  When  the 
Fruit  Measures  Two  and  Three-quarters  to 
Two    and    Seven-eighths    Inches    in    niameter. 

Filling',  Tailing,  Heading 

"The  filling  of  the  barrel  should  be  ac- 
companied by  vigorous  shaking  after 
every  halt-bushel  of  fruit  has  been  added. 


This  settles  the  fruit  into  its  permanent 
place  so  that  there  will  be  no  loosening 
and  rattling  after  the  barrel  is  packed. 
When  the  barrel  is  nearly  filled  the  up- 
per layer  must  be  arranged  by  hand  to 
form  a  level  surface  against  which  the 
head  may  press.  This  operation  is 
known  as  'tailing.'  The  barrel  should  be 
filled  an  Inch  or  more  above  the  chime  to 


Fig.   5.     A   Good   Home-made  Lever  Barrel 
Press. 

allow  for  shrinkage  and  to  tighten  the 
fruit  in  the  barrel  when  the  head  is 
pressed  into  position.'"*  "The  exact  pres- 
sure which  must  be  given  will  depend 
somewhat  on  the  variety  of  the  apple. 
.  .  .  The  Spy  has  to  be  pressed  very 
moderately,  as  the  apple  splits  readily 
under  pressure;  Russets,  on  the  contrary, 
will  stand  much  heavier  pressure  without 
breaking  the  skin,  and  appear  to  require 
heavy  pressure  to  prevent  slackness  from 
evaporation.  .  .  Overpressing  will  break 
the  skin  of  the  apple,  or  bruise  it  severely, 
inducing  decay  in  one  or  more  specimens, 
which  will  quickly  cause  slackness.  .  . 
The  process  of  tailing  a  barrel  of  apples 
Is  the  severest  test  of  a  good  packer.  .  . 
The  characteristics  of  good  tailing  is  to 
have  the  apples  of  the  last  two  rows 
placed  solidly  and  evenly,  so  that  when 
finished  the  head  will  touch  with  the 
same  pressure  each  apple  exposed. "t  "The 
contents  of  the  barrel  are  then  pressed 
into  place  with  a  well  padded  head  speci- 
ally prepared  for  this  purpose."  **  Many, 
however,  dispense  with  this  operation. 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  re- 
garding the  use  of  pads  and  decorative 
paper.     "A  circle  of  plain  or  laced  white 


•  W.   H.   Alderman,   1912,   West   Virginia   Ex- 
periment Station,   Bulletin   130. 


•  W.  H.  Alderman.  1912,  West  Virginia  Ex- 
periment  Station.      Bulletin   130. 

t  Bulletin  19,  Dalr.v  and  Cold  Storage  Com- 
missioner's  Series,  Alex.   McNeill,   1007. 

••  Report  Vermont  Experiment  Station,  1908- 

inoo. 


APPLES 


335 


IRON  CIRCLE  PRESS  HEAD 

Fii 
Fig. 


6.      Screw    Press    Frame. 
Iron  Circle   Press   Head. 


paper  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a  barrel 
before  the  facers  are  laid  will  add  greatly 
to  its  attractiveness.  If  in  addition  a 
layer  of  corrugated  paper  or  an  excelsior 
pad  is  placed  under  each  head  it  greatly 
diminishes  bruising."  *  "Heads  cut  from 
heavy  paper  or  from  light  pulp  board  are 
very  desirable  on  both  ends  of  the  barrel. 
The  patent  corrugated  heads  cannot  be 
recommended.  It  is  doubtful,  too,  whether 
there  is  an  advantage  in  using  fancy  paper 
heads."  t 

In  finishing  the  barrel,  six  nails  driven 
only  through  the  first  hoop  to  prevent  in- 
jury to  the  apples  are  sufficient.     Liners 


should  be  used  and  should  be  kept  damp 
to  make  them  bend  easily  and  to  prevent 
splitting. 

On  the  head  of  each  barrel  should  be 
stenciled  the  grade  and  variety  of  the 
apple,  the  name  and  address  of  the  grower. 
If  the  apples  are  packed  in  the  orchard, 
the  full  barrels  should  not  be  left  in  the 
sun  for  any  length  of  time  before  they 
are  transferred  to  the  storage  house. 

Barrel  Press 

A  screw  press  frame  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 
"To  make  the  pressure  equal,  an  iron  cir- 
cle press-head  is  used,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7. 
The  bars  A  and  B  are  made  with  an  arch 
and  with  a  shoulder  to  fit  against  the  iron 
circle,  C.  The  circle  should  be  14  inches 
in  diameter  and  made  of  quarter-inch  bar 
iron."  * 

"The  lever  presses  are  more  rapid  to 
operate  than  the  screw  type,  which  is 
being  used  less  and  less.  The  iron  circle 
used  on  some  presses  to  force  the  head 
to  place  is  usually  in  the  way  of  the  oper- 
ator, a  single  wooden  block  extending 
crosswise  of  the  head  being  far  more  con- 
venient.    An  excellent  press  is  shown   in 


•  W.  H.  .\lderman.  1912.  West  Tirginia  Ex- 
periment  Station.     Bulletin   139. 

■r  Bulletin  19.  Dairy  and  Cold  Storage  Com- 
missioner's Series.  Alex  McNeill.  1907. 


Fig.   8.      Press  for   Heading  Apple   Barrels. 


•  J.  A.  Ruddich.  Department  Agriculture, 
Canada.  "Better  Fruit."  September.  1910.  p. 
39. 


336 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.  8.  If  the  press  has  to  be  carried 
about  the  orchard  frequently,  it  may  be 
made  much  lighter  by  turning  up  the  bot- 
toms of  the  iron  uprights  in  the  form  of 
a  hooli  to  clamp  under  the  edge  of  the 
barrel  and  discarding  the  heavy  base."  ° 

BOX  PACKEVG 

Packing  House 
Necessity 

With  the  barrel  as  the  package,  it  does 
not  so  much  matter  where  the  packing  is 
to  be  done,  whether  in  the  orchard  or  in  a 
packing  house,  because  of  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  crop  is  thus  cared  for; 
but  in  the  case  of  box  packing,  the  ques- 
tion is  one  of  importance.  In  barrel  pack- 
ing, the  important  point  as  to  this  phase 
of  the  question,  is  to  keep  the  apples 
cool  from  the  time  they  are  picked  to  the 
time  the  packed  barrels  are  placed  in 
storage,  and  if  this  can  be  accomplished 
under  the  protection  of  an  old  shed,  a 
canvas  awning,  or  of  the  trees  themselves, 
nothing  more  is  necessary.  In  the  sec- 
tions where  boxes  are  used,  and  especially 
where  wrapping  is  practiced,  the  grower 
will,  however,  soon  find  a  packing  house 
a  necessity.  The  caprices  of  the  autumn 
weather  will  have  anything  but  a  desired 
effect  upon  the  condition  of  the  apples  and 
the  temper  of  the  packers,  and  will  often 
retard  the  work.  A  truth  not  sufficiently 
recognized  is  that  the  comfort  of  the 
graders  and  packers  has  in  most  cases  a 
direct  bearing  upon  the  quality  of  their 
work. 

Location 

Some  growers  prefer  to  build  the  pack- 
ing house  near  the  center  of  the  orchard, 
while  others  locate  it  near  the  exit  from 
the  ranch:  in  either  case  it  is  usually  in 
a  group  with  the  other  farm  buildings. 
A  few  are  fortunate  enoush  to  be  able  to 
build  it  against  a  car  siding.  This  point 
will  have  to  be  determined  by  each  grower 
for  himself,  economy  of  labor  and  time 
being  the  chief  points  to  consider. 

fonstrnction 

No  packing  house  is  complete  without 
two  compartments,  one  for  at  least  tem- 


°  W.  H.  Alderman.  West  Virginia  Experiment 
Station     Bulletin     l.in,     1912. 


porary  storage,  and  the  other  for  a  grad- 
ing and  packing  room.  Although  the  ma- 
jority of  the  packing  houses  in  the  North- 
west probably  possess  but  one;  due  to  a 
great  extent  to  the  fact  that  the  necessity 
of  keeping  fruit  cool  and  at  an  even  tem- 
perature from  the  time  of  picking,  has 
not  been  appreciated.  A  few  persons  who 
have  built  their  storage  rooms  capable  of 
withstanding  winter  temperatures  and 
have  sold  their  apples  in  early  spring, 
have  paid  for  the  house  in  one  season  by 
the  increased  returns  from  the  crop. 
Where  a  hillside  is  available,  some  such 
houses  are  built  with  a  basement  of  con- 
crete or  masonry,  the  packing  compart- 
ment being  on  the  upper  floor.  Where  all 
the  second  story  is  not  needed  for  a  sorting 
and  packing  room,  the  remainder  is  used 
for  the  storage  of  box  material,  for  various 
farm  purposes,  or  is  fitted  up  for  addi- 
tional winter  storage.  Not  every  farm 
possesses  a  hillside,  however,  and  a  large 
number  of  the  most  successful  combined 
packing  and  storage  houses  are  built  on 
level  ground.  In  the  latter  case  the  en- 
tire building  is  usually  of  wood;  and  that 
part  intended  for  winter  storage  is  con- 
structed with  insulated  walls.  Neither 
the  working  nor  the  storage  compartment 
should  be  so  large  as  to  necessitate  a 
waste  of  steps  in  handling  the  fruit,  yet 
they  should  be  planned  with  reference  to 
future  needs.  For  the  sake  of  conve- 
nience the  doors  between  the  two  com- 
partments should  be  on  the  side  of  the 
rooms  rather  than  on  the  end.  Every  pack- 
ing house  should  contain  room  for  the 
storage  of  box  material,  where  it  can  be 
kept  away  from  the  sun,  dust  and  rain. 
In  very  dry  climates  it  is  well,  also,  to 
provide  a  room  for  the  storage  of  wrap- 
pin.g  paper,  where  the  humidity  can  be 
regulated.  Dry,  brittle  paper  tears  in 
wrapping  and  does  not  handle  so  easily 
and  rapidly  as  when  soft.  A  porous  brick 
floor  that  can  be  wet  will  serve  for  the  lat- 
ter purpose,  the  paper  to  be  piled  on  a 
platform  of  slats  a  few  inches  above  the 
floor.  The  cost  of  the  packing  house  will 
of  course  depend  upon  many  factors. 
Some  of  the  newer  houses  erected  in  the 
Northwest  represent  an  outlay  of  from 
two  to  seven  thousand  dollars. 


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Fig.  9.  Combined  Storage  and  Pacliing  House  of  J.  T.  Baird.  Riverside  District.  Mabton,  Wash. 
Note  galvanized  iron  ventilators  in  concrete  foundation.  This  house  has  a  covered  plat- 
form on  two  sides. 


Work  Room 

The  important  point  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  work  room  is  to  furnish  good 
light  for  the  graders  and  packers.  This 
can  be  accomplished  by  a  row  of  windows 
along  the  side,  by  skylights  in  the  roof, 
or  by  a  combination  of  both  methods. 
Where  side  windows  are  used  entirely,  a 
north  light  will  be  found  most  satisfac- 
torj%  because  most  even.  Packers  should 
not  be  expected  to  work  in  direct  sun- 
light. In  large  areas  of  the  Northwest 
apple  growing  sections  it  is  now  possible 
to  install  electric  lighting  in  the  packing 
houses,  and  this  should  be  done  wherever 
possible  for  use  in  the  late  afternoons  of 
dark  days.  Another  point  to  be  looked 
to  is  ventilation  without  draughts  that 
will  disturb  the  wrapping  paper.  Con- 
venience will  be  determined  to  a  great 
extent  by  the  disposal  of  the  grading  and 
packing  furniture.  Provision  may  need 
to  be  made  for  heat  if  the  room  is  to  be 
used  in  the  late  fall  or  the  winter. 

Storage   Boom 
"Cool"  Storaire 

Several    combined    packing   and    "cool" 


storage  houses  have  been  built  in  vari- 
ous orchard  sections  of  the  Northwest 
within  recent  years.  The  principle  of 
"cool"  storage  consists  in  the  use  of 
night  air  for  maintaining  a  low  tempera- 
ture during  both  night  and  day. 

The  "cool"  storage  room  or  building 
is  insulated  in  the  same  manner  as  a  cold 
storage  room.  Three  or  four  inch-thick 
dead  air  spaces  separated  by  partitions  of 
moisture  proof  paper  over  shiplap  are 
said  to  serve  as  well  as  cork,  at  the 
same  time  being  cheaper.  Some  of  these 
plants,  notably  in  the  Payette,  Idaho,  dis- 
trict, are  built  with  basements  to  be  used 
for  common  storage,  in  which  case  air 
is  taken  into  the  room  above,  the  "cool" 
storage  room  proper,  through  openings 
in  the  walls  just  above  the  floor.  In  one 
room  in  the  Yakima,  Washington  district, 
which  room  has  been  built  into  the  base- 
ment of  a  warehouse,  the  air  is  taken 
in  through  a  chute  reaching  down  from 
the  outside  and  extending  along  under  a 
false  floor  consisting  of  planks  laid  an 
inch  apart,  the  air  entering  the  room 
through  these  cracks.     In  the  case  of  two 


338 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


other  rooms  in  the  Yakima  district,  both 
built  above  the  ground,  the  air  enters 
through  openings  in  the  foundation  walls, 
and  up  through  a  floor  built  similar  to 
the  one  in  the  plant  just  mentioned.  C. 
I.  Lewis  suggests  that  in  buildings  of 
this  latter  type,  if  the  room  is  large, 
some  of  the  air  should  be  made  to  enter 
through  chutes  under  the  floor  and  reach- 
ing to  the  center  of  the  room,  in  order  to 
insure  a  more  even  distribution  of  air 
throughout.  Some  persons  believe  that  an 
insulated  floor  should  be  laid  underneath 
the  ventilating  floor;  but  the  bare  earth 
underneath,  if  it  is  kept  moist,  helps  to 
retard  loss  of  moisture  from  the  apples. 
In  order  to  secure  the  necessary  draught 
of  air  through  the  "cool"  storage  rooms 
they  are  further  provided  with  ventila- 
tors in  the  roof;  and  where  they  seem 
to  be  most  thoughtfully  constructed  and 
where  electric  power  is  available,  fans 
are  installed  in  the  ventilators  to  in- 
crease the  draught  by  suction.  Of  course 
the  air  intakes  of  the  "cool"  storage 
room  are  furnished  with  cutoffs,  which 
are  closed  during  the  daytime  and  opened 
at  night. 

It  is  stated  that  in  well  constructed 
rooms,  where  also  electric  fans  are  used 
in  the  cupolas,  the  day  temperature  can 
be  kept  to  within  two  degrees  of  the  out- 
side night  temperature.  Hence  the  prac- 
ticability of  the  system  will  be  deter- 
mined  largely   by   the   known   night   tem- 


peratures at  the  time  the  rooms  are  de- 
sired to  be  used.  "Cool"  storage  has 
proved  especially  efficient  for  storing  ap- 
ples which  mature  late  in  the  season,  and 
it  may  be  more  or  less  of  benefit  in  hand- 
ling any  fruit  during  warmer  weather. 
For  the  latter  purpose,  however,  it  is  not 
a  substitute  for  cold  storage  or  pre-cool- 
ing.  "Cool"  storage  is  especially  adapt- 
ed for  use  in  arid  sections  or  those  of 
high  altitude,  where  night  temperatures 
run  characteristically  low.  Of  course  it 
is  a  success  during  injurious  winter 
temperatures,  when  the  air  intakes  are 
kept  entirely  closed  and  the  insulation 
protects  from  outside  cold. 

Sanitation 

A  point  in  the  care  of  the  packing  and 
storage  house,  the  value  of  which  is  fre- 
quently unappreciated,  is  cleanliness.  Qn 
this  point  we  quote  Prof.  C.  I.  Lewis  of 
the  Oregon  Agricultural  College:  "There 
is  one  point  that  I  would  wish  to  empha- 
size in  handling  a  packing  house,  and 
that  is  keeping  it  clean.  Some  growers 
allow  more  or  less  decayed  apples  and 
pears  to  remain  in  the  packing  house 
months  after  the  crop  is  handled.  As 
soon  as  the  season  is  over  the  house 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned.  Where 
decayed  fruit  has  been  handled  in  any 
way.  that  portion  of  the  packing  house 
should  be  washed  and  fumigated.  By 
writing  to  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  bulletins  can  be  obtained 


Fig.  10. 


A   Warehouse  and   Packing   House   of  tbe   Rogue   River   Fruit   and   Produce  Association, 
Medtord,  Ore.     Note  tlie  excellent  provision  for  light  and  ventilation. 


APPLES 


339 


on  handlinsc  of  fruits,  which  show  from 
experiniont.  the  necessity  of  avoiding  all 
possibility  of  inoculating  fruits  with 
decay."  * 

1»ACK1>G  HOUSE  FURMTURE** 
The  furniture  of  the  packing  house 
consists  of  the  box  machine  or  box  form, 
the  possible  sizing  and  wiping  machines 
or  the  wiping  and  grading  tables  or 
benches,  the  packing  tables,  the  nailing 
press,  and  the  clamp  or  other  trucks  for 
handling  the  loose  and  packed  boxes  of 
fruit.  The  box  machine  has  found  little, 
if  any,  use  in  the  apple  industry,  owing 
largely  to  the  fact  that  it  would  tie  up 
capital,  the  benefit  from  which  could  be 
enjoyed  only  to  a  limited  extent  by  the 
average  grower.  The  box  form  is  dis- 
cussed in  this  article  under  the  caption 
of  Box  Making.  The  clamp  truck  is  a 
necessity  if  the  packing  house  is  at  all 
large. 

•  Better  Fruit.    September.    1010,  p.   10. 
.   **  See  also  Packing  House  Management. 


FjlTl 

1 

Pig.    11.     Clamp    Truck.      Five   boxes   of   apples 
are   handled   at   once. 

Wiping  and  Sizing  Machines 

These  are  of  comparatively  recent  in- 
vention for  use  in  the  apple  industry. 
The  chief  obstacle  in  perfecting  them  has 
been  the  necessity  of  a  construction  that 
will  allow  absolutely  no  bruising  of  the 
fruit,   the  extreme   tenderness  of  the   ap- 


Fig.   12.      Apple    Wiping    Machine. 

Courtesu     Enterprise    Fruit     Machine     Co.,     Zillah.  Wash. 


340 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.    13.      Gilbert   Sortinj;  Belt  Receiving  Tiays  in   Place. 


pie,  when  compared  to  the  orange,  having 
led  many  to  doubt  if  machinery  could 
ever  be  constructed  so  as  to  handle  the 
apple  crop  according  to  the  labor  saving 
methods  employed  with  the  latter  fruit. 
The  wiping  machine  is,  of  course,  used 
only  where  the  apples  are  coated  with  an 
excess  of  dust  or  spray.  No  more  wiping 
should  be  given  an  apple  than  will  re- 
move these  defacements.  Otherwise  there 
is  danger  of  removing  some  of  the  wax 
with  which  the  apple  is  coated,  and  which 
acts  as  a  deterrent  toward  inoculation 
with  decay.  A  few  persons  go  so  far  as 
to  say  that  apples  to  be  shipped  or  stored 
should  not  be  wiped  under  any  circum- 
stance. In  this  connection,  it  is  well  to 
add  that  the  consumer  should  be  educated 
to  the  fact  that  spray  does  not  render 
the  apple  unfit  for  consumption  and  that 
a  polished  apple  means  a  short-lived  ap- 
ple. A  wiping  machine,  which  can  be 
run  by  hand  or  motor  power,  is  con- 
structed   in   the   shape    of    a    horizontal 


trough,  through  which  the  apples  pass  on 
a  rubber  or  canvas  band,  at  the  same 
time  being  slapped  by  short  strips  of 
cloth. 

Combinution  Sorting  and  Packing  Tables 

These  are  great  savers  of  labor,  and. 
unlike  the  sizing  machines,  are  simple 
enough  in  construction  to  be  made  by  the 
average  orchardist  at  home.  Two  types 
are  now  manufactured  and  sold  in  the 
Northwest.  The  Sykes  table  consists  of 
a  tray  upon  which  the  apples  are  sorted, 
and  of  various  radiating  canvas  trays 
into  which  the  apples  are  shoved  directly 
by  the  sorters  ready  for  handling  by  the 
packers.  The  use  of  a  belt  for  carrying 
the  apples  in  front  of  the  sorters  and 
for  delivering  the  sorted  apples  into  vari- 
ous packing  trays  was  originated  by  Mr. 
H.  M.  Gilbert,  North  Yakima,  Wash.,  who 
has  operated  it  successfully  for  two  years 
at  his  ranch  near  North  Yakima,  Wash. 

Mr.  Gilbert's  machine  is  simple  and  in- 


APPLES 


341 


expensive,  consisting  of  a  slowly  moving 
canvas  belt  24  inches  wide.  The  operator 
shifts  the  apples  on  the  belt  from  side 
to  side,  and  as  the  apples  move  along 
they  are  pushed  gently  to  receiving  tables 
by  curved  rods  covered  with  cotton  garden 
hose,  lying  just  above  the  belt.  One  table 
receives  the  "C"  grade,  one  the  "Fancy" 
and  three  other  tables  receive  the  'Extra 
Fancy"  in  three  different  sizes. 

We  present  herewith  descriptions  of 
two  sizing  machines. 

The  Price  Fruit  Siziiis:  Machine 

The  following  statement  is  from  the  in- 
ventor: 

It  sizes  by  weight.  The  apples  are 
dropped  by  a  pegged  wheel  into  a  cup 
which  is  attached  to  an  arm,  which  in 
turn  is  moved  by  a  spring,  throwing  the 
apples  a  distance  in  proportion  to  their 
weight,  to  the  proper  bins. 

It  will  detect  water-cored  apples,  for 
they  have  a  greater  specific  gravitj'  than 
normal  apples,  and  apples  which  ought 
to  pack  112  to  125  will  be  found  in  bins 
packing  104. 

The  apples  are  not  bruised,  as  they 
strike  soft  felt  and  spring-supported 
cloth,  and  roll  gently  into  the  bins. 


They  come  into  contact  with  enough 
cloth  during  the  process  to  sufficiently 
clean  them  for  market. 

It  distributes  the  apples  into  20  bins, 
each  bin  containing  apples  of  an  exact 
size  used  in  the  Northwest  standard  pack. 
The  power  rnachine  as  illustrated  handles 
1,,500  boxes  per  day.  These  machines  are 
built  in  units — one  unit  forming  a  small 
machine  capable  of  handling  750  boxes 
per  day.  and  two  units  connected  form 
the  large  machine.  These  are  inter- 
changeable and  can  be  added  at  any  time. 

Jones  Sizing  Machine 

The  method  of  operation  of  the  Jones 
sizer  is  as  follows: 

The  fruit  is  put  into  a  canvas  bottomed 
hopper,  from  which  it  rolls  down  and  is 
spread  out  before  the  operator  seated  at 
the  assorting  table,  as  shown  in  the  large 
cut.  As  the  fruit  is  there  spread  out  and 
rolling  over  before  him,  he  determines 
the  properly  colored  and  shaped  fruit  and 
directs  it  to  the  near  side  of  the  machine, 
turning  the  sound  but  imperfectly  colored 
or  shaped  fruit  to  the  far  side,  and  throw- 
ing out  that  which  is  not  fit  for  packing. 

As  shown  in  the  small  cut,  the  grading 
mechanism  consists  of  a  series  of  rubber 
belts,    perforated    with    round    holes    of 


Fig.   14.      Price   Sizer  and  Grader. 


342 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTIClLTfRE 


rifT.   13.      Apple    Sizing    Macliine.    Side    View. 
Conrtcst/  Jones  Apple  Grader  Co. 


increasing  diameter  in  successive  belts. 
The  apples  are  guided  to  roll  tranversely 
from  the  assorting  table  upon  the  first 
belt,  and  if  too  large  to  drop  through 
the  grading  holes  they  are  guided  to  roll 
tranversely  upon  the  second  belt,  and  so 
on  to  the  third  belt,  and  over  the  end. 

Canvas  pockets  receive  the  graded  fruit 
and  allow  it  to  roll  upon  the  packing 
tables  at  sides  and  end  of  the  machine. 
From  hopper  to  packing  tables  the  fruit 
touches  only  canvas  or  rubber,  and  is 
protected  from  bruising. 


Fis 


16.      Apple    Sizing    Macliine.    Top    View. 
Courtesy  Jones  Apple  Grader  Co. 


Packingr  Tables 

Where  neither  sizing  machine  nor  sort- 
ing table  is  employed,  and  where  box  to 
box    sorting    is    practiced,    two    types    of 


packing  table  are  in  use  in  the  North- 
west. One  has  a  sagging  burlap  top  to 
hold  the  apples  loose,  the  other  has  an 
inclined  solid  or  framework  top  to  hold 
the  apples  in  boxes. 

Hollow  Top  Type 

A  style  of  this  type  frequently  recom- 
mended is  described  by  Lowell  B.  Judson, 
Horticulturist.  University  of  Idaho,  thus: 
"It  accommodates  two  packers  and  allows 
free  access  to  the  ends  for  refilling.  The 
favorite  size  is  3x4  feet,  as  it  allows  any 
part  to  be  easily  reached  by  either  packer, 
and  yet  holds  plenty  of  fruit,  that  is, 
three  or  four  boxes.  The  full  length  of 
the  legs  is  three  feet;  they  come  up  in- 
side the  frame  flush  with  the  top,  but 
should  be  sawed  off  on  a  slope  inward  to 
prevent  the  corners  bruising  the  apples 
through  the  burlap.  The  real  test  of  the 
proper  height  of  the  table  is  the  height 
of  the  box  when  in  position  on  the  sup- 
ports; if  the  packer's  extended  fingers 
just  touch  the  lower  inside  corners  of 
the  box  as  he  stands  erect  before  it.  the 
height  is  correct.  Table  legs  three  feet 
long  usually  fill  these  conditions.  A 
board  nailed  across  the  end  and  another 
running  across  underneath  serve  to  sup- 
port the  box  at  a  convenient  angle  for 
packing.  The  latter  board  should,  in  ad- 
dition to  being  nailed,  be  fastened  with 
wire,  or  in  some  equally  secure  manner, 
as  there  is  constant  and  often  heavy  pres- 
sure upon  it.  Commonly  the  box  sup- 
ports   are    arranged    at    diagonally    oppo- 


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site  corners.  *  *  *  The  top  of  the 
table  consists  merely  of  burlap  or  canvas. 
*  *  *  It  is  an  improvement  if  a  dou- 
ble thickness  of  the  cloth  is  used  and 
the  upper  tacked  at  one  end  only,  allow- 
ing dirt  and  litter  easily  to  be  shaken  off. 
All  the  apples  should  be  packed  off  the 
table  about  once  an  hour  to  prevent 
bruises  wearing  upon  them.  The  danger 
of  bruises  may  also  be  lessened  by  edging 
the  table  with  pieces  of  hose  pipe."*  An- 
other style  of  this  type  of  packing  table 
is  one  that  is  long  enough  to  accommo- 
date two  or  more  packers  at  either  side; 
but  this  style,  because  of  several  disad- 
vantages, is  less  used.  Instead  of  per- 
manent box  supports  attached  to  the  table. 
a  more  convenient  arrangement  is  secured 
by  the  use  of  a  skeleton  bench  made  to 
accommodate  only  two  boxes,  the  same  to 
be  drawn  up  alongside  the  table  wherever 
desired  to  accommodate  either  a  packer 
who  packs  from  the  right  or  one  who 
packs  from  the  left.  This  bench  can 
also  be  built  like  the  one  in  Fig.  18,  with 
an   added   incline   at   the   back,   to   which 

*  Idaho  Expeiiment  Station  Bulletin  .j4.  IDOil. 


the  packer  can  shift  his  finished  box  to 
await  the  attendant.  The  revolving  box 
rack  sometimes  used  with  the  burlap 
table  cannot  be  recommended,  the  skel- 
eton bench   being  more  simple. 

Some  persons  believe  that  in  packing 
from  a  burlap  table  rather  than  from  an 
orchard  box  or  another  apple  box,  a  pack 
more  uniform  is  secured,  because  of  the 
larger  number  of  apples  spread  over  the 
table  from  which  the  packer  may  select. 
Also  that  the  very  extent  to  which  the 
apples  are  spread  out  on  this  will  save 
bruises  from  their  being  "pawed  over" 
by  the  packer  to  find  apples  of  the  size 
that  he  is  packing.  In  working  at  this 
table,  however,  the  packer  frequently  has 
to  reach,  not  only  to  his  side,  but  over 
into  the  hollow  of  the  burlap,  or  behind 
him  for  the  fruit,  and,  especially  at  the 
double,  or  continuous,  style  of  this  type 
of  table,  the  large  sheet  of  apples  that 
is  spread  out  beside  him,  rather  than 
being  a  benefit,  sometimes  but  helps  to 
confuse  him,  so  that  he  will  be  seen  to 
fumble  over  all  the  apples  he  can  reach, 
while  perhaps  the  one  closest  to  him  is 
the   one   he   needs.     Many   growers   have 


Fig.  17. 


Burlap  Packing  Table. 
New     York. 


Three   Feet   is   Wide   Euuugh. 

Cornell,     Experiment     Station     Bulletin    298. 


344 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.  18.  Table  and  Ben.  h  in  l^.  l.y  Mr,  .1.  II  i:strs,  /illah.  Wash.  Note  the  shelf  for 
wrapping  paper  above  Ibe  buxes.  the  shelf  fur  cardboard  and  extra  wrapping  paper 
underneath  the  burlap  Table,  the  rack  for  lining  paper  attached  to  this  table,  and  the 
front  incline  to  the  packing  bench,  to  which  the  packer  can  shift  his  packed  box  to 
await  the  attendant.  The  arrangement  shown  is  tor  one  right  handed  and  one  left 
handed  packer. 


never  used  the  burlap  table  because  of 
the  danger  of  the  apples  becoming  bruised 
by  dumping  so  many  of  them  together 
and  by  their  tendency  to  huddle  in  a  pile 
in  the  center.  This  objection,  it  may  be 
stated,  cannot  be  urged  against  the  sys- 
tem provided  for  handling  the  apples  in 
connection  with  some  of  the  sorting  ma- 
chines, and  in  connection  with  the  com- 
bined sorting  and  packing  tables.  Here 
only  one  box  at  a  time  is  poured  out, 
there  is  no  pile  of  apples  which  these  can 
strike  in  a  lump,  and  a  sheet  of  cloth 
held  over  the  top  of  the  box  can  be  used 
to  keep  the  apples  from  rolling  from  the 
box  all  at  once.  This  cloth  cannot  be 
used  in  pouring  upon  the  burlap  table, 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  extricating  it 
from  the  pile  of  apples;  while  with  the 
use  of  the  machine  or  the  combination 
table  the  apples  are  rolled  along  to  the 
belt  or  other  part  before  the  cloth  is 
again  picked  up.  The  shallow  taut  can- 
vas or  padded  trays  from  which  the 
apples  are  packed   in   the   use  of  certain 


of  the  machines  prevent  the  heaps  such 
as  are  formed  by  pouring  upon  the  bur- 
lap tables,  allowing  the  apples  to  collect 
only  in  a  thin  sheet:  and  these  trays  can 
be  set  at  such  a  slant  as  will  cause  the 
apples  to  roll  toward  the  packer,  though 
gently  and  without  bumping. 

Bencli  Type 

Packing  from  box  to  box,  rather  than 
from  burlap  table  to  box,  certainly  can 
cause  no  bruising  from  pouring.  The 
packer  must  have  more  boxes  into  which 
to  pack,  however,  in  order  to  prevent  his 
"pawins"  at  the  apples,  from  four  to  six 
boxes  being  not  too  many  in  most  cases 
where  no  sizing  is  done  before  the  apples 
reach  the  packers.  Still  this  is  no  disad- 
vantage. The  packer  can  pick  up  any 
apple  as  he  comes  to  it,  put  it  into  the 
box  containing  apples  of  the  correspond- 
ing size,  and  know  that  he  will  not  have 
to  consider  it  the  second,  fourth  or  sixth 
time  in  making  a  selection.  However,  if 
a    machine    or    a    combined    sorting    and 


APPLES 


345 


Fig.   19. 


Apple     Packing     Bench.       Paper 
Eacls   in   Place. 


packing  table  is  used,  on  wliich  tlie  ap- 
ples are  moved  directly  from  the  sorting 
section  to  the  packing  trays,  there  is  a 
saving  of  two  handlings  over  the  system 
of  sorting  from  box  to  box  and  then 
packing  either  from  box  to  box  or  burlap 
table  to  box.  Especially  in  cases  where 
the  apples  ha've  to  be  trucked  any  dis- 
tance in  handling  in  the  packing  house, 
it  is  likely  to  pay  to  sort  only  so  fast  as 
to  supply  the  packers,  even  at  the  ex- 
pense of  storing  along  with  the  grades 
what  culls  are  not  detected  and  dropped 
in  the  orchard. 

The  bench  type  of  packing  table  is 
made  about  two  and  one-half  feet  high  in 
front  and  three  feet  high  at  the  back. 
This  may  be  too  high  for  some  packers; 
but  many  of  them  find  that  they  exper- 
ience less  fatigue  if  they  stand  upon  a 
board  with  a  slight  spring  to  it,  or  even 
a  hard  cushion,  and  this  will  bring  them 
into  proper  relation  with  the  top  of  the 
table.  The  top  of  the  bench  needs  to  be 
only  so  wide  as  the  distance  between  the 
cleats  on  the  bottom  of  the  apple  box,  or 
a  little  less  to  allow  for  variation.  A 
strip  at  the  lower  edge  1x4  inches  or 
2x4  inches,  and  another  to  serve  as  a  rest 


for  the  upper  end  of  the  box,  constitute 
all  the  top  that  the  table  needs.  To 
keep  the  box  from  sliding  off,  the  cleat 
on  the  upper  end  of  the  bottom  of  the 
box  is  hooked  over  the  upper  strip  of  the 
table  top.  The  bench  is  constructed  by 
first  connecting  the  legs  in  pairs  with  a 
strip  near  the  bottom  to  serve  as  a  brace 
and  a  strip  at  the  top  on  the  same  slant 
as  the  top  of  the  bench.  The  ends  of 
the  bench-top  strips  will  be  nailed  to 
this  latter.  These  sets  of  legs  can  be 
placed  from  four  to  six  feet  apart.  They 
are  also  braced  with  three  strips  running 
lengthwise  of  the  table — one  at  the  top 
on  either  side  and  one  near  the  bottom 
at  the  back. 

Some  build  this  table  against  the  wall, 
under  a  row  of  windows,  which  is  well 
if  the  windows  are  at  the  north.  How- 
ever, in  order  that  the  packer  may  re- 
ceive his  light  from  the  back  and  sides, 
and  not  be  interfered  with  by  the  attend- 
ant in  setting  on  loose  boxes  and  remov- 
ing packed  ones,  many  turn  it  so  that  he 
can  work  with  his  back  to  the  wall. 
Rollers  the  width  of  the  apple  box  are 
then  sometimes  arranged  at  the  top  edge 
of  the  bench  to  facilitate  the  attendant's 
shifting  the  boxes.  Where  the  packing 
room  is  large  and  the  light  will  permit, 
the  bench-table  is  conveniently  made  dou- 
ble, with  packers  facing  each  other.  To 
have  plenty  of  room  on  the  packing  bench, 
each  packer  needs  six  or  seven  feet,  plus 
a  few  extra  inches.     This  allows  for  one 


Fig.  20.  Paper  "Hod,"  for  Use  on  Top  Edge 
of  Box.  a  Hooks  wbich  engage  the  top  edge 
of  the  box.  6  Cleat  beveled  at  the  same 
angle  as  the  box  so  that  when  it  is  in  place 
the  hod  is  in  a  horizontal  position. 


346 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


foot  for  the  paper  rack,  four  or  five  feet 
for  as  many  boxes  into  which  apples  are 
being  packed,  one  foot  for  the  box  of  loose 
apples,  and  a  few  inches  for  play  in  slid- 
ing the  boxes  in  and  out.  Where  the  apple 
boxes  are  lined,  and  the  lining  paper 
hangs  on  the  outside  of  the  box  during 
the  process  of  packing,  the  last  item 
is  important,  in  order  to  avoid  tearing. 
Where  the  wrapping  paper  is  kept  in 
front  of  the  packer  rather  than  at  the 
side,  the  length  of  the  bench  can  be  re- 
duced one  foot.  The  cull  box  can  be  kept 
on  the  floor  under  the  table,  or  on  a 
shelf  at  the  front.  This  shelf  is  also 
convenient  to  hold  boxes  into  which  are 
to  be  sorted  apples  of  an  unusual  size 
or  of  the  grades  different  from  that  which 
the  packer  is  packing — apples  that  the 
grader  may  have  overlooked. 

Paper  Rack 

The  rack  for  holding  the  wrapping  pa- 
per is  sometimes  made  in  the  form  of  a 


Fig.  21.  Paper  Holder  to  Keep  Smooth  Papei' 
From  Picking  Tip  Double.  Also  for  use  when 
packing  in  the  wind.  Is  attached  to  the 
paper  rack. 

Couriesii   A.    C.   Itulofson   Co. 


shelf  at  the  rear  of  the  table  directly 
in  front  of  the  packer,  and  high  enough 
above  the  box  to  permit  grasping  the 
head  in  removing  the  box.  This  rack 
may  be  long  enough  for  compartments 
for  two  or  three  sizes  of  paper  and  the 
necessary  cardboard.  A  "hod"  for  paper 
is  illustrated  in  Pig.  20.  This  is  made 
either  of  wood  or  of  metal,  and  is  con- 
structed with  two  right  angle  screw 
hooks  in  the  edge  to  engage  the  edge  of 
the  box  head  and  a  bracket  underneath 
to  support  it  against  the  end.  If  the 
bracket  is  cut  with  a  right  angle  instead 
of  with  an  acute  angle,  it  can  be  hooked 
on  the  side  of  the  box.-  Some  packers 
prefer  their  paper  at  the  side.  A  side 
rack  on  the  long  packing  bench  is  most 
convenient  when  on  a  level  with  the  top 
of  the  box. 

Nailing  Press 
A  nailing,  or  lid,  press  is  a  necessity 
wherever  apples  are  packed  in  boxes.  Its 
purpose  is  to  press  down  the  ends  of  the 
box  lid  and  hold  them  in  place  while 
they  are  being  nailed.  Use  is  made  of 
either  bars  or  clamps.  Some  believe  that 
bars,  such  as  those  on  the  press  shown 
in  Fig.  24,  are  likely  to  bruise  the  ap- 
ples. If  they  do  not  come  more  than  an 
inch  and  a  half  from  the  edge  of  the  box, 
however,  there  is  no  danger;  and  this 
press  has  the  advantage  of  being  suitable 
for  pears.  The  clamp  press  holds  the 
cleats  In  place  while  being  nailed,  but  if 
used  for  pears,  which  are  packed  with 
a  higher  crown  than  apples,  it  may  leave 
most  of  the  bulge  on  the  top  of  the  box. 
The  press  supplied  with  a  ratchet  or  other 
device  to  engage  the  foot  lever  when  it 
is  pushed  down,  is  to  be  preferred  to  one 
without  it;  else,  if  the  nailer  must  leave 
his  job  for  an  instant,  he  must  arrange 
his  cleats  and  cover  boards  a  second  time. 
The  press  without  a  protruding  foot  lever 
cannot  cause  bruised  shins.  Unfor- 
tunately no  press  possesses  all  the  good 
points.  One  will  have  to  select  according 
to  his  own  judgment.  If  the  press  does 
not  provide  it.  handy  arrangement  will 
have  to  be  made  for  lid  stuff,  cleats,  nails 
and  rubber  stamps.  A  good  nail  stripper 
will  pay  for  itself  in  saving  of  time  and 
annoyance  to  the  nailer. 


APPLES 


347 


Fig.   22.      Clamp   Nailing   Press. 


1.  Cover  boards  to  table,  extending  about  half  over  cross  pieces   (20)   on  each  side.     Length  of 

table.  64  inches. 

2.  Side  beard  to  table.     The  part  between   the  cross  pieces    (20)    is  cut  down  to   allow  a  box 

with  bulged  bottom  to  slide  off  the  press. 

3.  ■Uprights  for  attachment  of  levers   (5  and  9). 

4.  Legs  of  table.  28ii    inches  long,   1%    inches  square.      (All   the  aims,   legs   and   levers  of  the 

press  may  be  made  of  l%xl%-inch  stuff.) 

5."     Levers,  24  Inches  long. 

6.  Upright  arms,  30  inches  long. 

7.  Steel  springs,   %    inch  inside  diameter.     The  two  attached  to   the  levers    (5)    are   fastened 

at  the  upper   end  to  spanner    (10).      The  center  spring  is  attached  to  the  foot  lever    (9) 
and  a  pulley   il7).     All  springs  are  shown  relaxed. 

8.  Spring  attached   to  upright   arm    (6)    and   support    (3).      These  springs  should  be   long   and 

light,  such  as  are  often  used  en  screen  doors. 

9.  Foot  lever,  bolted  to  uprights    (3)    at   back,  and  working  with  catch  plate  and  ratchet  in 

front.     It  is  fastened  to  plait    (13). 

10.  Brace   for  legs  and  lower  support  for  uprights.     Three  inches  from  ground. 

11.  Horseshoe  plate  for  gripping  box  cleats  and   cover.     It  is  attached  to   arm    (6)    with   fiat- 

headed  stove  bolts,  and  must  be  made  very  true. 

12.  Iron  plates  bolted  to  levers   (5),  with  large  holes  in  projecting  ends,  allowing  the  bolts   lid) 

to   slide  freely. 

13.  Lower  plate  under  leaver    (9),  to  which  it  is  bolted  loosely,  with  large  holes  in   each  end 

for  free  play  of  bolts    (16). 

14.  Side  plate  joining  lever    (5)    and  arm    (6).     Two  bolts   to  arm,  and  one,   fitted   loosely,   to 

lever. 

15.  Iron  ratchet  to  engage  plate  on  the  front  lever   (9). 

16.  Half-inch  bolts,  2%  inches  long,  working  loosely  m  the  holes  in  the  plates    (12  and  13). 

17.  Three  small  pulleys   for   rope   attached   to   arms    (6).      Center   pulley   is   attached   to   center 

spring    (7).     The    other  two  pulleys  are  attached  to  spanner    (19). 

18.  Strong    H-inch    cord   that   will   not    stretch.      Runs    across    from    arm    to    arm    (6),    passing 

througli  the  three  pulleys    (17). 

19.  Spanner  running  parallel  with  side,  back  about  10  inches  from  front  side  and  directly  under 

center  of  box. 

20.  Cross  pieces   (end  view),  providing  support  for  box.     Attached  to  it  is  spanner   (19). 

21.  Grooves  for  holding  box  in  place.     They  are  a  trifle  over  19 1^   inches    apart.     To  accommo- 

date the  special  box,  which  is  20  inches  long,  strips  may  be  nailed  to  the  table  top  one 
inch  back  from  the  opening  on  either  side. 

The  top  of  the  table  must  have  slots  cut  in  it  to  allow  working  of  arms.     Tables   may  be  of  any 
width  desired,  but  arms  should  be  conveniently  near  the  front. 


348 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fi},'-   -S.      Clamp    Nailing    I'ress    Completed. 

PACKING  ACCESSORIES 
Lining  Paper 

This  is  used  in  all  boxes  of  the  better 
grades  of  fall  and  winter  apples,  and  of 
the  poorest  grade  where  the  apples  are 
not  wrapped.  It  is  used  both  for  the 
sake  of  an  impression  upon  the  consumer 
and  the  effect  upon  the  apples.  Its  pres- 
ence indicates  care  in  the  preparation 
of  the  product.  It  keeps  out  dust;  also 
where  apples  are  not  wrapped,  it  prevents 
their  becoming  scratched  against  the 
rough  sides  of  the  box.  The  quality  used 
is  usually  that  termed  "white  news." 
White  has  become  the  symbol  of  sanita- 
tion and  the  American  people  prefer  it. 
The  size  of  the  sheets  for  the  Northwest 
standard  box  is  17i^x26  inches;  the  size 
for  the  special  box,  1914x26  inches;  that 
for  the  Colorado  box,  18ijx28  inches.  Two 
sheets  are  used  for  each  box,  the  ends 
of  the  box  to  remain  bare.  This  "will 
allow  for  a  generous  overlapping  on  both 
top  and  bottom,  and  also  allow  for  a  pleat 
to  be  made  on  the  bottom  corners.  The 
pleat  is  very  essential,  as  it  allows  for  the 
bulge  when  the  box  is  nailed.  To  make 
this  pleat  catch  the  paper  on  the  ends, 
thus  making  a  fold,  draw  the  paper 
quickly  over  the  knee,  thus  creasing  it. 
This  crease  is  generally  made  about  six 
inches  from  the  end.  These  pleats  will 
fit  in  the  corners  nicely."  *  Instead  of 
making  these  pleats  many  prefer  to  push 
the  paper  a  little  way  through  the  cracks 
in  the  bottom  corners  of  the  box  to  serve 
the  same  purpose. 

•  C.  I.  Lewis.  Hoi'ticulturist,  Oregon  Asri- 
cultural     Experiment     Station ;     Better     Fruit. 

AiiKust.  mn. 


Cardboard 

This  is  of  light  weight,  soft,  and  of  an 
absorbent  nature,  usually  blue  or  green  in 
color,  though  the  uncolored  makes  a  bet- 
ter looking  box.  Its  size  is  about  one- 
half  inch  smaller  than  the  dimensions  of 
the  box.  It  is  usually  placed  only  in  the 
bottom  and  top  of  the  box,  and  on  the 
inside  of  the  lining  papei\  It  acts  as  a 
deterrent  against  bruises,  and  as  another 
factor  toward  a  good  impression  upon  the 
consumer.  Some  growers,  dealers  and  as- 
sociations use  these  sheets  upon  which  to 
advertise.  They  also  furnish  a  place  to 
print  the  season  at  which  the  apples  in  the 
box  are  to  be  eaten.  In  some  districts,  no- 
tably Hood  River,  cardboard  is  also  placed 
between  the  layers  of  apples.  Mr.  C.  I. 
Lewis,  Oregon  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  states  thus  the  arguments  for  the 
use  of  cardboards  between  layers:  "They 
act  as  pads  and  tend  to  lessen  the  danger 
from  skin  slipping;  they  soak  up  the  extra 
moisture  which  may  gather  from  sweat- 
ing or  bruising,  and  help  to  confine  the 
decaying  fruit  so  that  it  will  not  spread 
through  the  entire  package,  and,  more- 
over, aid  to  convey  to  the  buyer  the 
thought  that  he  has  a  superior  article."  * 
Consumers  are  beginning  to  object,  how- 
ever, that  this  anxiety  of  the  Northwest 
fruitgrower  to  convince  as  to  the  quality 


Fig 


Bar  Nailing  Press. 


'  Better    Fruit.    September.    1911. 


APPLES 


349 


of  his  product  by  other  means  than  the 
apples  themselves,  can  be  carried  too  far; 
they  are  balking  at  the  use  of  cardboard 
between  layers.  Under  the  "square"  sys- 
tem of  packing  no  objection  hut  that  of 
expense  could  be  made  to  its  use.  Under 
the  present  "diagonal"  system,  however, 
it  does  not  allow  the  apples  to  fit  down 
into  the  interstices  of  the  layer  under- 
neath. Hence  smaller  and  fewer  apples 
must  be  used,  in  order  that  the  pack 
come  not  too  high,  and  the  weight  short. 
The  advantages  of  this  use  of  the  card- 
board can  be  cared  for  sufficiently  by  the 
use  of  wrapping  paper. 

Wrapping  Paper 

The  advantages  of  wrapping  apples  are: 
(1)  it  checks  transpiration  and  retards 
the  process  of  ripening:  (2)  it  furnishes 
a  cushion  to  prevent  bruising:  f3)  it 
helps  to  prevent  the  spread  of  diseases  or 
decay  from  one  specimen  to  another;  (4) 
it  adds  to  the  appearance  of  the  product: 
(5)  it  renders  the  process  of  layer  pack- 
ing easier:  (6)  it  enforces  layer  packing, 
with  a  known  number  of  apples  of  uni- 
form size  in  every  box.  The  objections 
to  its  use  are  its  cost  and  the  opportu- 
nity which  it  affords  for  a  loose  pack  and 
short  weight.  However,  if  care  is  taken 
with  the  work,  the  advantages  with  all 
but  the  cheapest  apples  far  outweigh  the 
objections.  Manifestly,  in  the  jumble 
pack  the  apples  cannot  be  wrapped. 

The  best  paper  for  wrapping  is  one  that 
is  soft  and  tough,  and  that  is  either 
rough  on  one  side  and  calendered  on  the 
other — which  paper  is  called  "duplex" — 
or  else  is  rough  on  both  sides.  Paper 
smooth  on  both  sides  causes  annoyance 
from  picking  up  double — or  worse — air 
not  being  able  to  enter  quickly  enough 
when  the  attempt  is  made  to  lift  one 
sheet  from  the  pile.  The  soft  and  tough 
paper  does  not  tear  so  easily,  and  makes 
a  neater  and  quicker  wrap.  One  apple 
dealer  states  that  the  paper  should  be 
porous  enough  to  absorb  the  moisture 
from  the  apples  as  they  sweat.  White 
or  manila  is  preferred.  Some  is  of  a 
semi-transparent  nature,  through  which 
the  color  of  the  apples  can  be  seen.  The 
accepted  weight  is  IT  pounds — that  is,  IT 


pounds  to  a  ream  of  sheets  24x36  inches. 
To  prevent  brittleness,  with  consequent 
tearing,  the  paper  should  be  kept  in  a 
moist  atmosphere,  at  least  for  a  time  be- 
fore it  is  used.  If  no  special  room  is 
available  where  humidity  can  be  main- 
tained, moist  burlaps  can  be  wrapped 
about  the  bundles  for  a  day  or  so  before 
the  paper  is  to  be  used.  Paper  printed 
with  the  name  and  address  of  the  grower 
or  selling  agency  is  sometimes  used,  es- 
pecially for  the  top  layer;  and  for  the 
bottom  layer  when  the  latter  is  "faced." 
The  name  of  the  variety  and  the  brand 
under  which  the  highest  grade  is  sold, 
may  be  included.  When  the  box  is  put  on 
display  the  printed  wrapper  will  be  seen 
if  the  lithograph  on  the  box  is  not. 

Seven  and  one-half  by  eight  inch  paper 
is  large  enough  for  the  five-tier  sizes  of 
apples.  Eight  by  nine  paper  can  be  used 
where  the  five  and  four  and  one-half  tier 
are  packed  at  the  same  time.  Eight  by 
nine  or  nine  by  nine  will  do  for  the  four 
and  one-half  tier  alone.  Nine  by  nine  or 
nine  by  ten  can  be  used  where  the  four 
and  one-half  and  the  four  are  packed  at 
the  same  time.  Ten  by  ten  can  be  used 
for  both  the  four  and  the  three  and  one- 
half  tier.  Ten  by  twelve  is  better  for 
sizes  seventy-two  and  sixty-four.  Ten  by 
twelve  or  twelve  by  twelve  are  suitable 
for  three  tier  and  two  and  one-half  tier 
sizes.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  fill 
the  box  with  paper  rather  than  with 
apples.  At  the  same  time  the  apples 
should  be  entirely  wrapped. 

Method  of  Wrapping 

Directions  for  wrapping  fruit  usually 
being  difilcult  to  understand,  the  reader 
may  find  help  in  taking  an  apple  and  a 
sheet  of  paper  and  performing  each  mo- 
tion as  it  is  directed,  being  sure  that  he 
comprehends  each  step  before  going  on  to 
the  next.  A  rubber  finger  cot  is  worn 
on  the  thumb  or  forefinger  of  the  right 
hand,  with  which  to  pick  up  the  paper 
easily  and  quickly.  Begin  by  picking  up 
the  paper,  one  corner  pointing  toward 
you,  the  center  of  the  paper  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  palm.  After  some  practice  you 
will   be  able  to  pick   up  the   paper  with- 


350 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


out  looking.  At  the  same  time  pick  up 
an  apple  with  the  left  hand.  Throw  the 
apple  into  the  paper,  and  with  some  force, 
in  order  to  jerk  up  the  edges  of  the  paper 
around  the  apple.  Strike  the  center  of 
the  palm  with  the  side  of  the  apple  that 
is  to  come  up  in  the  box.  If  the  apple 
is  to  be  placed  on  the  cheek,  point  the 
blossom  end  between  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger; which  will  bring  the  apple  placed 
in  the  box  on  the  opposite  cheek,  with 
the  stem  end  toward  you.  Close  the 
fingers  as  the  apple  is  caught,  and  the 
apple  is  already  half  wrapped.  Now 
brush  the  lower  edges  of  the  paper  closely 
over  the  apple  with  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger of  the  left  hand,  at  the  same  time 
transferring  the  grasp  from  the  right 
hand  to  these  fingers  of  the  left.  Now 
by  twisting  both  wrists  toward  the  left 
turn  the  hands  completely  over,  until 
the  back  of  the  right  hand  is  up  and  the 
back  of  the  left  hand  down:  at  the  same 
time  being  sure  to  retain  the  grasp  with 
the  left  hand,  allowing  the  apple  to  turn 
in  the  right  hand  and  not  with  it.  Dur- 
ing this  act,  not  before,  care  for  the 
upper  edges  of  the  paper  with  the  fin- 
gers of  the  right  hand.  The  apple  is 
now  wrapped  and  ready  to  be  placed  into 
the  box  with  the  right  hand,  the  tails 
of  the  paper  down.  One  can  readily  see 
that  if  the  paper  is  picked  up  by  the 
left  hand  and  the  apple  with  the  right, 
these  motions  would  be  reversed.  How- 
ever, one  is  likely  to  need  his  stronger 
hand  for  placing  his  apples  in  the  box, 
in  order  to  make  his  pack  firm:  and  with 
most  persons  this  means  the  right  hand. 
But  one  method  of  wrapping  is  given: 
packers  vary  in  the  details. 

The  box  is  usually  packed  with  the 
folds  of  the  paper  turned  underneath  in 
all  layers.  Some  .growers,  however,  de- 
sire to  have  the  folds  turned  up  in  the 
bottom  one  or  two  layers.  This  is  termed 
"facing"  the  box,  and  is  meant  to  make 
the  bottom  of  the  box  appear  like  the  top. 
The  practice  is  to  be  discouraged,  be- 
cause of  the  diiflculty  of  making  the  folds 
of  the  apples  remain  close  enough  about 
the  apple.  Where  the  two  styles  of  wraji 
meet  in  the  box,  there  is  danger  of  bare 
sides  of  apples  coming  into  contact  if  the 


packer  is  at  all  careless.  If  the  box  of 
apples  is  likely  to  be  displayed  and  it  is 
desirable  that  a  certain  side  should  be 
opened  for  the  purpose,  the  upper  side 
can  be  stamped  with  the  word  "top." 
Apple  growers  of  the  Hood  River  district 
practice  this  method  to  some  extent.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  the  labeling  on  the 
end  of  the  box  is  right  side  up.  Where 
facing  is  practiced,  the  apple  is  thrust 
into  the  paper  with  the  side  of  the  apple 
that  is  intended  to  be  down  in  the  box 
turned  down  in  the  palm.  This  is  oppo- 
site from  where  facing  is  not  being  done. 
The  free  hand  is  then  brought  over  the 
apple  toward  the  packer,  brushing  down 
the  upper  edges  of  the  paper  and  turning 
the  apple  half  way  over  in  the  palm.  It 
is  in  position  to  be  placed  in  the  box,  the 
tails  of  the  paper  up. 

Stamps  and  Labels 

The  grower  will  need  a  set  of  rubber 
stamps  comprising  all  the  numbers  cor- 
responding to  the  sizes  that  he  will  be 
likely  to  pack,  also  a  stamp  for  each 
variety  that  he  grows,  and  one  for  each 
of  the  two  or  three  grades  that  he  will 
pack.  These  should  make  figures  and 
letters  not  less  than  one-half  inch  in 
height.  He  will  also  need  a  stamp  for 
his  name  and  address.  If  he  has  many 
boxes  to  go  over,  a  roller  stamp  for  this 
purpose  will  pay,  as  a  time  saver.  In 
some  states  and  in  Canada  the  presence 
of  the  grower's  or  the  packer's  name  on 
the  box  is  obligatory  by  law.  Red  ink 
for  stamping,  and  especially  green,  should 
not  be  used.  Letters  made  with  these 
colors  on  natural  wood  are  diflHcult  to 
distinguish  in  a  dim  light.  Violet  or 
black  are  to  be  preferred.  About  as  many 
orders  of  arrangement  are  employed  in 
stamping  as  there  are  Western  apple 
growing  districts.  For  the  sake  of  sim- 
plicity and  neatness,  and  for  the  sake  of 
accuracy  and  convenience  in  handling  at 
the  warehouse,  also  in  the  stock  room 
of  the  dealer,  we  recommend  that  all 
stamping  be  done  on  one  end  of  the  box, 
and  in  the  order  illustrated  in  Fig.  25, 
the  other  end  being  occupied  by  only  the 
lithograph.  This,  of  course,  would  be 
pasted   on    with   the   top   toward    the   top 


APPLES 


351 


Top 


125 

PaoHer   26 

No.l 

Wineaap 

2043 

(Warehouee 

lot  number) 

From 

John  Doe 

Zlllab.Waeh. 

I'ig.  25.  Sussestion  for  Stamping  an  Apple 
Box.  Notice  that  the  box  rests  on  its  side, 
in  which  position  boxes  are  always  piled. 
The  space  at  the  bottom  is  for  an  address, 
in  case  the  box  be  sent  by  express. 
Lithograph  to  be  on  the  other  end,  top  to- 
ward  top  of  box. 

of  the  box,  being  used  to  impress  the 
retailer  and  the  "ultimate  consumer," 
who  may  be  expected  to  open  the  box 
from  the  top. 

Lithographs  for  individuals  cannot  be 
recommended.  Their  use  results  in  too 
many  brands,  and  confusion  in  the  mar- 
kets. For  the  same  reason  the  brand 
should  be  made  to  include  as  large  an 
output  as  possible  by  co-operation.  The 
present  tendency  is  toward  the  use  of 
brands,  rather  than  of  quality  designa- 
tions, for  selling  the  product,  a  differ- 
ent brand  being  used  for  each  grade. 
The  brand  lends  itself  easily  for  adver- 
tising purposes.  To  be  of  service,  it 
must  be  somewhat  striking.     It  is  more 


Fig.  2G.  Convenient  Arrangement  for  Rubber 
Stamps  and  Pad  To  Be  Used  in  Connection 
With  a   Nailing  Press. 


pleasing  if  it  can  be  used  without  the 
word  hrand  accompanying  it,  the  word 
spoiling  the  felicity  of  a  name  and  leav- 
ing a  shoppy  taste  with  the  article:  e.  g., 
Columbia  Apples  rather  than  Columbia 
Brand  of  apples.  In  the  Northwest  two 
or  three  process  labels  cost  from  .$3.50 
to  $4  a  thousand. 

GRADES  AND  TIERS 

Some  factors  governing  the  price  of 
apples  are  their  size,  color  and  condition 
(including  freedom  from  blemish  or  ex- 
tent of  it).  In  the  case  of  box  apples 
the  grade  has  been  determined  chiefly  by 
the  color  and  condition,  size  entering 
only  as  a  limit,  designated  by  the  count 
in  the  box,  below  which  apples  are  to  be 
excluded  from  a  certain  grade.  But  there 
are  certain  counts  of  apples  which,  almost 
regardless  of  grade,  vary  in  desirability, 
and,  to  a  less  extent,  in  price.  In  the 
average  market  the  medium  sized  apple 
is  more  desirable  than  the  large  or  the 
small  apple.  Although  on  account  of  the 
usually  limited  supply  of  the  large,  which 
does  not  exceed  the  limited  demand  for 
such  large  "special  purpose"  apples,  the 
large  apples  are  not  usually  sold  at  a  less 
price,  as  are  the  small.  In  the  North- 
west, the  counts  of  apples,  resulting 
from  the  first  method  by  which  they  were 
packed,  lent  themselves  readily  to  a  clas- 
sification into  groups,  which  latter  were 
generalized  by  a  now  apparently  arbi- 
trary use  of  the  word  tier,  and  differen- 
tiated by  the  now  equally  arbitrary  pre- 
fixes, 21^,  3,  314,  4,  4%,  and  5. 

GRADES 

The  grades  for  apples  established  by 
the  Northwestern  Fruit  Exchange  and 
the  North  Pacific  Fruit  Distributors  fol- 
low: 

Northwestern  Fruit  Exchaiiffe  Apple 
Grading  Rules  for  1913 

Apples  will  be  classed  In  three  grades, 
known  by  the  packers  as  No.  1,  No.  2 
and  No.   3. 

Specifications  of  each  grade  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

Grade  >'o.  1   [Extra  Fancy] 

All  varieties  of  apples  may  be  admitted, 
but   they   must  be   clean   and   of   natural 


352 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


color,  shape   and   condition   characteristic 
of  the  variety. 

Physical  Requirements 

Apples  must  be  sound,  smooth  and  well 
formed,  free  from  insect  pests,  disease, 
blemishes  and  injuries;  worms,  worm 
holes,  stings,  scale,  scab,  sun  scald,  dry 
or  bitter  rot,  decay,  fungus,  water  core, 
spray  burn,  limb  rub,  skin  puncture  or 
sliin   broken   at  stem. 

Color  Kequireineuts 

Solid  red  varieties,  such  as  Arkansas 
Black,  Winesap,  Jonathan  and  Spitzen- 
burg,  must  have  at  least  75  per  cent  of 
good   natural   color. 

Striped  or  partially  red  varieties,  such 
as  Delicious,  Stayman  and  Rome  Beauty, 
must  have  at  least  50  per  cent  of  good 
red  color. 

Red  cheeked  or  blush  varieties,  such 
as  Winter  Banana  and  Red  Cheek  Pippin, 
must  have  a  distinctly  colored  cheek  or 
blush. 

Size  Requirements 

Apples  in  this  grade  shall  not  be 
smaller  than  150  except  the  following 
varieties,  which  may  be  admitted  as  small 
as  163. 

Winesap,  Jonathan,  King  David,  Mis- 
souri Pippin,  Gravenstein,  Snow,  Yellow 
Newtown,  Grimes  Golden,  Geniton,  Ar- 
kansas Black,  Jefferis,  Spitzenburg  and 
White  Pearmain. 

Grade  >o.  2  [Fancy] 
Physical  Requirements 

All  apples  of  this  grade  shall  have  the 
same  physical  condition  as  Grade  No.  1 
except  that  slight  deviation  from  proper 
form  may  be  admitted,  but  not  when 
clearly  misshappen.  Slight  blemishes, 
such  as  limb  rub,  scratches  and  russet- 
ing  may  be  admitted,  provided  that  no 
apple  shall  show  aggregate  blemishes  of 
over  one-half  inch  in  area. 

Color  Requirements 

Solid  red  varieties  must  have  at  least 
one-third  of  good  natural  color. 

Striped  or  partially  red  varieties  must 
have  at  least  one-fifth  of  good  red  color, 
except  that  Rome  Beauty  may  be  admit- 
ted with  10  per  cent  color,  and  if  113 
or    larger    without    color    requirements. 


Blushed  and  yellow  varieties,  no  re- 
quirements of  color. 

Size  Requirements 

Apples  shall  not  be  smaller  than  175 
except  Jonathans,  Spitzenburgs,  New- 
towns  and  Winesaps  may  be  accepted  as 
small  as  200  if  of  color  requirement  of 
No.   1  grade. 

Grade  Ko.  3  ["C"] 

This  grade,  when  used,  shall  be  made 
up  of  all  merchantable  apples  not  in- 
cluded In  the  No.  1  and  No.  2  grades. 
Apples  must  be  free  from  all  insect  pests, 
disease  or  serious  physical  injury,  includ- 
ing bruises  or  broken  skin.  Apples  shall 
not  be  smaller  than  150  size.  No  color 
requirements  except  that  apples  must  not 
be  immature.  Apples  in  this  grade 
should  not  be  wrapped  unless  specially 
ordered. 

The  above  specifications  will  govern 
apple  shipments  of  the  Exchange  for  the 
1913  season. 

The  laws  of  many  states,  as  well  as 
trade  preferences,  require  the  selling  of 
apples  by  numerical  count,  hence  the 
system  of  designating  contents  of  boxes 
and  manifesting  by  tiers  is  to  be  aban- 
doned. The  only  recognized  counts  for 
Northwest  standard  apple  packs  are  as 
follows:  41,  45,  48,  56,  64,  72,  80,  88,  96, 
100,  104,  113.  125,  138,  150,  163,  175,  188, 
200. 

For  convenience  in  telegraphing,  etc., 
the  above  counts  are  put  under  Groups 
Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4  and  5,  as  follows: 

Group  No.  1,  sizes 45  to    64  inclusive 

Group  No.  2,  sizes 72  to    96  inclusive 

Group  No.  3,  sizes 100  to  125  inclusive 

Group  No.  4.  sizes 138  to  163  inclusive 

Group  No.  5.  sizes 175  to  200  inclusive 

The  standard  apple  box  is  10%xllil'Xl8 
inches,  inside  measurement. 

Grade  Rules  Nortli  Pacific  Fruit 
Distributors'  1914  Season 

Unanimously  adopted  after  three  days' 
discussion  by  a  committee  of  twenty-four, 
consisting  of  the  trustees  and  sales  man- 
agers of  the  North  Pacific  Fruit  Distri- 
butors; the  head  inspectors  and  other 
representatives  of  all  the  sub-central  dis- 
tricts affiliated  with  the  North  Pacific 
Fruit  Distributors. 


APPLES 


353 


APPLES 

The  grades  to  be  used  will  be  desig- 
nated as  Extra  Fancy,  Fancy  and  "C" 
Grade,  and   defined   as   follows: 

Extra  Fancy 

This  grade  shall  consist  of  sound, 
smooth,  matured,  clean,  hand-picked,  well- 
formed  apples  only;  free  from  all  Insect 
pests,  disease,  blemishes,  bruises  and 
other  physical  injuries,  stings,  scald, 
scab,  sun  scald,  dry  or  bitter  rot,  worms, 
worm  holes,  decay,  spray  burn,  limb  rub, 
water  core,  skin  puncture,  or  skin  broken 
at  stem.  All  apples  must  be  of  good  ma- 
tured color,  shape  and  condition  charac- 
teristic of  the  variety. 

The  following  varieties  defined  as  to 
color  shall  be  admitted  to  this  grade: 

Solid  Bed  Varieties 

Aiken  Red  Mcintosh  Red 

Arkansas  Black  Mammoth  Blk.  Twig 

Baldwin  Missouri  Pippin 

Black  Ben  Davis  Spitzenburg  ( Esopus ) 

Gano  Vanderpool 

Jonathan  Winesap 
King  David 

Striped  or  Partial  Red  Varieties 

Ben  Davis  Northern  Spy 

Delicious  Rainier 

Gravenstein  Rome  Beauty 

Jefferis  Hubb'rds'n  Nonsuch 

Jeniton  King  of  Tompkins  Co. 

Kaighn  Spitz  Wagener 

Stayman  Wealthy 

Snow  York  Imperial 

Color  Reriiiireinents 

Color  requirements  tor  Extra  Fancy 
are  as  follows: 

Solid  Red  varieties  to  have  not  less 
than  three-fourths  good  red  color,  and 
the  size  of  175  and  smaller  when  admitted 
to  this  grade  to  have  at  least  90  per 
cent   good    red    color. 

Striped  or  partial  red  varieties  as  des- 
ignated above  to  have  not  less  than  one- 
half  good  red  color  and  when  the  size 
of  175  or  smaller  is  admitted  to  this  grade 
they  must  have  at  least  three-fourths 
good  red  color. 

Except  that  Gravensteins.  Jefferis  and 
King  of  Tompkins  County  in  all  sizes 
must  be  at  least  one-fourth  good  red 
color. 


Red  Cheek  or  blushed  varieties,  such 
as  Hydes  King,  Red  Cheek  Pippin,  Win- 
ter Banana.  Maiden  Blush,  must  have  a 
red   cheek. 

Ortleys  must  be  white,  yellow  or 
waxen. 

Yellow  or  green  varieties,  such  as 
Grimes  Golden.  White  Winter  Pearmain, 
Yellow  Newtown  and  Cox's  Orange  Pip- 
pin, must  have  the  characteristic  color 
of    the    variety. 

No  sizes  admitted  to  this  grade  smaller 
than  as  follows: 

Aiken   Red    200 

Arkansas   Black    175 

Baldwin    200 

Ben    Davis    163 

Black   Ben  Davis   163 

Cox's  Orange  Pippin  163 

Delicious    150 

Fall  Wine : 200 

Gano    163 

Grimes   Golden    200 

Gravenstein      200 

Hubbardston  Nonsuch  163 

Hydes    King    150 

Jeniton     200 

Jonathan     200 

Jefferis  200 

King  of  Tompkins  Co 163 

King   David    200 

Mammoth   Black  Twig  150 

Missouri    Pippin    200 

Mcintosh     Red    200 

Maiden  Blush  163 

Northern    Spy 150 

Oregon    Red     175 

Ortley     163 

Rainier       163 

Red  Cheek  Pippin   163 

Rome    Beauty    163 

Spitzenburg     (Esopus)     200 

Stayman    163 

Snow       225 

Vanderpool        163 

Winesaps       200 

Wagener      200 

Winter    Banana    150 

White   W.    Pearmain   200 

Wealthy   200 

Yellow    Newton    200 

York    Imperial    163 

All  boxes  to  be  lined  and  cardboard  to 
be  used  top  and  bottom. 

No  apples  accepted  in  boxes  showing 
worms  or  cocoons. 

All    apples   to   be    wrapped. 

Fancy   Grade 

In  this  grade  all  apples  must  be  ma- 
tured, hand-picked,  clean  and  sound,  free 


354 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


from  insect  pests,  water  core,  sun  dam- 
age, skin  puncture,  or  skin  broken  at 
stem,  scald,  dry  or  bitter  rot,  worms, 
worm  stings,  scale,  infectious  diseases 
and  all  other  defects  equally  detrimental, 
excepting  that  slight  limb  or  leaf  rub, 
scratches  or  russeting  will  be  permitted, 
provided  that  no  apple  shall  show  total 
blemishes  aggregating  more  than  one 
Inch  square,  in  sizes  125  and  larger. 
Fruit  clearly  misshapen,  bruised  or  bear- 
ing evidence  of  rough  handling  shall  not 
be  permitted  in  this  grade. 

The    varieties    admitted    to   this    grade 
are  the  same  as  in  the  Extra  Fancy. 
Color  requirements  are  as  follows: 
The  solid  red  varieties  must  have  fully 
40  per  cent  of  good  solid  red  color. 

Striped   or    partial    red   varieties    must 

have  at  least  one-fourth  of  good  red  color. 

Red  cheeked  or  blushed  varieties  must 

have     correct     physical     qualities     with 

tinge  of  color. 

All  apples  of  a  green  or  yellow  variety 
shall  be  of  characteristic  color. 

No  sizes  shall  be  admitted  to  this  grade 
smaller  than  as  follows: 

Aiken  Red   200 

Arkansas    Black    163 

Baldwin       163 

Ben    Davis    1°^ 

Black   Ben  Davis  163 

Cox's   Orange   Pippin    150 


Snow 


200 


Vanderpool    1^0 


200 
200 
150 
200 
200 
200 
163 


Winesaps       

Wagener      

Winter    Banana    

"White    W.    Pearmaln 

Wealthy       

Yellow   Newton   

York    Imperial    

All  boxes  to  be  lined  and  cardboard  to 
be   used   top   and  bottom. 

No  apples  accepted  in  boxes  showing 
worms  or  cocoons. 

All   apples   to  be   wrapped. 

Single  Grade 

The  following  apples  to  be  packed  in 
one  grade  combining  the  Extra  Fancy 
and  Fancy  grades  as  provided  by  these 
grading  rules,  size  not  smaller  than  163 
count,  windfalls  absolutely  excluded.  This 
pack  to  be  marked  or  labeled  as  Fancy. 

Palouse 
Pewaukee 
Pryor  Red 
Rambo 


Delicious 


150 


Apple  of  Commerce 

Baldwin 

Ben  Hur 

Bismarck 

Canada  Red 

Chicago 

Champion 

Delaware  Red 

Golden  Russet 

Hoover 

Ingram 


200 
200 
200 
200 
163 
200 


Rhode  Isl.  Greening 

Roxbury  Russet 

Russian  Red 

Salome 

Shakelford 

Senator 

Stark 


Fall    Wine    1'^^ 

Gano       163 

Grimes   Golden   200 

Gravenstein      200 

Hubbardston  Nonsuch  150 

Hydes    King    150 

Jeniton     

Jonathan       

Jefferis  

Kaighn    Spitz    

King   of  Tompkins   Co 

King   David    

Mammoth  Black  Twig  150 

Missouri    Pippin   200 

Mcintosh   Red    200 

Maiden     Blush    163 

Northern    Spy    163 

Oregon   Red   163 

Ortley       163 

Rainier      163 

Rome    Beauty    163 

Red   Cheek   Pippin   163 

Spitzenburg   (Esopus)   200 

Steele   Red    150 


Wallbridge 
Westfleld 
Willow  Twig 
Yellow  Bellflower 


Stayman 


150 


Kaighn  Spitzenburg   Steele  Red 
Kentish  Swaar 

Kinnard 

Mann 

Mother 

McMahon 

N.  West'n  Greening 

All  boxes  to  be  lined  and  cardboard  to 
be  used  top  and  bottom. 
All  apples  to  be  wrapped. 

Exceptions 

Summer  varieties,  such  as  Astrachan, 
Bailey's  Sweet,  Bietigheimer,  Duchess, 
Early  Harvest,  Red  June,  Strawberry, 
Twenty  Ounce  Pippin,  Yellow  Transpar- 
ent and  kindred  varieties  not  otherwise 
specified  in  these  grading  rules,  together 
with  Early  Fall  varieties,  such  as  Alex- 
ander. Blue  Pearmain,  Wolf  River,  Spo- 
kane Beauty,  Fall  Pippin,  Waxen,  Tol- 
man  Sweet,  Sweet  Bough  and  other  vari- 
eties not  provided  for  in  these  grading 
rules  as  grown  in  sections  of  early  ma- 
turity,   shall    be    packed    in    accordance 


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355 


with  the  grading  rules  covering  Fancy 
Grade  as  to  defects  but  regardless  of 
color  rules;  size  not  smaller  than  163 
count  for  the  larger  growing  varieties, 
and  200  count  for  the  smaller  growing 
varieties:  wind  falls  to  be  absolutely 
excluded.  All  boxes  to  be  lined  and  card- 
board used  top  and  bottom. 

"C"   Grade 

This  grade  is  provided  to  be  used  when 
market  requirements  justify  and  shall 
consist  of  apples  not  smaller  than  1G3 
count.  This  grade  shall  be  made  up  o! 
all  merchantable  apples  not  included  in 
the  Extra  Fancy  or  Fancy  grades.  Apples 
must  be  free  from  all  insect  pests,  worms, 
worm  holes,  and  infectious  diseases.  Seri- 
ous physical  injuries,  skin  puncture, 
bruised  or  broken  skin  will  not  be  per- 
mitted and  not  exceeding  two  stings 
thoroughly  healed.  There  are  no  require- 
ments as  to  color  except  that  the  fruit 
must  be  matured.  This  grade  to  be 
packed  in  accordance  with  trade  require- 
ments. 

No  apples  accepted  in  boxes  showing 
infection  of  worms  or  cocoons. 

Reronimendation 

The  executive  board  advises  the  use  of 
the  regular  Northwestern  standard  apple 
box,  inside  measurements,  lOV^xlli'oX 
18,  with  solid  ends.  Inasmuch  as  the 
laws,  as  well  as  the  trade  requirements, 
will  force  us  to  sell  our  apples  by  nu- 
merical count,  we  abolish  the  system  of 
designating  or  manifesting  fruit  by  tiers 
and  will  employ  the  numerical  system  ex- 
clusively hereafter. 

The  recognized  and  endorsed  counts 
for  the  Northwestern  standard  apple 
pack  are  as  follows: 


36 

80 

125 

200 

45 

88 

138 

213 

48 

96 

150 

225 

56 

104 

163 

64 

112 

175 

72 

113 

188 

f'ral)  .Apples 

These  should  be  carefully  assorted  as 
to  varieties,  making  one  grade  only, 
keeping  out  all  insect  pests,  worm  holes, 
sting,    scale,    misshapen    and    blemished 


fruit.  Put  up  in  apple  boxes;  line  the 
box;  fill  in  gently  so  as  to  prevent  bruis- 
ing. 

Lady  Apples 
These  should  be  packed  in  half  boxes; 
boxes  lined,  remembering  that  the  more 
attractive  the  better  the  sale.  Hake  only 
one  grade,  keeping  out  all  insect  pests, 
worm  holes,  sting,  scale,  misshapen  and 
blemished  fruit. 

PE.iRS 

Bartlett,  Buerre  Clargo,  Buerre  d'East- 
er,  Clapps  Favorite,  Flemish  Beauty, 
Duchess,  Howells  and  other  varieties  not 
otherwise  specified  in  these  rules  shall  be 
packed  in  two  grades,  being  the  Fancy 
and  the  "C"  grade. 

Standard  boxes,  Si^xlOi^xlS,  only  to 
be  used  and  the  following  weights  to  be 
observed:  Bartletts,  Buerre  Clargo, 
Buerre  d'Easter,  Flemish  Beauty,  to 
weigh  from  50  to  52  pounds  gross. 

Clapps  Favorite  and  Howells  to  weigh 
from   48  to  52  pounds  gross. 

Winter  Nells  to  weigh  at  least  46 
pounds  gross. , 

Grades   defined  as   follows: 

"C"   Grade 

This  grade  to  consist  of  all  merchant- 
able pears  not  included  in  other  grade, 
but  must  be  free  from  worms,  scale, 
stings,  or  other  insect  pests.  Slightly  mis- 
shapen pears  or  pears  having  limb  rub 
or  other  defects  not  spoiling  the  mer- 
chantable quality  of  the  fruit  shall  be 
accepted.  Punctures  or  skin  broken  at 
stem  must  be  kept  out. 

Size  of  fruit  to  be  not  less  than  2% 
inches  in  diameter,  except  Winter  Nells, 
which  shall  be  not  less  than  1%   inches. 

Buerre  d'Anjou,  Comice,  Buerre  Bosc: 
These  three  varieties  shall  be  packed  in 
three  grades,  being  Extra  Fancy,  Fancy 
and  "C"  grade.  When  packed  should  not 
weigh  less  than  48  to  50  pounds  gross. 

Grades   defined   as   follows: 

Extra  Fancy 

This  grade  shall  consist  of  pears  not 
less  than  two  inches  in  diameter;  must 
be  hand  picked,  clean  and  sound,  free 
from  insect  pests,  sun  damage,  broken 
skin,    scale,    scald,    worms,    worm   stings. 


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ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


infectious  diseases,  limb  or  leaf  rub,  mis- 
shapen fruit  and  all  other  defects  equally 
detrimental.  Fruit  bruised  or  punctured 
or  showing  other  evidences  of  rough 
handling  shall  not  be  permitted  in  this 
grade.  Pears  must  have  stem  or  part  of 
same  intact. 

Fancy 
This  grade  shall  be  but  slightly  below 
the  Extra  Fancy  pack;  and  shall  consist 
of  pears  not  less  than  two  inches  in  diam- 
eter (except  Winter  Nelis,  which  shall 
not  be  less  than  1%  inches)  ;  must  be 
hand  picked,  clean  and  sound,  free  from 
insect  pests,  sun  damage,  broken  skin, 
scald,  scale,  worms,  worm  stings,  infec- 
tious diseases  and  all  other  defects  equal- 
ly detrimental,  excepting  that  slight  limb 
or  leaf  rub,  scratches  or  russeting  will  be 
permitted  provided  no  pear  shall  show 
total  blemishes  aggregating  more  than 
one-half  inch  in  diameter.  Pears  must 
have  stem  or  part  of  same  intact.  Fruit 
clearly  misshapen,  bruised,  or  bearing 
evidence  of  rough  handling  shall  not  be 
permitted    in   this   grade. 

"C"  Grade 

This  grade  should  be  the  same  as  the 
"C"  grade  provided  for  the  other  vari- 
eties  of  pears. 

Seckel  Pears 

These  should  be  packed  in  half  boxes, 
the  top  faced,  and  then  filled  gently  so 
as  to  prevent  bruising.  Boxes  to  be  lined. 
Make  one  grade  only,  keeping  out  all  in- 
sect pests,  worm  holes,  stings,  scale,  mis- 
shapen   and    blemished    fruit. 

PEACHES 

Peaches  should  be  picked  for  packing 
only  when  fully  developed,  but  firm  or 
hard  ripe.  Yellow  meated  varieties  should 
show  some  yellow  color.  The  fruit  should 
be  picked  and  laid  in  the  baskets  or  pails, 
not  dropped,  and  should  be  taken  from 
the  vessel  only  at  packing  table.  All 
possible  care  should  be  used  to  avoid 
bruises. 

Use  standard  peach  boxes;  cleats  on 
top  only;  use  4d  special  orange  box  ce- 
ment nails  for  bottoms  and  sides.  Drive 
nails  one  inch  from  corner.  Four  nails 
to  each  piece.     Use  three  4d  cement  box 


nails  to  each  cleat — one  in  the  center,  and 
one  driven  two  inches  from  the  end  of 
the  cleat.  The  cover  should  hold  the 
fruit  firmly  in  the  box  but  should  not 
bulge  more  than  %  inch.  Use  4i/i-inch 
boxes  only  for  Elberta  peaches,  running 
50  to  84,  both  inclusive,  avoiding  the  use 
of  extra  cleats  except  in  extreme  eases. 
Peaches  that  are  too  large  to  be  laid  in 
the  box  five  wide  should  be  packed  two 
and  three  in  4io-inch  boxes.  If  the 
peaches  are  roundish,  as  in  the  case  of 
Crawfords,  it  will  be  necessary  to  use 
some  four-inch  boxes  with  this  pack. 

Peaches  that  will  go  five  across  the  box 
or  smaller  should  be  packed  three  and 
three  in  four-inch  boxes.  The  excellence 
of  the  pack  depends  upon  uniform  grad- 
ing. The  peaches  in  a  box  should  not 
vary  more  than  %  inch  in  diameter.  All 
grades  must  be  carefully  wrapped  in  suit- 
able paper. 

Peaches  that  run  less  than  9G  to  the 
box  should  not  be  packed  for  shipment. 
Eighty-four  count  should  be  the  minimum 
for  Elbertas.  In  packing  the  box  should 
sit  on  an  incline  with  the  lower  end  of 
the  box  to  the  packer.  Both  tiers  should 
be  carried  forward  together.  The  peaches 
should  be  placed  in  the  box  stem  end 
down,  those  in  the  top  tier  resting  in 
the  spaces  between  those  in  the  lower  tier 
so  that  no  peach  will  rest  squarely  on 
top  of  another.  Pack  all  peaches  with 
the  loose  end  of  the  wrapper  down.  No 
over-ripe,  undersized,  immature,  bruised, 
misshapen,  diseased,  wormy,  or  otherwise 
defective  fruit  should  be  packed.  Over- 
ripes  may  be  packed  for  special  purposes 
with  the  letter  "R"  marked  on  the  end 
of  the  box. 
.  All  marks  should  be  placed  on  one  end 
of  the  box  only.  The  variety  shall  be 
placed  in  the  upper  right  hand  corner; 
the  number  of  peaches  in  the  upper  left 
hand  corner  and  the  grower's  name  at 
the  top  in  the  middle,  and  name  of  local 
district  in  the  lower  right  hand  corner. 
Use  rubber  stamps. 

Each  local  district  shall  employ  an  in- 
spector qualified  to  give  instructions  in 
picking  and  packing,  and  whose  duty  it 
will  be  to  see  that  each  packing  house  is 


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357 


superintended    by    persons    competent    to 
enforce  these  rules. 

CANTELOUPES 

With  a  view  of  promoting  this  impor- 
tant industry  more  care  must  be  used  in 
grading  and  packing.  It  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  a  standard  grade  be  adopt- 
ed, as  well  as  a  standard  of  pack. 

The  commercial  counts  as  recognized 
for  canteloupes  are  the  36  count  or  Jum- 
bos; the  45  count  or  Standards;  the  54 
count  or  Pony. 

There  must  be  a  straight  pack,  uni- 
form size  canteloupes  in  each  grade, 
clean  and  at  a  stage  of  uniform  ripeness 
that  will  permit  long  distance  shipment. 

These  rules  were  in  use  in  the  several 
districts  for  the  season  of  1913-14.  The 
rules  governing  the  grades  for  box  apples 
in  Canada,  as  established  by  the  Canadian 
"Fruit  Harks  Act,"  appear  in  this  work 
under   Laws. 

ME.\M>G  OF  TIER 

Nothing  is  more  puzzling  to  the  novice 
at  apple  packing  than  the  modern  use  of 
the  word  tier.  This  present  use  can  be 
e.xplained  best  by  a  statement  of  a  few 
of  the  facts  connected  with  the  transition 
that  has  taken  place  in  the  use  of  the 
word.  Originally  apples  were  packed  ac- 
cording to  the  layer  method  only  in  the 
square  style.  Apples  were  mixed  as  to 
size  in  any  manner  that  would  admit  of 
their  being  packed  "square,"  or  straight 
across  the  box,  in  either  three,  four  or 
five  layers.  Tradition  says  that  the  first 
grower  who  brought  his  apples  into  North 
Yakima,  Wash.,  packed  diagonally  was 
unable  to  find  a  buyer  that  would  accept 
them,  and  was  compelled  to  take  them 
home  and  repack  them  "square."  Apples 
were  spoken  of  as  being  either  three,  four 
or  five-tier,  according  to  the  number  of 
rows  running  crosswise  of  the  box  and 
the  number  of  layers  in  depth,  the  two 
being  the  same.  However,  when  a  need 
was  felt  for  a  more  exact  grading  as  to 
size,  a  limited  use  of  the  two-two*  and 
three-two°  packs  was  begun.     Any  apple 

*  See  Styles  of  Pack.  Two-Two  Pack,  this 
article. 

°  See  Styles  of  Pack.  Three-Two  Pack,  this 
article. 


that  was  placed  into  the  two-two  pack 
was  called  a  three  and  one-half  tier  ap- 
ple, and  the  pack  a  three  and  one-half 
tier  pack,  the  literal  meaning  of  this  be- 
ing that  it  would  require  approximately 
three  and  one-half  of  the  apples  to  fit  in 
a  row  crosswise  of  the  box,  or  from  top 
to  bottom.  Likewise,  any  apple  that  was 
placed  in  the  three-two  pack  was  called 
a  four  and  one-half  tier  apple  and  the 
pack  a  four  and  one-half  tier  pack,  mean- 
ing that  it  would  take  approximately 
four  and  one-half  of  the  apples  of  that 
size  to  fit  in  a  row  in  like  directions  as 
above.  The  trade  paid  for  apples  accord- 
ing to  the  size  as  well  as  the  quality,  des- 
ignating the  size  by  the  tier  pack  into 
which  they  were  placed. 

In  very  recent  years  "square"  packing 
has  been  abandoned,  due  to  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  fact  that  apples  packed  accord- 
ing to  this  method  receive  the  more  and 
greater  bruises  in  nailing  up  and  hand- 
ling, when  compared  to  apples  packed 
diagonally;  and  the  use  of  the  diagonal 
packs  has  been  extended  to  accommodate 
these  apples  formerly  packed  "square." 
The  terms  three  tier,  four  tier,  five  tier, 
have  been  retained  to  designate  the  sizes 
ot  apples  which  were  formerly  given  the 
three,  four  or  five  tier  pack,  although 
they  are  now  packed  two  and  one-half, 
three  and  one-half,  or  four  and  one-half 
tier.  We  have  four  tier  apples,  but  no 
four  tier  pack. 

Counts  36,  41,  and  45,  are  called  two 
and  one-half  tier,  or  sometimes  three 
tier.  Counts  48,  54,  56,  are  called  three 
tier.  Counts  64,  72,  80,  88,  are  called 
three  and  one-half  tier.  Ninety-six  is 
sometimes  placed  into  this  group,  but  is 
usually  included  in  the  next.  Counts 
96,  100,  104,  112,  113,  120,  125,  128,  are 
called  four  tier.  Counts  138,  150,  163,  are 
four  and  one-half  tier.  One  hundred  and 
seventy-five  is  designated  either  four  ana 
one-half  or  five  tier,  the  latter  custom 
predominating.  Sizes  188  to  225  are  call- 
ed five  tier.  Sizes  smaller  than  225  are 
either  called  five  tier,  or  given  no  tier 
designation  at  all. 

Formerly  the  tier  was  stamped  on  the 
box,  frequently  without  the  number.    Now 


358 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the  number  is  used,  the  tier  rarely  ap- 
pearing. An  increasing  number  of  per- 
sons believe  that  the  contusion  frequent- 
ly arising  from  the  use  of  the  term  tier 
warrants  its  complete  abandonment.  Cer- 
tainly small,  medium,  large,  would  ex- 
press as  much.  Apple  dealers  are  be- 
ginning to  identify  by  the  actual  counts 
rather  than  by  any  name  classifying 
them. 

STYLES  OF  PACK 
Jumble  Method 
Apples    are    packed    in    boxes    accord- 
ing to  the  jumble  and  the  layer  methods. 
The  jumble  method  is  only  a  modification 
of    the    barrel    pack.      It    has    been    used 
chiefly    in    Colorado,    and    is    sometimes 
called  the  "Colorado"  pack.     In  this  pack, 
two  layers  are  first  placed   into  the  box 
stem   end    down,    in    what    is    called    the 
three-two   order.      (See   three-two   pack.) 
The  box  is  then  poured  full,  and  the  top 
arranged   as    regularly   as   possible,   stem 
end    up.      When    nailed,    the    box    is    re- 
versed,  the   side  which  was   packed   first 
being    considered     as     the     top.      Apples 
packed  thus  are  never  wrapped,  although 
the  boxes  are  usually  lined.     The  apples 
are   rarely  graded   so  closely  for  size  as 
where   the   layer  pack  is  used.     The  ad- 
vantages   of    this    method    are:     (1)     its 
cheapness    and     (2)     the    rapidity    with 
which  the  packing  is  accomplished.     The 
objections  are:     (1)    it  requires  a   larger 
box  for  the  same  weight  of  apples  than 
the   layer   method;     (2)    the   apples    can- 
not be  given  the  advantages  of  wrapping; 
(3)   there  is  less  incentive  toward  secur- 
ing uniformity  of  size;    (4)    the  interior 
of  the  package  does  not  present  so  pleas- 
ing   and    finished    an    appearance,    from 
which  it  might  he  inferred  that  the  value 
of  the   apples   does   not  warrant  care   in 
packing  them. 

Layer  Method 
The  two  types  of  the  layer  pack  are 
the  square  and  the  diagonal,  or  "dia- 
mond." The  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of  the  layer  pack  are  inversely  those 
of  the  jumble  pack.  In  the  square  pack 
the  rows  of  apples  run  parallel  to  the 
edges  of  the  box  in  all  directions.  In 
the  diagonal  pack  the  rows  run  diagonal- 


ly from  one  side  of  the  box  toward  the 
opposite  side  in  all  directions.  The  ob- 
jection to  the  square  pack  is  that  in  it 
one  apple  bears  directly  against  another, 
both  crosswise  and  from  top  to  bottom 
through  the  box;  so  that  when  pressure 
is  brought  against  the  top,  bottom  or  side 
of  the  box,  it  causes  a  direct  pressure 
throughout  the  rows,  with  bruises  as  the 
result.  The  advantage  of  the  diagonal 
pack  Is  that  in  it  each  apple  fits  into  the 
interstice  between  other  apples,  and  when 
pressure  is  brought  to  bear  upon  it,  in- 
stead of  forcing  itself  directly  against 
another  apple,  it  tends  to  shove  the  other 
apples  aside  and  make  its  way  between 
them,  these  other  apples  tending  to  shove 
their  way  between  still  others,  and  so 
on;  so  that  no  direct  pressure  results,  but 
a  modified  one.  This  explains  why  the 
diagonal  pack  has  superseded  the  square. 

Diagonal  Pack 

There  are  six  possible  forms  of  the 
diagonal  pack:  Two-one,  two-two,  three- 
two,  three-three,  four-three,  four-four. 
The  three-three  and  four-four  packs  are 
called  "offset"  packs.  In  these  are  also 
distinct  rows  running  crosswise  of  the 
box.  These  rows  begin  alternately  at 
either  side  of  the  box,  ending  with  a  space 
at  the  opposite  side,  hence  the  term  "off- 
set." The  objections  to  the  offset  pack 
are  that  it  leaves  large  holes  at  the  side 
of  the  box,  from  which  point  the  box  is 
opened  by  the  buyer  for  inspection;  also 
that  its  use  tends  toward  contusion  in 
packing,  by  multiplicity  of  styles.  The 
same  apples  pack  well  in  the  three-two 
and  two-two  packs;  except  in  the  case  of 
some  small  apples,  when  the  three-three 
pack  is  needed.  The  only  layer  packs 
now  sanctioned  by  the  best  usage  in  the 
Northwest,  are  the  two-one,  the  two-two, 
the  three-two,  and  a  few  small  sizes  of 
the  three-three  pack. 

Two-One  Pack 

To  begin  the  two-one  pack,  place  an 
apple  in  the  lower  left  hand  corner  of  the 
box,  then  one  in  the  lower  right  hand 
corner,  then  a  third  between  the  two. 
They  will  be  of  such  a  size  that  the  third 
will   not  slip   toward   the   lower  head   of 


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359 


the  box  over  half  way  between  the  first 
and  second.  Repeat,  placing  the  apples  in 
the  same  relative  position  as  the  first 
three,  until  the  upper  head  of  the  box 
is  reached.  This  first  layer  may  end  with 
two  apples  and  one  space,  or  with  one  ap- 
ple and  two  spaces.  Begin  the  second 
layer  by  placing  an  apple  above  the  space 
left  between  the  first  two  apples  in  the 
bottom  layer.  The  apple  will  fall  down 
into  the  space  a  trifle.  Place  the  next 
two  apples  on  either  side  of  the  first. 
The  three  will  be  of  such  a  size  that  the 
outer  two  will  not  slip  toward  the  lower 
head  over  half  way  on  either  side  of  the 
middle  one.  The  apples  in  the  second 
and  third  layers  fit  directly  over  the  in- 
terstices between  two  apples  in  the  lay- 
er   underneath;    except    the    end    apples, 


Fig.  27.     Two-one  Pack,  41  Apples, 
which  fit  over  a  space  between  an  apple 
and  the  head  of  the   box.     Three  layers 
of  the  two-one  pack  fill  the  box. 

(1)  When  the  outer  rows  of  a  layer 
touch  one  head  of  the  box,  with  spaces 
at  the  other  end,  the  middle  row  touches 
the  other  head  with  a  space  at  the  op- 
posite end;  and  all  the  rows  contain  the 
same  number  of  apples.  In  the  box 
with  all  layers  constructed  thus,  every 
layer  contains  the  same  number  of  ap- 
ples. The  number  of  apples  in  the  box  is 
determined  by  counting  the  number  in 
the  top  layer  and  multiplying  by  three, 
the  number  of  layers.  (2)  When  the 
outer  rows  of  a  layer  reach  from  head  to 
head  of  the  box,  the  middle  row  has  a 
space  at  both  ends,  and  contains  one  ap- 
ple less.     On   the  other  hand,   when   the 


middle  row  touches  both  heads  of  the  box 
and  the  outer  rows  each  has  a  space  at 
both  ends,  each  contains  one  apple  less. 
The  layer  constructed  after  the  latter 
contains  one  apple  less  than  the  layer 
constructed  after  the  former  manner.  Now 
the  first  and  third  layers  of  the  box  each 
contains  the  same  number  of  apples;  but 
they  are  constructed  after  the  former 
manner  and  the  second  layer  after  the  lat- 
ter. Therefore  the  second  layer  contains 
one  apple  less  than  the  first  and  the  third. 
To  determine  the  number  of  apples  in  this 
box.  count  the  apples  in  the  top  layer, 
multiply  by  three,  and  substract  one. 

Where  the  outer  rows  of  the  first  layer 
each  contains  four  apples  and  the  middle 
row  also  four,  the  pack  is  described  as 
being  three  deep,  two-one  wide,  and  four- 
four  long,  with  36  apples  to  the  box. 
When  the  outer  rows  of  the  first  layer 
each  contains  five  apples  and  the  middle 
row  four,  the  pack  is  described  as  be- 
ing three  deep,  two-one  wide,  and  five- 
four  long,  with  41  apples  to  the  box. 
When  the  outer  rows  of  the  first  layer 
each  contains  five  apples  and  the  middle 
row  also  five,  the  pack  is  described  as 
being  three  deep,  two-one  wide,  and  five- 
five  long,  with  45  apples  to  the  box. 

The  two-one  pack,  though  correct,  is 
rarely  used.  Few  apples  grow  large 
enough  to  pack  into  it.  and  these  are 
usually  of  too  poor  quality  for  commercial 
purposes.  It  is  sometimes  put  up  as  an 
exhibition  pack  with  which  to  stun  the 
land  looker.  To  decide  whether  a  certain 
size  of  apple  should  be  packed  in  the  two- 
one  or  in  the  two-two  pack,  try  to  place 
three  of  the  apples  cheek  to  cheek  in  a 
row  crosswise  of  the  box.  If  the  apples 
are  so  large  transversely  that  there  is  not 
room  for  three  of  them  in  the  row,  they 
are  to  be  packed  two-one.  If  three  of 
them  fit  across  snugly,  or  if  they  are  so 
small  that  three  do  not  reach  across,  they 
are   to   be   packed   two-two. 

Two-Two  Pack 

To  begin  the  two-two  pack,  place  an 
apple  in  the  lower  left  hand  corner  of  the 
box,  then  one  in  the  middle  of  the  space 
between  the  first  apple  and  the  right  hand 


360 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


air 


O^G 


Fis 


Two-two  Pack,  56  at  Left,  96  at 
Right. 


side  of  the  box,  then  a  third  and  a  fourth 
in  the  two  remaining  spaces.  The  apples 
will  be  of  such  a  size  that  the  third  and 
fourth  will  not  slip  over  halfway  into  these 
spaces.  Repeat  placing  the  apples  in  the 
same  relative  position  as  the  first  four 
until  the  upper  head  of  the  box  is  reached. 
The  first  and  third  rows,  counting  from 
either  side,  may  end  with  an  apple  touch- 
ing the  upper  head  of  the  box.  and  the 
second  and  the  fourth  with  a  space.  Be- 
gin the  second  layer  by  placing  an  apple 
over  each  of  the  spaces  against  the  lower 
end  of  the  box  in  the  first  layer.  Place 
the  next  two  apples  in  the  spaces  made 
by  these.  The  four  will  be  of  such  a  size 
that  the  second  two  will  not  slip  into 
these  spaces  over  half  their  length.  The 
apples   in   the   second   layer   and   in   each 


Fig.  2!(.  Method  iif  Startlns  the  Twu-twu 
Pack  (at  right)  and  Three-two  Pack  (at 
left). 


succeeding  layer,  fit  directly  over  the 
interstice  between  two  apples  underneath; 
except  the  end  apples,  which  fit  over  the 
space  between  an  apple  and  the  head  of 
the  box.  Four  layers  of  the  two-two 
pack  fill  the  box.  Each  contains  the 
same  number  of  apples.  The  number  of 
apples  in  the  box  is  determined  by  count- 
ing the  number  in  the  top  layer  and  mul- 
tiplying by  four,  the  number  of  layers. 

The  following  are  the  counts  of  the  two- 
two  pack,  with  the  length  of  rows  in 
each:  48,  3-3;  56,  4-3;  64,  4-4;  72,  5-4; 
80,  5-5;  88,  6-5;  96,  6-6;  104,  7-6;  112,  7-7; 
120,  8-7.  Extremely  flat  apples  are  re- 
quired for  counts  112  and  120.  To  decide 
whether  a  certain  size  of  apple  should  be 
packed  into  the  two-two  or  into  the  three- 
two  pack,  try  to  place  four  of  the  apples 
cheek  to  cheek  crosswise  of  the  box.  If 
the  apples  are  so  large  that  there  is  not 
room  for  four  of  them  in  the  row,  the  ap- 
ples are  to  be  packed  two-two.  If  four 
of  them  fit  across  snugly,  or  If  they  are 
so  small  that  four  of  them  do  not  reach 
across,  they  are  to  be  packed  three-two. 

Tbree-Two  Pack 

To  begin  the  three-two  pack,  place  an 
apple  in  the  lower  left  hand  corner  of 
the  box,  then  one  in  the  lower  right  hand 
corner,  then  a  third  equidistant  between 
the  two.  Then  place  an  apple  in  each  of 
the  two  remaining  spaces.  All  five  will 
be  of  such  a  size  that  the  last  two  will 
not  slip  over  half  way  into  the  spaces. 
Repeat,  placing  the  apples  in  the  same 
relative  position  as  the  first  five  until  the 
upper  head  of  the  box  is  reached.  Begin 
the  second  layer  by  placing  an  apple  over 
each  of  the  two  spaces  left  in  the  bottom 
layer  against  the  lower  head  of  the  box. 
Place  the  next  three  in  the  space  between 
these  two  and  the  two  spaces  on  either 
side  of  them  between  them  and  the  sides 
of  the  box.  The  five  will  be  of  such  a 
size  that  the  last  three  will  not  slip  over 
half  way  into  the  space.  The  apples  in 
the  second  layer  and  in  each  succeeding 
layer  fit  directly  over  interstices  in  the 
layer  underneath.  Five  layers  of  the 
three-two   pack   fill   the  box. 

1.  When  the  outer  rows  and  the  middle 
row   of   a   layer   touch    one    head    of   the 


APPLES 


361 


box,  with  spares  at  the  other  end,  the 
second  and  fourth  rows  touch  only  the  op- 
posite head  of  the  box.  All  the  rows  in 
each  layer  contain  the  same  number  of 
apples,  and  each  layer  contains  the  same 


Fis-    ao.      Thicp  twii    I'ack:     113    at    the    left. 
IT.j    at    the    risht. 

number.     The   number   of   apples    in    the 
■  box  is  determined  by  counting  the  apples 
in  the  top  layer  and  multiplying  by  five, 
the  number  of  layers. 

2.  When  the  outer  rows  and  the  middle 
row  of  a  layer  reach  from  head  to  head 
of  the  box,  the  second  and  fourth  rows 
each  has  a  space  at  both  ends  and  each 
contains  one  apple  less.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  second  and  fourth  rows 
reach  from  head  to  head,  the  first,  third 
and  fifth  each  has  a  space  at  both  ends 
and  each  contains  one  apple  less.  Then 
the  layer  constructed  after  the  latter,  con- 
tains one  apple  less  than  the  layer  con- 
structed after  the  former  manner.  Now 
the  first,  third  and  fifth  layers  of  the  box 
each  contains  the  same  number  of  apples, 
and  the  second  and  fourth  the  same.  But 
the  first,  third  and  fifth  layers  are  con- 
structed after  the  former  manner,  and 
the  second  and  fourth  after  the  latter. 
Hence  the  box  contains  two  layers  each 
containing  one  apple  less  than  the  other 
three:  and  to  determine  the  number  of 
apples,  count  those  in  the  top  layer,  mul- 
tiply by  five,  the  number  of  layers  and 
subtract   two. 

The  counts  of  the  three-two  packs,  with 
the  length  of  rows  in  each  are:  100,  4-4; 
113,  5-4;  125,  5-5;  138,  6-5;  150,  6-6;  163, 
7-6;   175,  7-7;   188,  8-7;   200,  8-8;    213,  9-8; 


225,  9-9.  The  count  100  is  sanctioned 
only  for  the  use  of  very  long  apples,  such 
as  some  Spitzenburgs  and  Ortleys,  which 
would  pack  slack  crosswise  of  the  box 
and  not  allow  of  a  proper  height  If  put 
into  the  96  two-two  pack.  Sizes  200,  213, 
and  225  can  be  used  successfully  only 
for  apples  somewhat  flat.  Long  apples  for 
these  sizes  will  likewise  be  slack  cross- 
wise and  come  too  low.  They  can  be 
packed  three-three.  To  decide  whether  a 
certain  size  of  apple  should  be  packed  in- 
to the  three-two  or  the  three-three  pack, 
try  to  place  five  of  them  cheek  to  cheek 
crosswise  of  the  box.  If  the  apples  are 
so  large  that  there  is  not  room  for  five  of 
them  in  the  row,  the  apples  are  to  be 
packed  three-two.  If  the  five  of  them 
fit  across  snugly,  or  if  they  are  so  small 
that  five  of  them  do  not  reach  across,  they 
are  to  be  packed  three-three. 


l''ig.  .31.  The  Five  Layers  of  a  Three-two  Pack 
where  the  I'ows  are  of  unequal  length.  One 
hundred  eighty-eight  apples.  If  tlie  top  layer 
ot  the  box  were  counted  and  this  number 
multiplied  by  five,  the  result  would  be  IflO. 
If  the  layers  are  reversed  there  will  be  1S7 
apples. 

Three-Three  Pack 

To  begin  the  three-three  pack,  place 
three  apples  against  the  lower  head  of 
the  box,  beginning  at  the  left  hand  side, 
leaving  three  spaces  of  equal  size,  one  at 
the  right  of  each  apple,  the  last  being 
between    the    third    apple    and    the    right 


362 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


hand  side  of  the  box.  *  Next  place  three 
apples  in  the  three  spaces.  The  six 
apples  will  be  of  such  a  size  that  the 
latter  three  will  not  slip  over  half  way 
into  the  spaces.  Repeat,  placing  the  ap- 
ples in  the  same  relative  position  as  the 
first  six  until  the  upper  head  of  the  box 
is  reached.  The  first,  third  and  fifth  rows, 
counting  from  either  side,  may  end  with 
an  apple  touching  the  upper  head  of  the 
box,  in  which  case  the  second,  fourth  and 
sixth  each  ends  with  a  space.  Begin  the 
second  layer  by  placing  an  apple  over 
each  of  the  spaces  left  in  the  first  layer 
against  the  lower  head  of  the  box.  Con- 
tinue as  In  the  first  layer.  Each  apple 
fits  directly  above  a  space  or  interstice 
below.  Six  layers  of  the  three-three  pack 
fill  the  box.  The  number  of  apples  in 
the  box  is  determined  by  counting  the 
apples  in  the  top  layer  and  multiplying 
the  number  by  six,  the  number  of  layers. 
The  only  counts  of  the  three-three  pack 
now  used,  with  the  length  of  rows  in 
each  are:  198,  6-5;  216,  6-6:  234,  7-6;  252, 
7-7.  The  value  of  the  three-three  pack 
for  apples  which  are  long  in  shape  and 
which  will  come  both  loose  crosswise  and 
low  when  packed  three-two,  200,  213,  225, 
is  not  sufficiently  appreciated  by  some 
districts  of  the  Northwest.  It  is  only 
occasionally  found  profitable  to  pack  ap- 
ples smaller  than  198  or  200. 

Offset  and  Square  Packs 

These  are  now  chiefly  of  historical  in- 
terest, having  been  discarded  because  both 
objectionable  and  unnecessary,  as  previ- 
ously stated.     Sizes  of  the  three-three  off- 


set pack,  containing  four  layers,  were 
72,  84,  96.  A  three-three  offset  pack  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  32.  Sizes  of  the  four- 
four  offset  pack,  containing  five  layers, 
were  160  and  180.  Sizes  of  the  square 
pack,  with  the  length  of  row  and  the 
depth,  are  as  follows:  Three  layers: 
45,  five  in  rows,;  56.  six  in  rows.  Four 
layers:  96,  six  in  rows;  112,  seven  in 
rows;  128,  eight  in  rows.  Five  layers: 
200,  eight  in  rows;  225,  nine  in  rows.  In 
the  special  box  63  apples,  seven  apples  to 


M 

M 

*  The  three- three  pack  is  besiin  In  the  same 
way  as  the  offset,  except  that  the  apples  are 
much  smaller  and  that  the  stems  are  all 
pointed  one  way.     See  Fig.  32. 


Fig.   ?,2.     Offset   Pack,   96  Apples,   Obsolete. 
Fig.   33.     Square   Pack,   Obsolete. 

the  row,  three  layers;  also  144  apples, 
nine  to  the  row,  four  layers,  can  be 
packed. 

Packs  for  the  "Colorado"  Box 

The  "Colorado"  box,  being  of  a  dif- 
ferent shape  and  size  from  the  Northwest 
standard,  accommodates  a  different  list  of 
counts,  modified  by  the  Colorado  cus- 
tom of  packing  the  apples  always  flat. 
The  following  tables  are  taken  from  the 
grading  and  packing  rules  and  instruc- 
tions of  the  Grand  Junction  Fruit  Grow- 
ers' Association  for  the  season  of  1912: 


LoniJ  Apples 

All  apples  of  the  varieties  following  may  be  termed  "long  apples,"  and  should 
be  packed  as  per  following  formulas:  Gano,  Ben  Davis,  White  Winter  Pearmain, 
Bellfiower,  etc. 


Size 

Pack 

Layer 
Contains 

,  No.  Layers 
in  Box 

Box 
Contains 

214— "^14  inch 
2%— 2%  inch 
2?<— 3      inch 
3    —3M  inch 

3—3x6—6 
3— 3.x5— 5 
3—2x5—5 
3—2x5—4 

36 

30 

25 

2—22    3—23 

7 
6 
6 
5 

252 
180 
150 
113 

APPLES  363 

Flat  Apples 

All  apples  in  the  following  list  may  be  termed  "flat  apples,"  and  should  be 
packed  as  per  formulas  for  flat  apples:  Jonathan,  Winesap,  jMissouri  Pippin,  Mink- 
ler,  Rome  Beauty,  Arkansas  Black,  etc. 


Size 

Pack 

■ 

Layer 

Contains 

No.  Layers 
in  Box 

Box 

Contains 

2M— 2J^  inch 
2H— 2M  inch 
2%—3     inch 
3    — SMinch 
^K—314  inch 
3}^— 3M  inch 

3—3x6—6 
3—3x5—5 
3—2x5—6 
3—2x4-^ 
2—2x5—5 
2—2x5-^ 

36 
30 
3—28    3—27 
20 
20 
18 

8 
7 
6 
6 
5 
5 

288 
210 
165 
120 
100 
90 

There  are  many  other  varieties  that  might  have  been  classed  under  these  two 
heads,  hut  these  must  be  compared  and  packed  as  the  variety  they  most  resemble 
in  shape. 


See  definitioii  of  "flat"  pack,  under  next  caption. 


Schedule  of  Diagonal  Packs  for  Standard  Apple  Box 


Style  of 

Count 

No.  in 

No.  of 

Tier 

Pack 

Rows 

Layers 

Designation 

2-1 

36 

4-4 

3 

3(2J^) 

2-1 

41 

5-4 

3 

3  (2J^) 

2-1 

45 

5-5      . 

3 

3  (2H) 

2-2 

48 

3-3 

4 

3 

2-2 

56 

4-3 

4 

3 

2-2 

64 

4-4 

4 

3J^ 

2-2 

72 

5-4 

4 

3^ 

2-2 

80 

5-5 

4 

3^ 

2-2 

88 

6-5 

4 

3H 

2-2 

96 

6-6 

4 

4 

2-2 

104 

7-6 

4 

4 

2r-2 

112  (flat  apples) 

i-t 

4 

4 

2-2 

120  (flat  apples,  rare) 

8-7 

4 

4 

3-2 

100  (long  apples) 

4^4 

5 

4 

3-2 

113 

5-4 

5 

4 

3-2 

125 

5-5 

5 

4 

3-2 

138 

6-5 

5 

43^ 

3-2 

150 

6-6 

5 

iH 

3-2 

163 

7-6 

5 

4H 

3-2 

175 

7-7 

5 

5(43^) 

3-2 

188 

8-7 

5 

5 

3-2 

200  (flat  apples) 

8-8 

5 

5 

3-2 

213  (flat  apples) 

9-8 

5 

5 

3-2 

225  (flat  apples) 

9-9 

5 

5 

3-3 

198  (long  apples) 

6-5 

6 

5 

3-3 

216  (long  apples) 

6-6 

6 

5 

3-3 

234 

7-6 

6 

5  or  6 

364 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 
Additional  Diagonal  Packs  for  Canadian  Apple  Box 


Style  of 

Count 

No.  of 

No.  of 

Tier 

Pack 

Rows 

Layers 

Designation 

2-1 

50 

6-5 

3 

3 

2-1 

54 

6-6 

3 

3 

2-1 

59 

7-6 

3 

3 

2-1 

63 

7-7 

3 

3 

2-2 

120 

8-7 

4 

4 

2-2 

128 

8-8 

4 

4 

2-2 

136 

9-8 

4 

4 

2-2 

144 

9-9 

4 

"Special" 

Peacli   Packs 


Style  of  Pack 

Count 

Long 

Tier  Deep 

3-3 

96 

8-7 

2 

3-3 

84 

7-7 

2 

3-3 

78 

7-6 

2 

3-3 

72 

6-6 

2 

3-2 

65 

7-6 

2 

3-2 

60 

6-6 

2 

3-2 

55 

6-5 

2 

3-2 

50 

5-5 

2 

3-2 

45 

5-4 

2 

3-2 

40 

4-4 

2 

2-2 

36 

5-4 

2 

Pear  Packs 


Style  of  Pack 

Count 

Long 

Tier  Deep 

4-3 

245 

7-7 

5 

4-3 

228 

7-6 

5 

4^ 

210 

6-6 

5 

4-3 

193 

6-5 

5 

3-3 

180 

6-6 

5 

3-3 

165 

6-5 

5 

3-3 

150 

5-5 

5 

3-3 

135 

5-4 

5 

3-3 

120 

4-4 

5 

3-2 

110 

6-5 

4 

3-2 

100 

5-5 

4 

3-3 

90 

5-4 

4 

3-2 

80 

4-4 

4 

3-2 

70 

4-3 

4 

3-2 

60 

3-3 

4 

APPLES 


365 


Where  Dispose  of  the  Stem 

According  to  the  best  practice  ot  the 
apple  packers  of  the  Northwest  a  uniform- 
ity with  regard  to  the  direction  in  which 
the  stem  is  to  point,  is  observed  in  plac- 
ing the  apples  in  the  box.  The  picking 
up  and  wrapping  of  the  apple  in  such  a 
way  that  it  becomes  handy  to  place  it  in 
the  box  in  the  proper  position  becomes 
automatic.  There  has  been  much  discus- 
sion as  to  whether  the  apple  should  be 
placed  stem  downward,  stem  upward,  or 
stem  pointing  toward  the  end  of  the  box. 
In  the  latter  case  the  pack  is  called  a 
"cheek"  pack,  because  the  cheek  of  the 
apple  Is  presented  to  view  on  the  top 
layer,  or  because  the  apple  is  placed  in 
the  box  on  its  cheek.  A  "stem"  pack 
is  one  where  the  stem  points  upward  on 
the  top  layer.  An  "end"  pack  is  usually 
one  that  exposes  the  calyx  end  on  the  top 
.  layer;  though  it  may  mean  the  same  as  a 
"fiat"  pack,  which  term  is  applied  to  a 
pack  where  the  apple  is  placed  with 
either  the  stem  or  the  calyx  end  up.  In 
any  flat  pack  all  layers  but  the  top  are 
usually  placed  with  the  stem  end  down, 
and  the  comers  of  the  wrapping  paper 
folded  over  the  stem  to  prevent  its  punc- 
turing any  apple  below  it.  An  "oblique," 
"tilting,"  or  "disked"  pack  is  one  where 
the  apples  are  placed  in  the  box  in  an 
oblique,  or  tilting,  position.  The  apples 
may  all  be  leaned  from  the  ends  of  the 
box  toward  the  center — especially  In  ap- 
ples of  a  two-two  size;  all  layers  may  be 
leaned  toward  one  end  of  the  box,  those 
in  the  middle  at  a  slightly  less  angle  to 
form  the  crown  of  the  pack;  or  the  laj'ers 
may  alternate  as  to  the  end  ot  the  box 
toward  which  they  are  inclined.  For  the 
three-two  size  of  apples  the  second  method 
is  the  most  satisfactory.  In  this  it  Is 
well  to  lay  fiat  the  first  three  apples  in 
the  bottom  layer,  in  order  to  help  in 
keeping  that  end  of  the  pack  low  and  to 
render  more  easy  the  start  at  placing  the 
apples  in  on  a  slant. 

The  manner  in  which  the  apple  is  to 
rest  in  the  box  is  usually  determined  by 
its  size  and  shape.  The  sizes  of  the  two- 
two  pack  smaller  than  80  and  of  the 
three-two  pack  smaller  than  150  pack  best 


on  the  cheek.  Apples  of  the  larger  sizes 
of  these  two  packs,  if  somewhat  spherical, 
are  packed  on  end,  and  if  quite  flat  are 
packed  obliquely.  Expressed  differently, 
the  cheek  pack  can  be  used  to  make  a 
higher  crown  to  the  pack,  the  flat  pack  to 
make  a  lower  crown,  and  the  oblique  pack 
to  make  one  of  medium  height.  There 
is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  wheth- 
er the  cheek  or  the  flat  pack  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred in  itself,  or  where  a  choice  is  to 
be  made.  In  Colorado,  with  the  use  of  the 
"Colorado"  box.  all  apples  are  packed  flat. 
Where  wrapping  is  not  practiced,  the  ap- 
ples stay  in  place  better  thus.  On  the 
other  hand,  an  increasing  number  of  per- 
sons in  the  Northwest  are  packing  all 
apples  on  the  cheek.  This,  in  the  case  of 
apples  which  are  indicated  above  to  be 
packed  on  end,  they  do  at  the  expense 
of  firmness  of  pack,  looseness  being  neces- 
sary to  allow  of  a  sufficiently  low  crown. 
The  chief  advantage  of  the  cheek  pack  is 
that  it  presents  a  more  pleasing  (because 
less  confused)  appearance  when  on  dis- 
play, with  an  opportunity  to  expose  the 
more  highly  colored  sides  of  the  apples. 
Also  fewer  stem  punctures  result  from  its 
use  if  the  apples  are  of  a  long  stemmed 
variety.  In  this  connection  it  should  be 
stated  that  when  the  cheek  pack  is  em- 
ployed for  the  larger  sizes  of  both  the 
three-two  and  the  three-three  packs,  care 
must  be  exercised  not  to  allow  the  apples 
to  twist  sidewise  while  building  the  pack, 
but  to  keep  the  stem  and  calyx  ends  of 
the  apples  pointing  straight  toward  the 
ends  of  the  box;  else  the  pack  will  come 
too  high  by  the  reduction  of  the  size 
of  the  pockets  into  which  the  apples  of 
the  layer  above  are  to  fit.  When  the  ap- 
ples thus  show  an  inclination  to  twist, 
either  the  packer  is  crowding  them  too 
tightly,  or  else  he  is  not  selecting  them 
with  proper  uniformity  as  to  size. 

In  the  flat  pack  the  top  and  bottom 
layers  are  usually  placed  with  the  stem 
up  and  down  respectively.  The  reason  is 
that  the  stem  end  of  an  apple  possesses 
the  larger  surface  to  bear  the  pressure  of 
the  board;  and  as  the  apples  are  usually 
placed  on  the  fruit  stand  calyx  end  up, 
the  latter  end  is  especially  to  be  guarded 


366 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


from  bruises.  Formerly  it  was  deemed 
good  packing  to  allow  layers  of  both  the 
cheek  and  the  flat  pack  in  the  same  box. 
It  is  found  to  be  unnecessary,  however, 
and  is  undesirable,  because  it  usually 
necessitates  two  different  sizes  of  apples 
for  the  same  box.  Most  apples  are  not 
the  same  in.  transverse  diameter  as 
from  calyx  to  stem.  Apples  are  never 
turned  with  the  stem  toward  the  side  of 
the  box.  In  the  effort  to  make  the  pack 
tight  from  end  to  end  the  cheeks  would 
easily  bruise.  With  the  cheek  pack,  a 
neater  package  is  made  by  turning  all 
the  stems  in  the  same  direction.  Some 
packers  always  pack  with  the  stem  to- 
ward them,  and  others  with  the  stem 
away  from  them.  Some  packers  occasion- 
ally reverse  the  end  apple  of  a  row  to 
make  it  fit  better. 

For  exhibition  purposes  the  stems  are 
sometimes  pointed  from  either  end  toward 
the  center  of  the  box  in  the  two-two 
cheek  pack.  In  sizes  80  and  larger,  and 
less  frequently  in  the  larger  sizes  of  the 
three-two  pack,  the  top  layer  is  sometimes 
arranged  in  the  "stem  to  cheek,"  or  "in- 
terlocking" pack,  in  order  to  present  a 
solid  surface  of  color.  (See  Fig.  34.) 
However,  this  necessitates  a  much  larger 
apple  for  the  top  layer,  and  Is  likely  to 
produce  stem  punctures.  It  is  therefore 
not  desirable  commercially,  and  is  not  in 
favor  with  many  of  the  judges  at  the  ap- 
ple shows.  Another  method  of  obtaining 
a  solid  surface  in  three  and  one-half  tier 


i 

oooooo 
ooooo 
oooooo 
ooooo 

Fig.  34.  .  Stem  to  Cheek,  Or  Interlocking  Pack, 
Not   Commercial. 

Fig.  .35.  Stems  pointing  diagonally  toward 
side  of  box  for  obtaining  solid  surface  in 
the  large  apples  packed  two-two.  Not  Com- 
mercial. 


show  apples  is  to  place  the  top  layer 
with  the  stems  pointing  diagonally  to- 
ward the  side  of  the  box,  as  in  Fig.  35. 
Apples  placed  thus  do  not  stay  placed, 
however,  and  the  practice  is  not  a  com- 
mercial  one. 

REQUISITES  OF  A  GOOD  APPLE 
PACK 

The  requisites  of  a  good  apple  pack 
are  (1)  a  proper  bulge,  (2)  height  at 
ends,  (3)  uniformity  of  size,  (4)  firm- 
ness, and  (5)  neatness,  including  a  good 
alignment. 

Bulge  and  Height  at  Ends 

The  general  rule  for  the  bulge  on  a 
box  of  apples  is  from  one  inch  to  one  and 
one-half  inches,  top  and  bottom  com- 
bined, after  the  box  is  nailed  up.  The 
boxes,  then,  are  always  piled  on  their 
sides.  The  reason  for  the  bulge  is  to  fur- 
nish pressure  for  keeping  the  apples  tight 
and  avoiding  injury  from  their  being 
shaken  about  in  handling.  Formerly, 
more  bulge  was  given,  but  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  apples.  Apples  of  a  soft 
variety,  or  apples  packed  or  repacked 
after  they  have  begun  to  mellow  cannot 
be  given  the  maximum  bulge.  Double 
tops  and  bottoms  are  frequently  used 
for  export  apples  in  order  to  prevent 
injury  from  rough  handling  in  the  nets 
employed  for  loading  and  unloading  at 
the  docks.  In  this  case  but  little  bulge 
is  given,  the  top  of  the  curve  not  rising 
above  the  box  cleats,  in  order  to  prevent 
bruising  from  the  stiffness  of  double 
boards  in  nailing  up.  In  all  cases  care 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  crown  even, 
so  that  all  apples  in  the  top  layer  re- 
ceive equal  pressure  from  the  lid,  and 
none  bruised.  Likewise  the  bulge  on  the 
top  and  the  bottom  should  be  made 
equal  by  the  use  of  a  proper  nailing  press. 

The  subjects  of  bulge  and  height  at  ends 
are  closely  related.  If  the  pack  is  firm, 
the  size  uniform,  and  the  proper  style  of 
pack  employed  for  the  size  and  shape,  the 
height  of  the  crown  will  usually  be  cor- 
rect. Attention,  then,  will  have  to  be 
paid  to  keeping  the  ends  low.  The  In- 
clination is  toward  too  great  a  height  at 
the  ends,  with  bruised  apples  as  the  re- 


APPLES 


367 


Fig.  3G.      Showing  Proper  and  Improper  Crown.     Tliat  to  ttie  Left  is  Too  Higb. 


suit,  rather  than  toward  the  opposite 
mistake.  The  ideal  is  a  firm  pack  with 
the  end  apples  flush  with  the  box  heads. 
However,  in  a  loose  pack  the  end  ap- 
ples, as  well  as  the  whole  crown,  can  be 
allowed  to  come  higher,  without  fear  of 
bruising  from  the  lid.  As  previously 
stated,  the  height  of  the  whole  pack  can 
be  regulated  by  the  style  of  pack  used, 
with  reference  to  the  direction  in  which 
the  stems  point.  The  proper  relation  of  the 
height  of  end  and  the  height  of  crown  is 
obtained  by  other  means.  In  the  flat 
pack  this  apparently  comes  of  its  own 
accord.  This  is  because  the  spaces  at  the 
end  of  the  box  in  this  pack  are  larger 
than  the  interstices  between  the  apples, 
and  they  allow  the  end  apples  in  the  lay- 
er above  to  slip  down  lower.  Sometimes, 
however,  taller  apples  will  have  to  be 
selected  for  the  middle,  and  lower  ones 
for  the  ends. 

In  the  cheek  pack  three  methods  for 
lowering  the  ends  of  the  pack  can  be 
employed.  (1)  Advantage  is  taken  of 
any  lopsidedness  in  the  apples.  Those  ap- 
ples in  the  middle  of  the  box  (from  end 
to  end)  are  placed  with  their  greatest 
transverse  diameter  extending  from  top 
to  bottom,  and  those  in  the  end  with  it 
extending  from  side  to  side.  (2)  One  or 
two  rows  across  the  end  of  the  box  in 
as  many  layers  as  necessary  are  turned 
flat.  This  is  usually  at  but  one  end  of 
any  one  layer,  the  layers  alternating  as 
to  the  end  in  which  the  apples  are  turned. 
This  method  is  avoided  by  many  pack- 
ers because  it  makes  the  pack  irregular, 
but  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  bruised  ap- 
ples. Many  now  use  a  simplified  form 
of  this  method,  simply  tilting  toward  the 


opposite  end  of  the  box,  in  the  second 
layer  from  the  top,  the  apple  on  the  end 
of  the  row  that  does  not  touch  the  end  of 
the  box,  turning  it  only  far  enough  to  al- 
low the  cheek  of  the  end  apple  in  the  top 
layer  to  fit  into  the  cavity-cup  or  the 
basin-cup  of  the  tilted  apple.  An  especial- 
ly flat  apple  is  selected  for  the  one  to  be 
tilted.  (3)  The  ends  are  packed  a  trifle 
loose.  Care  will  have  to  be  taken  in  using 
this  method  that  the  apples  next  to  the 
ones  against  the  lower  head  of  the  box 
are  pushed  toward  the  opposite  end  of 
the  box  as  far  as  they  will  go.  Otherwise 
their  slipping  down  toward  the  lower 
head  will  prevent  the  end  apples  in  the 
next  layer  above  from  sinking  their  prop- 
er depth  by  reducing  the  size  of  the  pock- 
ets into  which  they  are  to  fit.     In  placing 


Fig.    37.      Showing   a    Proper   Bulge   on   Box   of 
Apples. 


368 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


either  end  apple  of  a  row  into  the  box,  it 
can  be  put  in,  not  in  a  perpendicular  pos- 
ition at  first,  but  tilted  slightly  toward 
the  middle  of  the  box,  pressing  it  then 
into  place  by  turning  it  up  perpendicular- 
ly to  the  bottom  of  the  box.  This  tends 
to  press  the  apples  in  the  layer  under- 
neath toward  the  middle  of  the  box. 
heightening  the  crow^n,  and  allows  the 
end  apple  that  is  being  placed  to  sink 
lower  into  its  pocket,  lowering  the  end 
of  the  pack.  Care  will  have  to  be  taken 
in  performing  this  operation  not  to  press 
so  hard  as  to  bruise  the  apples.  One 
frequently  hears  it  stated  that  the  ends 
are  to  be  kept  low  by  the  use  of  smaller 
apples  at  the  ends.  This  will  bring  the 
desired  result:  but  it  is  unnecessary 
and  undesirable,  because  breaking  the 
uniformity  of  size. 

Uniformity  of  Size 

Under  our  present  system  the  packer 
usually  has  some  sorting  for  size  to  do 
after  the  apples  have  left  the  graders  and 
come  into  his  hands.  Here  he  needs  a 
quick  and  exact  eye.  Regardless  of  his 
natural  ability,  he  also  usually  finds 
that  only  practice  enables  him  to  do  satis- 
factory work  rapidly. 

It  is  not  usually  supposed  that  separ- 
ate packs  are  to  be  made  for  all  the  pos- 
sible sizes,  or  counts,  of  a  variety.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  smaller  the  apple,  the 
greater  the  difference  allowable  in  the 
number  of  apples  to  the  box. 

Inability  or  carelessness  in  grading  for 
size  sometimes  causes  packers  to  commit 
what  is  jocosely  called  "the  unpardon- 
able sin  in  apple  packing."  or  as  it  is 
more  technically  expressed,  "to  break  the 
pack."  By  this  is  meant  that  the  packer 
constructs  a  layer  containing  too  many  or 
too  few  apples,  thus  confusing  the  count. 
For  example:  suppose  he  has  packed  four 
layers  of  his  box  a  three-two  pack  five- 
five  long,  and  for  the  top  layer  selects 
smaller  apples,  making  the  rows  six-five 
long.  The  bottom  four  layers  are  four- 
tier  apples,  125  to  the  box.  The  top  lay- 
er contains  four  and  one-half-tier  apples, 
138  to  the  box.  In  this  case  the  value  of 
the  apples  in  the  top  layer  may  be  from 
10  to  50  cents  less  per  box  than  the  ap- 


ples in  the  other  layers.  But  the  num- 
ber stamped  on  the  box  will  be  deter- 
mined by  the  number  in  the  top  layer. 
The  box  will  be  stamped  138,  classed  and 
sold  as  a  box  of  four  and  one-half-tier  ap- 
ples, and  the  grower  will  not  receive  due 
payment  for  four-fifths  of  the  box.  To 
guard  against  breaking  his  pack,  the  pack- 
er must  be  sure  that  the  center  of  every 
apple  above  the  first  layer  fits  exactly 
over  the  interstice  between  the  apples  di- 
rectly underneath. 


Fig.  3S.  Example  of  Broken  Pack.  The  ap- 
ples are  not  kept  directly  over  the  spaces 
beneath.  This  confuses  the  count.  Usually 
due  to  lack  of  uniformity  in  size.  (New 
York  (Cornell J  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 
2981. 

Firmness 

The  instructions  to  packers  of  the 
Hood  River  Apple  Growers'  Union,  Ore- 
gon, for  the  year  1912,  state:  "A  swell 
on  the  box  does  not  mean  necessarily  a 
tight  pack;  the  apples  must  be  tight  from 
side  to  side  and  from  end  to  end.  The 
Union  wants  a  tight  pack,  but  not  so  com- 
pact as  to  bruise  the  apples."  The  cus- 
tom of  a  judge  at  a  box  apple  competition, 
in  passing  upon  the  point  of  firmness,  is 
to  try  to  wiggle  with  his  hand  the  ap- 
ples in  each  layer  of  the  box  as  he  goes 
through  it.  He  does  not  want  to  find 
one  apple  in  the  box  that  his  hand  can 
disturb.  The  ideal  for  firmness  is  that 
the  box  without  the  cover  can  be  set  on 
end  and  the  apples  not  fall  out.  An  in- 
creasing number  of  persons  do  not  agree 
with  this  view  on  the  point  of  firmness, 
however,  believing  that  a  pack  may  be 
loose  and  still  be  full,  which  they  further 
believe  is  all  that  is  necessary.  Their 
argument  is  that  if  there  is  a  large  inter- 
stice between  the  apples  in  any  layer,  it 
only  means  that  the  apple  directly  above 


APPLES 


369 


the  interstioe  is  going  to  fit  down  closer 
into  it.  and  that  there  will  be  no  less 
weight  to  the  box.  Some  of  them  further 
state  that  the  loosel.v  packed  box  will  be 
handled  with  the  fewer  bruises.  Still  the 
fact  remains,  so  the  others  would  affirm, 
that  the  tight  pack  makes  a  better  impres- 
sion upon  the  trade. 

>'eatiiess 

"So  precise  have  many  farmers  and 
dealers  become  in  their  estimation  of  the 
nature  and  value  of  consumers'  fancies, 
that  they  analyze  them  and  translate  them 
into  sense  impressions,  and  give  nu- 
merical weight  to  these  impressions  more 
accurately  than  they  could  guess  the 
weight  of  a  hog  or  the  number  of  bushels 
in  a  corncrib. 

"The  growing,  the  preparing,  and  the 
marketing  of  many  of  the  products  of  the 
farm  are  becoming  questions  of  art  and 
psychologj'.  Less  do  people  eat  to  live 
than  they  live  to  eat,  and  yet  when  they 
buy  food,  they  buy  it  often  not  primarily 
for  the  gratification  of  taste,  but  upon  the 
testimony  of  the  eye,  which  is  pleased 
with  form  and  color,  and  upon  the  per- 
ception of  odor,  while,  if  the  consumer 
were  reared  in  the  countr.v,  perhaps  his 
choice  is  determined  by  the  farm-bred 
fancies  of  a  happy  youth. 

"What  set  of  nerves  shall  have  the 
preference  in  determining  the  purchase 
of  a  farm  product,  the  optic  or  the 
gustatory?  Shall  a  thing  be  pretty,  or 
delicious;  and,  since  the  sense  of  smell 
must  also  be  consulted  in  some  cases,  is 
it  of  much  consequence  whether  it  is 
pretty  or  delicious?  The  seller  has  much 
more  definite  information  with  regard 
to  these  questions  than  the  consumer: 
although  it  is  the  consumer  who  makes 
the  choice,  he  is  induced  to  do  so  by  the 
seller's  subtle  knowledge  of  his  fancies, 
which  need  not  be  and  often  are  not 
either  sensible  or  reasonable,  but.  on  the 
other  hand,  often  verge  upon  the  notional, 
and  seem  superfluous  to  an  unsophisticat- 
ed farmer."* 


*  "Consumers'  Fancies."  Geo.  K.  Holmes. 
Yearbook  of  Department  of  Agriculture. 
1004. 


With  the  above  statements  as  a  founda- 
tion, if  the  grower  or  packer  will  but  stop 
to  reflect  upon  his  own  observations  and 
experience,  further  argument  is  unneces- 
sary to  establish  in  his  mind  the  de- 
sirability of  a  neat  apple  package.  Mr. 
Carl  W.  Kimball,  president  of  the  Na- 
tional League  of  Commission  Merchants, 
states  that  he  regards  neatness,  together 
with  firmness,  as  the  most  important  re- 
quirements of  a  good  pack.  The  points 
to  be  looked  to  are  a  clean,  bright  box, 
careful  nailing,  orderly  stamping,  a  tasty 
label,  smooth  wrap,  with  no  rough  edges 
of  the  paper  showing,  and  a  true  align- 
ment. A  good  alignment  depends  on  the 
equal  spacing  of  the  apples  touching  the 
lower  head  of  the  box  in  any  layer,  on 
keeping  the  stem  end  of  the  apples  point- 
ing straight  toward  the  end  of  the  box, 
and  on  uniformity  of  size. 

P.VtKING  HOUSE  MANAGEMENT 

For  the  apple  product  of  a  section  to 
gain  favor  in  the  markets  of  the  country 
and  then  retain  it,  first  a  standard  of 
grade  and  pack  for  the  product  must  be 
established,  and  second  this  standard 
must  be  uniformly  maintained.  It  has 
been  comparatively  easy  for  the  apple  dis- 
tricts of  the  Northwest  to  formulate  rules 
covering  the  various  grades,  but  difficult 
for  them  to  maintain  any  standard  uni- 
formly. This  has  been  due  partly  to  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  persons  en- 
gaged in  the  industry  beyond  the  power 
of  the  older  growers  to  instruct  the  new- 
comers as  to  definitions  and  methods. 
There  has  also  been  the  danger  that  the 
faulty  output  of  the  indifferent  and  dis- 
honest would  act  to  annul  the  efforts  of 
the  painstaking  and  conscientious  and 
give  the  whole  producing  district  a  bad 
name.  This  condition,  in  fact,  did  evolve 
in  some  instances.  In  one  case  a  certain 
house,  which  any  man  would  be  proud  to 
say  handles  his  product,  was  driven  per- 
manently from  a  certain  district  by  the 
extreme  carelessness  or  flagrant  dis- 
honesty of  a  single  grower  in  putting 
up  the  pack  of  one  season.  A  member 
of  the  firm  stated  that  they  could  not  af- 
ford to  do  business  in  a  community 
which  tolerated  such  practices. 


370 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


These  things,  then,  have  been  factors 
toward  the  establishing  of  growers'  as- 
sociations, not  the  least  function  of  which 
is  to  maintain  the  standards  of  grade  and 
pack.  The  methods  by  which  the  associa- 
tions have  gone  about  accomplishing  this 
end  have  been,  generally  speaking,  two, 
inspection  and  direct  management.  In- 
spection, when  it  takes  the  exclusive  form 
of  examination  of  the  product  after  it 
is  packed  ready  for  market,  is  rarely  an 
entire  success,  being  a  corrective  rather 
than  a  preventive  measure.  Where  the 
Inspector  visits  the  packing  house  of  the 
various  growers,  examining  the  sorted 
apples  before  they  are  packed  and  giving 
instructions  where  necessary,  the  case  is 
a  step  in  advance.  Although  here  the 
workers  are  responsible  to  the  grower, 
and  after  the  inspector  leaves  may  re- 
ceive conflicting  orders  from  their  em- 
ployer. The  best  system  for  securing  the 
desired  result  is  now  conceded  to  be  one 
in  which  the  selling  agency  takes  entire 
charge  of  gradin,g  and  packing  the  fruit, 
the  workers  being  responsible  only  to  the 
agency.  This  system  is  carried  on  under 
two  forms,  one  where  the  fruit  is  graded 
and  packed  in  the  packing  house  of  the 
grower,  but  with  a  foreman  and  crew  em- 
ployed and  furnished  by  the  dealer  or  as- 
sociation  (perhaps  the  grower  not  being 


allowed  even  to  help  in  the  work),  the 
other  where  the  work  is  done  in  the  ware- 
house of  the  agency,  or  in  a  building  built 
and  equipped  by  it  especially  for  use  as 
a  packing  house,  and  with  a  force  like- 
wise responsible  only  to  the  management 
of  the  agency.  An  example  of  an  associa- 
tion operating  successfully  under  the  first 
form  is  the  Hood  River  Apple  Growers' 
Union,  of  Hood  River,  Oregon;  an  exam- 
ple of  one  operating  under  the  second 
form,  the  North  Fork  Fruit  Growers'  As- 
sociation of  Paonia,  Colorado.  This  lat- 
ter maintains  several  packing  plants  con- 
veniently located  throughout  the  district, 
also  temporary  camps  for  accommo- 
dating the  employees.  Several  associa- 
tions throughout  the  Northwest  practice 
more  than  one  system,  maintaining  a 
packing  department  for  the  benefit  of 
those  who  for  any  reason  do  not  wish  to 
pack  at  their  orchards.  The  central  pack- 
ing house  is  especially  adapted  to  a  com- 
munity of  small  orchards,  where  none  of 
the  growers  can  afford  singly  an  adequate 
house  and  system  for  handling  the  crop. 

The  object  sought  in  the  management  of 
the  packing  house,  whether  private  or  co- 
operative, is  a  perfect  product  at  a  mini- 
mum cost.  A  most  important,  though 
difflcult,  fact  which  the  apple  growers  of 
the  Northwest  have  had  to  learn,  is  that 


Fig.  .39.      Peai-   Tack, 

— Courtcsn  lioiiuv  River   \'iilhii  Fruit  Oroirirs'   Inion. 


APPLES 


371 


the  high  quality  of  output  at  which  they 
have  aimed  can  be  secured  only  by  the  dis- 
tinct separation  of  the  processes  of  grad- 
ing and  pacliing.  In  the  districts  bearing 
the  enviable  reputations  for  their  apple 
product,  however,  this  fact  has  been  recog- 
nized and  the  division  made.  It  is  doubt- 
ful if  a  paclver  exists,  who,  under  the 
pieceworlv  system  and  at  a  rate  of  pay- 
ment possible  tor  the  grower  to  give,  will 
pay  the  attention  to  botli  processes  at 
once  such  as  is  required  to  satisfy  the 
present  demand  as  to  grade  and  paclv 
caused  by  the  increasing  competition  in 
the  apple  market.  This  does  not  mean 
that  the  packer  should  not  still  be  held 
responsible  for  the  grade  as  well  as  the 
pack,  however.  On  the  contrary,  in  the 
most  progressive  districts  he  is  so  held 
responsible  and  in  an  actually  operative 
manner,  by  withholding  his  pay  until  his 
work  is  accepted  by  the  proper  inspector, 
at  which  time,  of  course,  his  responsibility 
ceases.  As  is  but  just,  he  is  at  the  same 
time  given  the  right  to  refuse  to  pack 
apples  not  properly  sorted.  The  Hood 
River  Apple  Growers'  Union  has  been  the 
pioneer  and  the  leader  in  its  efforts  to 
secure  a  perfect  product  through  a  strict 
management  of  its  packers. 

Various  methods  for  controlling  the 
packer  under  various  conditions,  in  order 
to  secure  a  good  quality  of  output  from 
him,  including  those  just  mentioned,  are 
enumerated  herewith:  (li  paying  by  the 
day,  rather  than  by  the  piece  (which 
practice  has  rarely  anywhere  bean  contin- 
ued long,  because  of  the  lack  of  incentive 
for  the  packers  to  work  at  a  speed  profit- 
able to  the  employer):  (2)  separation  of 
the  processes  of  grading  and  packing; 
(3)  classifying  the  packers  according 
to  the  rate  of  speed  at  which  they  can 
do  good  work,  and  Setting  a  limit  for 
the  output  in  number  of  boxes  per  hour 
for  each  class;  (4)  making  the  packer 
financially  responsible  by  withholding 
his  pay  until  his  boxes  have  been  ac- 
cepted by  the  proper  inspector;  (.5)  grant- 
ing the  packer  the  right  to  refuse  to 
pack  apples  not  properly  sorted;  (6) 
paying  the  packer  at  a  fair  rate  for  ap- 


ples, not  culls,  which  he  sorts  out  which 
are  not  of  the  grade  he  is  packing  (be- 
sides helping  to  keep  the  lines  between 
the  grades  distinct,  tiiis  serves  as  a 
check  upon  the  graders);  (7)  requiring 
each  packer  to  insert  a  slip  into  each 
box  which  he  packs,  containing  his  num- 
ber, the  definition  of  the  grade  which  he 
is  packing,  and  a  request  that  the  cus- 
tomer return  the  slip  with  a  complaint 
if  the  pack  is  not  satisfactory  or  the 
grade  not  up  to  standard.  To  identify 
each  packer's  boxes,  most  associations 
furnish  their  packers  with  number  stamps 
upon  the  deposit  of  the  proper  price,  the 
number  to  appear  on  each  box  the  packer 
puts  out. 

The  problem  of  expense  in  the  packing 
house  has  been  an  increasing  one,  due 
in  a  large  measure  to  the  increasing 
exactitude  of  the  standards  of  grade  and 
pack,  together  with  the  increase  of  the 
apple  crop  beyond  the  supply  of  com- 
petent labor  to  care  for  it.  Economy  can 
be  secui'ed  only  through  the  items  of 
materials  and  labor.  As  to  the  first, 
little  improvement  can  be  looked  for  im- 
mediately. It  should  be  remembered 
in  the  preparing  of  any  article  for  mar- 
ket, that  cheapness  and  saving  do  not 
necessarily  mean  economy,  and  that  ex- 
pense borne  merely  to  impress  the  con- 
sumer frequently  brings  excellent  re- 
turns. 

Most  of  the  economy  in  the  packing 
house  must  come  through  the  saving  of 
labor.  The  tender  nature  of  the  apple, 
as  compared  to  the  orange,  deferred  until 
recent  years  the  devising  of  machinery 
for  handling  the  former  fruit  such  as  is 
used  for  the  latter.  It  would  seem  that 
now,  however,  under  the  increasing  neces- 
sity for  economy  along  every  line,  ma- 
chinery and  devices  for  liandling  the  ap- 
ples are  to  be  the  chief  factors  toward 
gaining  the  desired  end. 

Some  really  worthy  effort  has  been  ex- 
pended in  trying  to  perfect  these  various 
machines.  The  wiping  machine  saves 
hand  work.  The  combined  sorting  and 
packing  table,   the   sorting  belt,   the  pro- 


372 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


vision  made  for  sorting  at  some  of  the 
sizing  machines,  all  save  tvk'o  handlings 
of  the  apples  over  the  method  of  sorting 
from  box  to  box  by  hand,  then  piling  the 
boxes  of  sorted  apples  to  be  handled 
again  when  taken  to  the  packing  table. 
Where  a  large  quantity  of  the  fruit  is 
concerned,  and  where  it  has  to  be  truck- 
ed any  distance  between  operations,  this 
item  is  especially  important.  These  same 
machines  and  devices  also  render  it  un- 
necessary to  pick  up  each  apple  separate- 
ly and  turn  it  over  in  the  hand  for  ex- 
amination in  sorting,  the  same  result  be- 
ing accomplished  by  rolling  over  several 
of  the  apples  at  once  with  the  outspread 
fingers.  Perhaps  not  the  least  advantage 
in  the  use  of  any  machine  is  that  it  sets 
a  pace  for  the  workers.  There  is  nothing 
at  which  a  man  can  waste  more  time  than 
at  sorting  by  hand,  with  the  opportunity 
afforded  for  making  slow  decisions.  To 
be  sure,  expert  and  alert  help  is  re- 
quired for  sorting  at  any  of  these  ma- 
chines or  devices,  and  one  cannot  expect 
to  find  a  man  fit  for  the  job  at  the  price 
of  ordinary  labor.  At  that,  their  use  has 
been  estimated  by  one  of  the  largest 
dealers  in  the  State  of  Washington — a 
man  who  has  used  one  both  on  his  own 
ranch  and  in  one  of  his  warehouses — to 
save  from  30  to  70  per  cent  of  the  usual 
cost  of  sorting.  In  addition,  the  sizing 
machine  should  make  possible  the  em- 
ployment of  persons  for  packing,  who, 
lacking  an  eye  for  size,  could  not  other- 
wise be  employed  for  the  purpose,  and 
will  tend  toward  reducing  the  competi- 
tion among  growers  in  the  market  for 
packers.  Finally,  packers  can  be  ex- 
pected to  work  for  less  per  box  when 
packing  from  the  trays  of  a  sizing  ma- 
chine, where  they  have  to  handle  but  one 
size  at  a  time,  or  at  the  most  two. 

In  a  few  instances  sorters  have  been 
paid  by  the  box  rather  than  by  the  day 
for  their  labor,  which  has  greatly  cut 
down  the  cost;  but  the  difficulty  of  se- 
curing careful  work  under  this  system 
would  cause  it  to  be  frowned  upon  by 
most  growers.     An  appreciable  amount  of 


time  can  be  saved  in  sorting  by  the  elim- 
ination of  all  but  two  grades.  No.  1  and 
No.  2,  with  only  a  few  standard  varieties 
allowed  in  the  first.  Every  added  box 
into  which  the  sorter  must  sort  reduces 
by  so  much  his  output  for  the  day.  The 
Washington  State  Horticultural  Associa- 
tion, at  its  meeting  in  1913,  passed  a  reso- 
lution to  the  effect  that  "the  price  paid 
for  packing  apples,  prunes  and  pears 
should  be  one  cent  per  box  less,  and  tor 
packing  peaches  one-half  cent  per  box 
less,  to  packers  who  have  to  be  waited 
upon,  than  is  paid  to  those  who  wait  upon 
themselves."  Although  the  principle  in- 
volved is  probably  just,  still  no  change 
can  be  expected  except  from  a  change  in 
economic  conditions.  In  one  other  way 
labor  can  be  saved  in  frhe  packing  house 
— by  a  convenient  arrangement  of  the 
house  itself  and  of  the  packing  furniture. 
Although  this  fact  seems  self  evident, 
still  a  trip  through  any  apple  produc- 
ing district  at  packing  time  impresses 
one  that  many  times  the  fact  is  lost 
sight  of  b.v  the  grower.  Things  were  not 
prearranged  before  the  rush  began.  It 
will  pay  to  give  attention  to  so  little  a 
matter  as  the  arrangement  of  the  rubber 
stamps  convenient  for  the  nailer. 

It  is  stated  that  persons  grading  by 
hand  can  be  expected  to  assort  an  average 
of  about  ninety  loose  boxes  of  apples 
per  ten  hour  day,  when  working  by  the 
day.  When  working  by  the  box,  they 
will  run  the  number  up  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  or  over  unless  watched.  Pack- 
ers will  do  good  work  at  from  thirty  to 
one  hundred  boxes  a  day,  depending  on 
the  person  and  the  conditions.  From 
five  to  seven  and  one-half  cents  per  box 
are  paid  for  packing,  sometimes  includ- 
ing board,  the  price  varying  according 
to  the  supply  of  packers  and  the  condi- 
tions under  which  they  work.  The  aver- 
age between  the  cost  of  putting  up 
apples,  also  pears  and  peaches,  in  each 
of  two  representative  fruit  growing  val- 
leys of  Colorado,  as  given  by  a  co-opera- 
tive association  in  each,  is  itemized  in 
the  following  table: 


APPLES 


373 


Cost  of  box S 

Making  box 

Paper 

Nails 

Nailing  up 

Packing  and  sorting 

Overhead  expense i 


Apple 

.125 

.009 

.0075 

.005 

.0063 

.055 

.01 


Pear 

.1125 

.009 

.0188 

.005 

.0063 

.055 

.04 


Peach 

.0725 

.006 

.0125 

.0035 

.0042 

.0275 

.02 


The  average  between  the  cost  of  putting  up  apples,  also  pears  and  peaches,  in  the 
two  largest  fruit  growing  districts  in  the  State  of  Washington,  as  given  (in  one  case 
unofficially)  by  the  chief  co-operative  association  operating  in  each  district  is  itemized 
in  the  following  table: 


Apple 

Pear               Peach 

S     .105 
.01 
.0272 
.00359 
.01 
.055 
.058 

S     .10 
.01 
.0272 
.00359 
.01 
.0.55 
.0525 

$     .0575 

Makinc  bov 

.0075 

Paper 

•Nails : 

Nailing  up                                                             

Packing 

.016 
.0023 

.0063 
.03 

Sorting 

In  addition  to  this  is  an  overhead  ex- 
pense varying  greatly  with  conditions. 
Most  of  the  above  items  in  each  table 
must  necessarily  be  but  approximately  cor- 
rect, and  will  vary  from  year  to  year.  On 
an  average,  50  pounds  of  wrapping  pa- 
per are  required  for  one  100  packed 
boxes,  seven  pounds  of  lining  paper  and 
16  pounds  of  cardboard. 

Of  course  in  any  case  the  problem  of 
packing  house  management  is  one  deal- 
ing more  or  less  with  the  fact  of  per- 
sonality, and  the  success  or  failure  of 
any  one  system  or  method  depends  in  a 


large  measure  upon  the  character  of  the 
directors  and  overseers  as  well  as  of  the 
workers  themselves. 

jrDGI>G  AT  APPLE  SHOWS 

Judging  apples  at  the  fruit  exhibitions 
is  one  ot  the  important  features  of  the 
fruit  business,  since  it  is  by  this  means, 
or  through  this  channel,  that  many  grow- 
ers receive  education  and  obtain  their 
ideals  of  what  constitutes  proper  grading, 
and  estimates  of  the  relative  value  of 
fruits  when  judged  by  a  perfect  standard. 

Of  course,  we  understand  that  the  word 


374 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


APPLES 


375 


"perfection"  is  a  relative  term  and  that 
nothing  known  to  us  is  absolutely  per- 
fect. But  in  the  sense  in  which  we  use 
the  word  it  means  "lacking  nothing  that 
is  desirable  or  essential  to  complete  de- 
velopment or  the  highest  attainable  qual- 
ities." Since  some  apples  are  of  higher 
quality  than  others,  as  is  the  case  of 
the  Spitzenburg  as  compared  with  the 
Ben  Davis,  it  seems  necessary  to  give  a 
definition  something  like  this:  "Lacking 
nothing  requisite  to  its  kind."  In  this 
case  each  and  every  variet.v  of  apjtle 
would  be  judged  in  accordance  with  the 
ideals  of  the  judges  as  to  the  standards 
of  perfection  of  the  variety  being  judged 
and  not  by  standards  of  excellence  of 
other  varieties. 

Exhibitors  often  inquire,  "What  is  a 
perfect  standard?"  "Who  has  the  right  to 
fix  a  standard  which  will  determine  the 
perfect  specimen?"  "Who  is  authority  on 
this  subject?" 

It  is  not  easy  to  answer  all  the  inquiries 
made  as  to  why  a  particular  exhibit  is 
given  a  premium  while  another  which,  to 
the  unpractised  eye.  looks  as  good  or  bet- 
ter, is  not  given  an  award.  It  is  impor- 
tant, however,  to  state  that  the  standard 
is  set  by  the  best  pomologists  of  the 
American  Pomological  Society.  These 
pomologists  consider  that  certain  vari- 
eties of  apples  have  certain  distinguishing 
characteristics.  These  characteristics  were 
determined,  perhaps,  by  the  nature  of  the 
original  tree,  but  no  matter  how  they 
came  to  be  fixed  characteristics  they  are 
nevertheless  features  which  differentiate 
it  from  other  types.  After  a  type  is  es- 
tablished, described  by  pomologists,  and 
comes  to  be  known  as  possessing  certain 
qualities,  the  problem  of  the  judge  is  not 
so  much  concerned  with  the  quality  of  the 
apple  as  compared  with  other  varieties, 
as  how  nearly  it  approaches  the  perfect 
type  of  this  variety.  In  other  words.  Is  it 
"true  to  type?" 

Further,  there  is  a  tendency  for  apples 
to  vary  on  account  of  soil,  climate,  sun- 
shine, elevation  and  other  factors  which 
enter  into  their  environment.  After  all 
the  factors  are  considered  pomologists  gen- 
erally select  the  apple  most  like  the  orig- 


inal type.  It  has  been  the  writer's  good 
fortune  to  attend  apple  judging  contests 
during  the  last  twelve  years  and  he 
would  earnestly  recommend  that  in  every 
important  contest  there  be  appointed  three 
judges  Instead  of  one.  The  reason  is  clear 
when  it  is  remembered  that  so  many  fac- 
tors enter  into  the  question  as  to  what 
constitutes  a  perfect  type  of  any  partic- 
ular variety. 

Since  the  market  value  of  apples  enters 
so  largely  into  the  question  of  apple  grow- 
ing and  determines  in  so  great  degree 
what  will  be  the  grower's  profit,  it  seems 
to  me  that  of  three  judges  two  should  be 
commercial  fruit  dealers  and  one  a  scien- 
tific pomologist.  The  pomologist  is  likely 
to  have  in  mind  the  hereditary  traits  of 
the  apple  while  the  commercial  dealer  will 
have  in  mind  the  selling  quality  of  the 
fruit.  Since  the  decisions  are  educational 
and  since  the  education  should  be  of  such 
a  character  as  to  produce  the  highest 
values  possible  with  a  given  amount  of 
labor,  the  decisions  of  the  dealer  are  of 
more  practical  value  than  those  of  the 
pomologist.  The  writer  has  in  mind  sev- 
eral contests  where  the  competition  was 
so  keen  that  in  order  to  reach  a  conclu- 
sion it  became  necessary  to  remove  all 
the  apples  from  the  boxes  and  to  pass 
upon  each  apple  separately. 

Where  the  decisions  have  been  rendered 
by  three  judges,  even  where  the  contest 
was  close,  the  contestants  have  seldom 
questioned  the  accuracy  of  the  conclu- 
sions. But  where  the  contest  is  close 
and  the  matter  is  decided  by  one  alone, 
there  is  almost  always  dissatisfaction. 

Robert  Morga?j 

Sugfrestions   for  Score   Card  for  Exliibi- 
tioiis  of  Boxed  .Vpples 

The  score  card  here  suggested  was  ar- 
ranged by  Frank  Kinsey,  author  of  the 
article  on  Apple  Packing  in  this  work, 
who  has  had  a  wide  experience  East  and 
West  in  preparing  boxed  apples  for  ex- 
hibition. The  suggestion  is  concurred  in 
by  C.  J.  Sinsel,  of  Boise,  Ida.,  well  known 
as  an  expert  in  these  matters.  The  score 
card  of  the  International  Apple  Show  is 
also  given  as  the  "Spokane  Card." 


376 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Spokane  Reconi- 

Card  mended 

Quality   20 

Color     20  20 

Contour    20 

Size   10  10 

Uniformity    .-.■. 10  1" 

Freedom  from  Blemish 

and    Dirt    20  20 

Pack   (total)    20  20 

Total     :. :-■.-  100  100 

Items  of  Pack 

Box    

Style   of   Pack 4 

Height  of  Ends 4  4 

Bulge    4  4 

Firmness    4 

Neatness    4 

Alignment   4 

Compactness     4 

Attractiveness    and 

Style   4 

"Quality"  is  omitted  from  the  suggested 
card  for  the  reason  as,  ex-President  Kim- 
ball, of  the  National  League  of  Commis- 
sion Merchants  suggests,  that,  in  boxed 
apples,  "quality"  is  a  combination  of  all 
the  other  items.  "Quality"  can  be  used 
only  in  accordance  with  the  American 
Pomological  Society  ratings  on  account  of 
the  difference  in  maturity  of  different  lots 
due  to  difference  in  locality  where  grown. 

An  Eastern  representative  of  a  North- 
western marketing  agency  says  that  what 
the  dealers  look  for  in  Northwestern 
apples  is  color  and  contour.  The  old  card 
has  no  place  for  type,  form  or  contour, 
the  latter  term  referring  to  symmetry. 
regardless  of  whether  the  specimen  is 
true  to  type  or  not.  Uniformity  is  not  the 
place  under  which  to  consider  contour 
since  uniformity  refers  to  size  only. 

"Firmness"  is  preferable  to  "compact- 
ness" because  the  latter  could  be  con- 
strued to  mean  a  pack  with  no  holes, 
necessitating  irregularity  in  the  pack  and 
the  use  of  the  "stem  to  cheek"  pack,  or 
more  than  one  shape  of  box  to  accommo- 
date the  different  sizes  of  apples.  Most 
judges  take  "compactness"  to  mean  "firm- 
ness" or  tightness,  so  why  not  "flrmness" 
on  the  card? 

Alignment  is  omitted  from  the  sug- 
gested card,  to  be  considered  under  neat- 
ness. It  really  depends  upon  proper  uni- 
formity and  style  of  pack. 


Under  the  old  card  some  judges  did  not 
consider  neatness,  giving  a  lot  perfect  on 
the  last  item  of  the  card  if  the  style  of 
pack  was  correct.  Under  the  old  card  the 
3-2  pack  could  be  scored  imperfect  be- 
cause not  so  attractive  as  the  2-2,  whereas 
it  is  accepted  commercially  and  cannot  be 
avoided  because  of  variation  in  size.  The 
style  of  pack  depends,  not  on  attractive- 
ness, but  on  the  use  of  a  uniform  pack- 
age and  on  maintaining  a  perfect  condi- 
tion of  the  apples.  A  more  attractive  pack 
ran  be  secured  by  the  use  of  two  sizes  of 
box  but  this  is  not  desirable  commercially. 

The  above  is  on  the  assumption  that 
the  Northwest  standard  box  is  to  be  used. 

ORCHARD  COSTS  .VM) 
MANAGEMENT 

In  the  tables  under  this  heading  re- 
liable information  from  many  sources  is 
given.  Conditions  are  so  different  in  the 
various  sections  of  the  United  States,  that 
an  expense  table  in  one  section  would 
furnish  inadequate  information  of  the 
costs  in  another.  In  some  sections,  there 
is  the  cost  of  clearly  heavily  timbered 
lands;  in  others,  the  cost  of  irrigation; 
in  some  there  is  the  initial  cost  of  high- 
priced  lands;  but  they  are  high-priced, 
because  they  seem  to  the  owners  to  pos- 
sess certain  advantages  not  found  in  sec- 
tions where  lands  are  cheap. 

Cleariiie  Timber  Lands — Orehard  Costs 
First  Two  Years 

The  information  contained  in  this  ar- 
ticle applies  to  the  logged-off  lands  of  the 
timber  belt  in  Northeastern  Washington 
and  Northern  Idaho. 

Character  of  Timber:  Timber  on  the 
lighter  soils  is  chiefly  pine  and  on  the 
heavier  soils  runs  more  to  fir  and  tam- 
arac.  the  logged-off  land  growing  up  to  a 
heavy  covering  of  second  growth  timber, 
laurel,  willow  and  kinnikinic. 

Soil:  Soils  vary  from  light  sandy  to 
clay  loams.  When  first  cleared  it  is  brown- 
ish yellow  but  turns  dark  under  cultiva- 
tion. 

Rainfall:  Rainfall  is  from  20  inches  up 
(see  Frost  and  Precipitation  Tables  for 
special  localities  in  Washington  and 
Idaho)    and   is  sufficient   for  cereal  crops 


APPLES 


377 


Fi.i?.    1.      l*iliuji    t>tumps    with    a    Derrick    before    Buruinff. 


vimier   dry    farming   methods.      Irrigation 
is  needed  for  intensive  farming. 

Methods  of  Clearing:  Small  timber  is 
slashed  and  underbrush  grubbed  and 
burned.  It  is  better  to  do  this  a  year  in 
advance  of  pulling  the  stumps  but  in 
practice  it  is  usually  done  just  ahead  of 
the  clearing  crew.  Dynamite  is  used  to 
split  and    loosen   the   stumps,    which   are 


then  pulled  with  horse  pullers.  They  are 
then  piled  with  a  derrick  and  burned. 
The  land  is  then  worked  down  with  discs 
and  spring  tooth  harrows.  The  smaller 
roots  and  rubbish  are  gathered  with 
horserakes  and  burned.  Leveling  is  done 
with  fresno  scrapers.  Cost  of  clearing 
runs  all  the  way  from  $37.98  to  $139.00 
per  acre. 


Table  ><>.  1— Spring,  1910 

Cost  of  planting  62S  acres,  spring  of  1910: 

Day  labor  cost  $2.50  per  day;  man  and  team,  $5.50  per  da.v.  Cost  of  trees  not  in- 
cluded in  any  table. 


Staking 

Cost 

Holes 

Cost 

Setting 

Cost 

Total 

per 

per 

per 

Cost 

Acre 

Acre 

Acre 

Acre 

Cost 

Acre 

Cost 

Acre 

Cost 

Acre 

1 

8172.55 

160 

.$1.08 

$101.46 

160 

$0.62 

$532. 75i  160 

$3.34 

$5.04 

2.. 

48.81 

40 

1.22 

32.40 

40 

.81 

128.97 

40 

3.22 

5.25 

3. 

31.35 

20 

1.57 

13.09 

20 

.65 

51.01 

20 

2.55 

4.77 

4. 

55 .  18 

40 

1.38 

36.00 

40 

.90 

105.55    40 

2.64 

4.92 

0.  . 

85.66 

32 

2.68 

43.12 

32 

1.35 

100.35     32 

3.13 

7.16 

6.. 

78.95 

49 

1.61 

71.87 

49 

1.47 

182.06     49 

3.80 

6.88 

/ . . 

63.32 

60 

1.05 

30.50 

60 

.51 

202.51     60 

3.75 

5.31 

8. 

60.25 

40 

1.51 

28.50 

40 

.71 

153.50     40 

3.83 

6.05 

9. 

107.25 

147 

.82 

39.40 

147 

.27 

363.19  147 

2.46 

3.55 

10. 

88.75 

40 

2.22 

35.33 

40 

.89 

129.75    40 

3.24 

6.35 

$792.07 

628 

$1.26 

$431.67 

628 

$0.70 

$1,949.64  628 

$3.10 

$5.06 

Total  $5.06  per  acre  or  $ii.062  per  tree. 


378 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Table  >o.  2— Fall,  1910 

Cost  of  planting  2,055  acres,  fall  of  1910.    Wages  as  in  Table  No.  1. 


Staking 


Cost 


Acres 


Cost 
per 
Acre 


Digging 


Cost      Acres 


Cost 
per 
Acre 


Setting 


Cost      Acres 


Cost  I  Total 
per  Cost 
Acre    Acre 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 


$208.25 

61.50 

44.07 

14.65i 

168.251 

169. 65| 

230.85' 

74.00 

189.20 

132.90 

137.75' 

195.30 

28.55; 

59.50 

163.10 

86.00 

216.801 

185.45 

154.00 

229.30 

153.75' 

56.70 


160  $1.30 


50 

30 

10 

120 

100 

160 

40 

130 

95 

100 

140 

20 

40 

130 

50 

130 

140 

100 

160 

110 

40 


1.23 
1.47 
1.46 
1.40 
1.70 
1.44 
1.85 
1.45 
1.39 
1.38 
1.39 
1.43 
1.48 
1.25 
1.72 
1.67 
1.32 
1.54 
1.43 
1.40 
1.62 


1,959.5412,055  i  1.44 


$  93. 

15. 

22. 
8, 

89. 

33, 
123 

32 
104 

75 

53 
124 

24 

21 
113 

50 

74 
101 

77 
142 

76 

22 


160 
50 
30 

.28'  10 
.27  120 
.95'  100 
.65  160 
.881  40 
.18i  130 
.821  95 
.  18;  100 
.10!     140 


25j 
58! 


20 
40 


.  19;  130 

.66|  50 

85!  130 

75  140 


.73 
.21 
31 
95 


100 

160 

110 

40 


$0.58 
.31 
.75 
.83 
.74 
.34 
.77 
.82 
.80 
.79 
.64 
.82 
.20 
.54 
.87 
.01 
.57 
.73 
.78 
.89 
.69 
.57 


$136.65 

65.00 

28.88 

9.62 

159.30 

100.24 

198.05 

82.85 

184.45 

145.47 

182.02 

216.64 

32.72 

79.95 

340.66 

53.00 

215.38 

216.33 

116.63 

66.45 

202.10 

45.90 


160 

50 

30 

10 

120 

100 

160 

40 

130 

95 

100 

140 

20 

40 

130 

50 

130 

140 

100 

160 

110 

40 


$0.85 
1.30 
.96 
.96 
1.33 
1.00 
1.24 


$2.73 
2.84 


07 
42 
53 

82 


$1,483,522,055 


$0.72 


$2,878,232,055 


1.54 
1.63 
2.00 
2.62 
1.06 
1.66 
1.55 
1.16 
.42 
1.84 
1.15 


18 

25 

47 

04 

45 

74 

67 

71 

84 

85 

26 

02 

74 

3.79 

3.90 

3.60 

3.48 

2.74 

3.93 

3.34 


1.40  !    3.56 


Total,  $5.06  per  acre  or  $0.04  per  tree. 

Table  >'o.  3— Spring  and  Fall,  1911 

Cost  of  planting  1,907  acres  spring,  1911.     Labor  cost  as  in  Table  No.  1. 


Prun- 

Staking 

Cost 
per 

Digging  Holes 

Cost 
per 

Setting 

Cost 
per 

Total 

ing 

1 

Cost 

Roots 

Cost     1 

Acres 

Acre 

Cost 

Acres 

Acre 

Cost 

Acres 

Acre 

Acre 

$  .25 

$152.  OOl 

160 

$0.95 

$113.72 

J60 

$0.71 

$177.85 

150 

$1.18 

$3.09 

.25 

20.00 

20 

1.00 

12.50 

20 

.63 

.    23.00 

20 

1.15 

3.03 

.25 

89.60 

97 

.92 

65.75 

97 

.68 

88.90 

97 

.92 

2.77 

.25 

40.00' 

40 

1.00 

26.00 

40 

.65 

47.20 

40 

1.18 

3.08 

.25 

148.80 

160 

.93 

120.66 

160 

.75 

118.20 

160 

.74 

2.67 

.25 

179.05 

138 

1.30 

50.75 

98 

.52 

118.99 

40 

2.97 

5.04 

.25 

26.70 

30 

.89 

13.46 

30 

.45 

28.20 

30 

.94 

2.53 

.25 

130.00 

130 

1.00 

1.38.35 

130 

1.06 

81.80 

130 

.63 

2.94 

.25 

140.351 

150 

.93 

105.49 

150 

.70 

175.54 

150 

1.17 

3.05 

.25 

114.70' 

120 

.95 

69.94 

120 

.58 

126.00 

120 

1.05 

2.83 

.25 

180.55! 

160 

1.13 

108.34 

160 

.68 

221 . 12 

160 

1.38 

3.44 

.25 

41.25! 

40 

1.03 

49.25 

40 

1.23 

80.50 

40 

2.01 

4.52 

.25 

161.00 

160 

1.00 

110.96 

160 

.69 

233.12 

100 

1.46 

3.40 

.25 

20.00 

20 

1.00 

15.25 

20 

.76 

20.00 

20 

1.00 

3.01 

.25 

100. 25i 

110 

.91 

62.00 

100 

.62 

115.80 

60 

1.93 

4.09 

.25 

149.111 

112 

1.33 

62.25 

92 

.68 

109.10 

7(1 

1.56 

3.82 

.25 

160.25' 

160 

1.00 

124.00 

150 

.83 

171.95 

140 

1.22 

3.30 

.25 

153.30 

160 

.96 

98.23 

160 

.62 

286.72 

160 

1.79 

.25 

157  90 

160 

.99 

111.59 

160 

.69 

211.72 

160 

1.32 

$0.25 

$2,125,561 

i 

2,127 

$1.00 

$1,396.49 

2,047 

$0.68 

$2,435.71 

1,907 

$1.28 

$3.21 

Total   $3.21   per  acre  or  $0.04  minus  per  tree. 


APPLES 


379 


Cost  of  planting  1.504%  acres  spring,  1912: 
and  team,  $5.00  per  day. 


Table  >"o.  4— Spring.  1912 

Day  labor  cost  $2.25  per  day;  man 


PniDing  Roots 

Cost 
per 

SUking 

Cost 
per 

Diggmg 

Boles 

Cost 
per 

Setting 

Cost 
per 

Total 

Cost 

Cost    1 

Act«s 

.\cre 

Cost 

.\crea 

Acre 

Colt 

.4cres 

Acre 

Cost       Acres 

Acre 

Acre 

1... 

S44.40 

120 

$0.37 

$106.20 

120 

$0.89 

$64.13 

120 

$0.53 

$110.61     120 

$0.92 

$2.71 

2... 

3.70  1 

10 

.37 

9.22       10 

.92 

3... 

24.08  > 

65 

.37 

58.50 

65 

.90 

36.41  1 

65 

.56 

59.10      65 

.91 

2.74 

4... 

22.20 

60 

.37 

54.00 

60 

.90 

33.71 

60 

.56 

54.99       60 

.91 

2.74 

5... 

4.44 

12 

.37 

10.  SO 

12 

.90 

7.87 

12 

.66 

12.82       12 

1.07 

3.00 

6... 

37.00 

100 

.37 

90.00 

100 

.90 

59.00 

100 

.59 

119.26     100 

1.19 

3  05 

7... 

44.40 

120 

.37 

lOS.OO 

120 

.90 

54.34 

120 

.45 

101.69     120 

.85 

2.57 

8... 

33.30  ' 

90 

.37 

81.00 

90 

.90 

58  42 

90 

.63 

65.36      90 

.73 

2.63 

9... 

40.70 

110 

.37 

22  05 

22 

1.00 

31  24 

62 

.50 

94.231    110 

.85 

2.72 

10  .. 

7.40 

20 

.37 

18.00 

20 

.90 

7.87 

20 

.40 

20.05      20 

1.00 

2.67 

11... 

9.15 

25 

.37 

13  50 

15 

.90 

13.50 

25 

.54 

18.50      25 

.74 

2.55 

12... 

37.00 

100 

.37 

52.20 

58 

.90 

26.59 

58 

.46 

92.77     100 

.93 

2.66 

13... 

11.00 

30 

.37 

31.50 

30 

1  05 

13.55 

30 

.45 

28.00      30 

.93 

2.80 

.370; 
18.50  1 

10 
50 

.37 
.37 

6.50 

6.44 

2.35 

48.15 

10 
10 
3 

68 

.65 
.65 
.78 
.71 

9.00       10 
46.00      50 
27.90      30 
82.31       90 

.90 
.92 
.93 
.92 

15 

16 

17... 

33.30  I 

90 

.37 

52.20 

58 

.90 

2  90 

18  .. 

59.20  1 

160 

.37 

144.00 

160 

.90 

93.66 

160 

.59 

155.81     160 

.98 

2.84 

19... 

37.92 

1024 

.37 

92.25 

102)4 

.90 

66.52 

m'A 

.65 

98.42     102h 

.96 

2.88 

6.40  1 
29.60 

20 
80 

.37 
.37 

6.76 
42.30 

10 
80 

.68 
.53 

20.75       20 
72.57      80 

1.00 
.91 

21  .. 

72.00; 

80 

.90 

2.71 

22  .. 

37.00  , 

100 

.37 

90.00' 

100 

.90 

42.86 

100 

.43 

102.48     100 

1.02 

,    2.72 

23.. 

$544.39  j  1474H 

$0.37 

$1096.20 

12121^ 

$0.90 

$720.17 

1305)2 

$0.55 

$1401.84  1504H 

$0.93 

|$2.75 

Total  $2.75  per  acre  or  $0,033  per  tree. 

Table  No.  5-. 4— 1912 

Itemized  cost  of  discing,  plowing,  spraying,  cultivating  and.  where  necessary,  re- 
planting on  6,505io  acres.  This  includes  50  acres  four-year-old  trees,  904  acres  three- 
year-old  trees,  2,047  acres  two-year-old  trees,  2,604 1^  acres  one-year-old  trees. 

Average  cost  was  $5.22  per  acre.  To  this  should  be  added  $1.22  per  acre  for  over- 
head charges. 


.\cres 


Discing 
200 


Harrowing 
201 


Plowing 
202 


Pruning 
203 


Spraying 
204 


S.  Horse 


Hoeing    ,  Replanting 
209  194 


Total 


1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 

5. 
6. 

7. 

8 

9. 
10. 
II 
12 
13. 
14 
15 
16 
17. 
18. 
19 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23 
24 
25 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 


117  1  year. 
120  1  year 
1601  year 
160  2  years 

65  1  year. 
100  1  4  2  years 

12  1  year 

50  2  years . 

40  2  years. 

100 

120 

120 

160 

160 

160 

160  2  years 

120 

160  2  years 
160  2  4  3  years 

70 

112 

160 

20 

160 

118  2  years. 
155 

40 

130 

120 

10 

10 


$165.46 
137.94 
296  23 
188.26 
101.42 
54.02 


161.82 

188.33 

225.46 

218.52 

175.34 

97.65 

108.29 

84.99 

84.74 

26.73 

108.90 

77.50 

27.12 

62.00 


.50 

118.00 

126.25 

7.75 

10.62 


$138.65 
103  58 
269  02 
265.75 

50.25 
163.99 

14.00 


142.22 
234.40 
203.02 
153.62 
216.32 
193.65 


146.64 
174.78 
246.98 

60.49 

240.95 

273  62 

5.00 

10.00 


8.74 

36.74 

112.00 

115.00 

5  00 


$231.81 
254.56 
467.50 
280.50 
126.81 
150  37 
32.24 
91.25 
82.50 
255.50 
326.81 
324.36 
439.69 
419.78 
394.99 
272.74 
285.39 
338.43 
236.78 
116.12 
251.47 
198.12 
49.26 
289.25 
145.00 
333.64 
25.25 
151.13 
142.51 
23-50 
12  45 


$  15.93 

I  7.90 

1         15.07 

2y.  30.75 

9.00 


1.25 
11.80 
15.75 
30.00 
19  75 
6.90 
9.53 
7.80 
19.75 
18.75 
10.00 
19.00 
64  83 
19.00 
23.36 
23.63 


19.33 
9.90 

20.12 
7.77 

14.75 

11.77 

.65 

1.63 


$    6.95 


17.90 

21.17 

1.08 

13.66 


11.40 
19.20 

9.00 

5.55 

5.55 
11.10 
11.10 
22.87 
26.54 

9.93 
36.26 
87.76 
26.83 
40.10 
24  01 

3  35 
16  62 

5.30 
10.30 
19.77 

4.45 


$  16.32 
32  37 


24.00 
25.98 


2.25 

85.54 
85.83 
21.15 


23.21 
159.15 
2.25 
68.51 
109.14 
20.92 
30.02 
72.21 


242.30 
118.45 
187.29 
14.52 
27.24 
77.38 


550.05 
555.46 
38.53 
48.37 


3349 


$2,853  84 


$3,596  96  I  $6,749  71   $429  62   $465  67  $1,446.03  $2,007  96  $1,084  04  $18,680.55 


380 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Table  No.  5-B— 1912 


Acres 

Discing 

Harrowing 

Plowing 

Pruning 

Spraying 

S.  Horae 

Hoeing 

Replanting 
194  Acres 

Total 

1... 

2... 
3     . 

. . .   150 

...  160 

. ..  144 

$  25.50 

15.50 

36.01 

93.00 

40.50 

250.30 

12.75 

233.98 

187.30 

284.42 

130.19 

51  36 

$  25.06 
136.25 
93.50 

$136,21 
140.05 
322.64 

89.98 
225.03 

45.46 
118.98 
268.60 
171.52 
412.71 
411.10 
255.96 
178.43 
240.50 
158.49 

21.65 
364.65 
239.99 
236.50 

11.52 
307.50 
316.98 
347.86 

$  74.95 
35.50 

8.81 

2.75 
20.85 
42.51 
58.12 
14.12 
27.75 
42.28 
21.88 
10.04 
40.00 

9.25 
21.50 
20.45 
33.53 
16.75 
26.95 

2.50 
27.30 
17.62 
21.19 

$  72,42 

12.12 

1.32 

5.35 

11.51 

7.90 

179.96 

$187.90 
152.03 

97.00 

82.72 
127.48 

88.32 
127.41 

99.12 
117.91 

60.00 

$114  11 

49.77 

75.10 

56  05 

89  36 

130,06 

128.03 

61  59 

84.20 

51.09 

33.62 

15.37 

173.63 

148.81 

200.96 

126.00 

83.31 

15.53 

42.34 

12.87 

36.37 

36.88 

9.45 

$  23.50 
50.88 
6.53 
11,75 
37,32 
17.55 
16.03 
16.75 
18.50 
44.85 

$    659.59 
592  It) 
640.91 

4 

70          .... 

341  60 

5  ,  , 

6  . 

7  . 

.    .   150 

. ..   160 

.160          .... 

65.00 

46.45 

15.00 

86.00 

50  50 

154.25 

149.72 

84.45 

5.00 

132.00 

162.87 

219.13 

124.25 

123.70 

617.05 
628.55 
654.28 

8... 

. ..  160 

. ..  160 

. ..  160 

770.16 

9... 
10... 

1.33 

659.01 
1,049.60 

11 

160 

746  51 

12. 

...  m'A 

. ..  150 

417.18 

13..  . 

79.54 
7.65 
6.75 
8.80 

43.37 

200.74 
155.80 
66.86 
40.00 
52.88 

18.50 
33.00 
40.25 
32.50 
61.50 

695.84 

14... 
15... 

. ..  160 

. ..  140 

86.67 
239.01 
226.10 
280.14 

23.25 

813.68 
896.69 

16... 

. ..  140 

694.63 

17... 
18.. 

...   160 

..     80 

1,043.63 
419.22 

19 

110 

19.25 

.90 

6.76 

148.63 

9.00 

34.97 

4.81 

19.10 

12.60 
20.13 
17.35 
94.50 
113.47 

486  27 

20... 
21... 

.     20 

..  140 

40.50 

65.87 

203.83 

206.15 

44.00 

70.85 

101.34 

233  26 

141.42 
566.97 

22.. 

..  160 

775.96 

23  .. 

.  160 

950.48 

6505)4 

$5,576.17 

$5,719.48 

$11,772.02 

$1,062.27 

$939.28 

$3,318.71 

$3,782.46 

$1,771.50 

$33,941  99 

General   average   $5.22   per  acre. 


A.  G.  Craig 


Cost  Per  .Vere  of  Planting  and  First  Year  (are  of  Tlionsand  .Vore  Orcliard  of 
Lewiston-Clarkstou  Development  Co. 

(The  Square  Method  of  Orchard  Plan  Used) 

Plowing     $4.0U  per  acre 

Cultivating    None 

Staking     83  per  acre 

Planting    2.44  per  acre 

48  Apple  Trees  at  10  cents  each 4. SO  per  acre 

20  Peach  Tees  at  12   cents  each 2.40  per  acre 

10  Plum  or  Prune  Trees  at  12  cents  each 1.20  per  acre 

10  Pear  Trees  at  20  cents  each 2.00  per  acre 

Fertilizer    None 

Cultivation.    10   times 5.S.5  per  acre 

Pest    Control    10  per  acre 

Heading   Trees    10  per  acre 

Horticultural   Supervision  4.00  per  acre 

Office  or  Overhead  Expenses,  10  per  cent 2.77  per  acre 

Total    $30.49  per  acre 

W.  B.  Laxiiam, 

Ilni-tii-ultnrist.  Clarkston.   Wash. 


Appro.xiiuate  Cost  of  Orcliards  on  Ten  .Vere  Basis,  or  More 

Sage  Brnsli  Land 

First  Tear  (Montana  Conditions) 

Cost  of  Clearing  $1.50  to  $3.50,  Average  $2.50 $25.00 

Plowing,  $2.50  per  acre 25.00 

*  Leveling.   $1.00   10.00 

Harrowing,    $0.50    - 5.00 

Seeding  Oats  and  Clover: 

Oat    Seed    $  .971/2  1 

Clover   Seed    1.50       | 

Planting   Seed   35      '^  $9.32 93.20 

Irrigating    1.50 

Harvesting    5.00 


*  We  tbink  the  cost  ot  leveling  in   this  item   i.s  ucit   high 
known  it  to  run  as  high  as  $20  per  acre. — Ed. 


Mit)iii;Ii    for   Mil   average.      We  have 


APPLES  381 

Total  expenditure  for  first  year $158.20 

Income  first  year 160.00 

Cash  Balance  end  of  first  year $     1.80 

Second  Year 

Irrigating  Clover  two  times,  $2.00  per  acre $20.00 

Cutting  Clover  one  time,  $0.35  per  acre 3.50 

Stacking  Clover  one  crop,  $3.00  per  acre 30.00 

Total   Expenditure   $  53.50 

Second   crop   plowed   under   for   fertilizer. 

Income  Second  Year,  two  tons  hay  per  acre  at  $5  equals  $10 $100.00 

Fertilizing  value  of  Clover  not  included.  

Cash  Balance  for  second  year $46.50 

Third  Year — First  Year  Trees 

Plowing.  $2.50  per  acre $25.00 

Harrowing  and   Smoothing,  $0.50 5.00 

Trees  (apples)  55  per  acre  at  $0.18  each,  $9.90 99.00 

Marking  off  ground.  $0.60  per  acre 6.00 

Planting  Trees  and  Pruning,  $0.04  each,  $2.20  per  acre 22.00 

Irrigating  two  times  per  season,  $1.50  15.00 

Cultivation  eleven  times  for  season.  $3.00  each  time 33.00 

Total     $205.00 

Fourth  Y'ear — Second  Tear  Trees 

Cultivation    $  33.00 

Irrigation 7.50 

Pruning,    $1.00    per    acre 10.00 

Spraying,  $1.00  per  acre 10.00 

$  60.50 
Fifth  Y'ear — Third  Year  Trees 

Cultivation    $  33.00 

Pruning.    $1.00    per   acre 10.00 

Irrigation    7.50 

Spraying.  $1.00  per  acre 10.00 

$  60.50 
Sixth  Year — Fourth  Year  Trees 

Cultivation $  33.00 

Pruning.    $1.00    per   acre 10.00 

Irrigation    7.50 

Spraying,   $1.00    per   acre 10.00 

$  60.50 
Income  V2  bo.x  per  tree,  55  trees,  net  $1.00  per  box $275.00 

Balance  end  of  fourth  tree  year $214.50 

Seventh  Year — Fiftli  Year  Trees 

Cultivation $  33.00 

Pruning   10.00 

Irrigation    7.50 

Spraying    ■. 10.00 

Thinning  fruit,  $2.00  per  acre 20.00 

$  80.00 
Income  1  box  per  tree.  $1.00  net $550.00 

Balance  end  of  5th  tree  year $469.50 


382  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 

Eighth  Tear— Sixth  Tear  Trees 

Cultivation,    irrigation,    etc $      60.50 

Thinning,   $5.00   per  acre 50.00 


$    110.50 
Income   2   bo.xes   per   tree,   $1.00 $1,100.00 


Balance   $    989.50 


Summary  to  Eighth  Tear 

First  Tear 

Expenditure    $    15S.20 

Income   160.00 

$     1.80 

Second  Tear 

Expenditure    $      53.50 

Income   100.00 

$  46.50 

Third  Tear 
Expenditure    $    205.00 

Fourth  Tear 

Expenditure    $      60.50 

Fifth  Tear 

Expenditure    $      60.50  . 

Sixth  Tear 

Expenditure    ; $      60.50 

Income    275.00 

$204.50 

Seyenth  Tear 

Expenditure    $      80.50 

Income    550.00 

$469.50 

Eighth  Tear 

Expenditure    - $    110.50 

Income   1,100.00 

$989.50 

Total  expenditure  to  eighth  year         $    789.20 

Total  income  to  eighth  year  2,185.00 

Balance  to  end  of  eighth  year $1,395.80 

This  estimate  does  not  include  cost  of  buildings,  horses,  implements,  fences,  etc., 
nor  does  it  take  into  consideration  any  income  from  the  land  during  the  third,  fourth 
and  fifth  years,  when  it  is  possible  to  get  revenue  from  potatoes  or  garden  truck. 

R.  W.  Fisher, 

Bozeman.  Mont. 


APPLES 


383 


Washinctoii  State  CollcRr  Estimate 
Cost   of   Kaisiiig:   Apples 

Washington  estimates  place  the  cost  of 
raising  and  marketing  one  box  of  apples 
at  53.1  cents,  while  a  New  York  orchard- 
ist  says  his  cost  shows  an  average  of 
$1.10  a  barrel  for  nine  years.  Aside  from 
the  value  of  knowing  how  much  it  costs 
to  do  business  is  the  more  interesting 
feature  that  growers  are  coming  to  de- 
mand more  knowledge  of  what  their  pro- 
duce costs  them.  No  factory  would  think 
of  doing  business  without  knowing  exact- 
ly what  the  output  cost,  and  as  a  farm 
is   nothing  more   or   less   than   a   factory 


The  various  items  differ  widely,  and 
here  is  where  the  long  term  is  valuable. 
A  thought  of  the  greatest  importance 
i.s  driven  home  by  a  review  of  these  fig- 
ures. It  is  that  profit  begins  after  a 
certain  point  of  production  is  reached. 
For  instance,  he  says:  "When  our  yield 
was  102  barrels  per  acre  the  cost  per  bar- 
rel was  only  83  cents  a  barrel.  When  it 
was  35  barrels  per  acre  the  cost  per  bar- 
rel rose  to  $1.73.  In  1910  we  grew  a  crop 
of  55  barrels  per  acre  for  $1.20  per  bar- 
rel." In  other  words,  the  greater  the 
crop  the  less  the  relative  cost  of  pro- 
duction, so  that  cost  per  box  or  barrel  is 
of  little  avail  unless  the  output  per  acre 


Table  Sliowing  the  Items  of  Expense  in  Producing  Apples  in  a  Six-Aere  Orchard  in 

Western  >'ew  York 


Year 

Cover 
Crop 

Spray 
Material 

Barrels 

5% 
Interest 
on  Land 

Equip- 
ment 
Charge 

Over- 
head 
Charge 

Labor 
Cost 

Total 
Cost 

1902 

$  6.64 
11.22 
10.50 
12.45 
14.85 
16.85 
9.75 
19.26 
23.89 

$117.88 
164.92 
109.90 
88.80 
112.35 
79.80 
205.45 
196  35 
116.90 

$27.45 
28.98 
30.50 
30.50 
33.06 
35.56 
37.76 
41.97 
45.75 

$25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
30.09 
38.98 
32.39 

$2.97 
2.88 
3.93 
3.40 
4.78 
4.89 
7.09 
5.91 
5.58 

$339.45 
249.55 
180.55 
158.06 
211.76 
192.30 
293.50 
280.78 
175.26 

$519.39 

1903 

482  56 

1904     

360  38 

1905 

1906 

$  6.10 

.324.31 
401  SO 

1907 

1908 

10.00 

364.40 
583.55 

19Q9 

1910 

8.68 

591.93 
399  77 

8-year  avera 
Average  per 
Average  per 

ge 

acre 

barrel . . . 

$13.94 
2.28 
.034 

$132.73 
21.76 
.325 

$34.61 
5.67 
.084 

$27.93 
4.58 
.068 

$4.60 
.75 
.011 

$231.25 
37.91 
.565 

$447.57 

73.38 

1.10 

the  farmer  should  know  exactly  what  his 
output  is  costing  him  so  that  he  may 
know  whether  or  not  he  is  prospering. 

The  New  York  grower  communicates 
the  results  of  his  nine-year  bookkeeping 
to  the  Rural  New  Yorker.  He  sub- 
mits a  table  that  shows  he  has  been  pains- 
taking. His  figures  contain  two  items 
that  do  not  appear  in  the  Washington 
table,  namely,  the  Interest  on  the  land, 
and  the  overhead  charges,  such  as  taxes 
and  insurance.  On  the  other  hand  his 
table  makes  no  mention  of  bringing  the 
orchard  to  bearing,  as  does  the  Washing- 
ton figures.  His  orchard  was  from  36 
to  50  years  old  and  contained  234  trees, 
or  six  and  one-tenth  acres. 


is  known.  The  one  thing  lacking  in  this 
table  is  the  output. 

In  1902,  for  example,  the  cost  of  spray 
was  $6.64,  while  in  1910  it  rose  to  $23.89, 
with  various  figures  between  these  ex- 
tremes. The  cost  of  barrels  varies  from 
$79.80  to  $205.45,  from  which  column  we 
may  judge  to  some  extent  of  the  output, 
though  there  may  have  been  a  difference 
in  the  price. 

A  most  interesting  column  is  that  for 
interest  on  land.  This  has  risen  steadily, 
beginning  at  $27.45  for  1902  and  ending 
with  $45.75  for  1910.  Overhead  charges 
also  show  a  tendency  to  increase.  The 
year  1902  shows  labor  absorbing  $339.45. 
and  this  has  been  greatly  reduced.     The 


384 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


lowest  item  in  tiie  labor  table  was  in 
1905,  when  evidently  tiie  crop  was  light, 
if  one  may  judge  by  the  cost  of  barrels. 
However,  the  year  1910  shows  a  labor  cosi 
of  only  $175.26,  when  the  barrels  cost 
$116.90,  or  almost  as  much  as  in  1902, 
when  the  labor  cost  was  $339.45.  Is  there 
not  the  likelihood  that  the  orchardist 
scanned  his  cost  sheet  and  saw  that  la- 
bor was  costing  him  too  much  and  cut  it 
down  accordingly?  This  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  valuable  features  of 
the  table.  The  orchardist,  M.  C.  Burritt, 
concludes  as  follows: 

"To  sum  up  these  items  of  cost  we  find 
that,  taking  the  average  of  nine  years, 
with  an  annual  crop  of  409  barrels,  or  67 
per  acre,  on  6.1  acres  of  old  apple  orchard, 
that  spray  material  costs  $.034  per  barrel; 
packages,  $.325;  interest  on  land,  $.084: 
use  of  equipment,  $.068;  taxes,  etc.,  $.011; 
labor,  $.565,  or  a  total  of  $1.10  per  barrel. 
If  the  estimated  cost  of  the  manure,  6 
cents,  be  added,  the  total  will  be  $1.16. 
This  cost,  of  course,  varies  with  the  size 
of  the  crop.  When  our  yield  was  102  bar- 
rels per  acre  the  cost  per  barrel  was  only 
83  cents.  When  it  was  35  barrels  per 
acre  the  cost  per  barrel  rose  to  $1.73.  In 
1910  we  grew  a  crop  of  55  barrels  per  acre 
for  $1.20  per  barrel. 

"To  put  it  in  another  way,  we  could 
grow  and  deliver  on  board  the  cars  at 
our  station  a  barrel  of  apples  for  from  $1 
to  $1.25  with  an  average  crop  under  aver- 
age conditions.  In  doing  this  we  would 
expect  to  make  five  per  cent  on  the  capital 
invested  and  to  receive  fair  wages  for  our 
labor.  In  addition  to  this  we  should  have 
all  the  culls  and  the  windfall  apples  to 
sell  at  a  clear  profit,  for  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing and  handling  these  has  been  in- 
cluded in  the  costs  given  above,  as  it 
could  not  well  be  separated.  These  have 
amounted  to  an  average  of  29  cents  per 
barrel  in  the  last  nine  years.  To  reduce 
the  matter  to  a  still  lower  basis,  we  think 
that   our  experience   has   shown   that    we 


can  expect  to  grow  and  sell  a  barrel  of  ap- 
ples for  90  cents  and  pay  all  expenses  con- 
nected with  its  i)roduction." — Spokesman 
Review. 

Results  on  Kl^ht  Acres  iu  Idaho 

Statement  of  1910  fruit  crop  from  eight 
acres  of  orchard  owned  by  B.  F.  Tussing, 
Fruitland.   Idaho.     Trees  13  years  old. 

Boxes 
No.       Boxes  Per 

Varieties  Trees  Produced     Tree 

.Tonatlian     100        1,936       19.36 

Rome    Beaiitv    176       3.50.S        19.88 

White     Winter     I'eai-main     47  780        16.57 

Mammotli    Black    Twig...      18  371        20.61 

Dregon    Red     12  151        12.58 

Ben   Davis    4  48        12.00 

Delaware    Red     13  135        10.38 

(iiiivenstein      15  294        19.00 

Arkansas    Black    180       2,430        13.50 

Totals  on  eight  acres..   565       9,648         .... 

Ntiraber  Price 

Grades  Boxes  Received 

Extra    Fancy    6,048  .'58.164.80 

Kincy     2, son  2,541.00 

Choice     1,300  1,050.75 


Totals     9,648       .$11,756.55 

Average    per    acre,    1,206    boxes,    $1,469.57. 

Expense  account  to  be  deducted  from 
the  above  as  follows: 

Per 
Harvesting  Box 

Boxing,   and   making   boxes .$0.13 

Packing     f  5 

Sorting     02 

Paper     02 

Nailing   boxes,    help   in   packing   house 03 

Hauling  to   cars,    loading  and   bracing 02 

Hauling,    orchard    to   packing   house ni 

I'icking     04 

Total      -$0.32 

Orchard  Expenses 

Interest    on    investment $960.00 

Pi-uning   and    hauling   brush 160.00 

Cultivating      96.00 

Thinning    fruit     95.00 

Spraying     80.00 

Irrigation      48.00 

Taxes      44.00 

Propping  Trees    40.00 

Water    assessment     14.00 

Repairing    fences     8.00 


Total     $1,545.00 

Orchard    expense,    per    box $0.10 

Harvesting   expense,   per   box 32 

Total    cost   of   production,   per   box 0.48 


Gross    returns,    eight    acr 
Cost    of    production 


Net    balance,    eight    acres. 


$11,756.55 
4,631.04 

$7,125.51 


APPLES 


385 


Costs  in  Yakima  Valley 

Cost  per  box  of  crop  of  2,436  boxes,  ten  acres,  part  bearing,  season  1912.  four 
miles  from  North  Yakima.  Wash.,  five  varieties;  itemized.  A  great  deal  of  careful 
bookkeeping  is  involved  in  this  statement. 

Total  Cost,  2,436  Boxes— 1912 


Hck 

Haul 

from 

Orehard 

Sorting 

Pack 

Haul 
Town 

Boxes 

\ails 

Making 
Boxes 

Paper 

Waiting 

on 
Packing 
Tables 

Total 

JonAthan 

J32.0O 
.0554 
8.00 
.0650 
12.25 
.0462 
23.50 
.0681 
39.43 
.0528 

$4.00 

.0069 

.63 

.0051 

2.50 
.0094 

2.50 
.0072 

4.50 
.0040 

$56.18 
.0972 
7.63 
.0620 
11.88 
.0448 
16.25 
.0471 
47.78 
.0425 

$28.90 
.0500 
6.15 
.0500 
13.23 
.0500 
17.25 
.0500 
56.25 
.0500 

$  7.23 
.0125 

1.34 
.0125 

3.21 
.0123 

4.31 
.0125 
14.06 
.0125 

$60.69 
.1050 
12.92 
.1050 
27.83 
.1050 
36.23 
.1050 

118.13 
,1050 

$  2.66 

.0046 

.57 

.0046 

1.22 
.0046 

1  39 
.0046 

5.18 
.0046 

$  3.78 
.0100 

1.23 
.0100 

2.65 
.0100 

3  45 
.0100 
11.25 
.0100 

$17.28 
.0300 
3.69 
.0300 
7.95 
.0300 
10.35 
.0300 
33.75 
.0300 

$  2.00 
.0035 

$216  72 

OrimpA  Onl(if>n 

.3750 
42  36 

.3444 

Kentish  Fill  Basket 

2.50 
.0094 

"i.ii' 

.0020 

85.24 
.3217 

Ben  Davis 

.3346 

.3134 

Total 

S135.18 
.0555 

S14.13 
.0058 

$139.72 
.0373 

$121.80 

.0500 

$30.35 
.0125 

$235.80 
.1050 

$11.22 
.0046 

$24  36 

.0100 

$73.02 
.0300 

$6.73 
.0028 

$812.33 
3335 

Per  Box    

Miscellaneous  Expenses . . . 

1625 

Total  cost  per  Box 

4960 

(Spray.  Thinning,  Cultivating,  Irrigating.) 


Total  Crop,  (All  Wnter  Apples)— 1912 


Si«s*. 

45 

34 

56 

64 

72 

'     80 

88 

96 

104 

112 

113 

Total 

No.  Boxes    . . . 

26 
1.456 

67 
4,288 

53 
3.S16 

55 
4,400 

41 
3.608 

163 
15,648 

49 
5,096 

15 
1.680 

362 
40.906 

Siies*  .. 

120 

123 

128 

138 

150 

163 

175 

188 

200 

213 

223 

Total 

No.  Boxes 

316 
39,500 

288 
39.744 

245 
38,750 

220 
36.860 

215 
37.625 

208 
39.104 

83 
16,600 

9 
1,917 

21 
4.72S 

2,436 
332.723 

No.  Apples 

137 

*Size  in  terms  of  No.  Apples  per  box. 


V.   H.   Howie 
North  Yakima,  Wash. 


Methods  of  Acconnting 

Farm  accounting,  and  especially  cost 
accounting,  is  difficult,  and  requires  the 
services  of  an  expert  bookkeeper,  when 
the  matter  is  carried  into  the  smallest 
details.  But  many  persons  maintain  a 
method  of  keeping  track  of  their  expenses 


in  ways  which  are  simple  yet  which  an- 
swer every  purpose.  We  may  not  all  be- 
come expert  bookkeepers  and.  at  the  same 
time,  expert  fruit  growers;  but  we  should 
have  a  fair  knowledge  of  what  is  the 
approximate  cost  of  producing  our  crops. 
The  accounts  of  three  fruit  growers  are 
tabulated  as  follows: 


386  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 

Packing  Expense  in  Missouri  Orcliards 

— Grower  No. — 

12  3 

Box  material  and  making $0.14            $0.11  $0.13 

Pacliing    07                .05  .07 

Paper    02                .04  .02 

Nailing  and  pacliing  bouse  lielp 03                .01  .01 

Hauling   to   cars,   loading  and   bracing 03                .25  .01% 

Hauling  to   packing  house 02                .01  .02 

Picking 05                .03  .03 


Total    $0.36  $0.50  $0,291/2 

Orcbard  Expense 

Interest    $160.00  $40.00  $160.00 

Pruning  and  hauling  brush  22.50  3.50  6.00 

Cultivating    30.50  3.90 

Thinning    2.00           

Spraying    10.00  3.70  10.00 

Irrigating    10.00             5.00 

Taxes    10.00  1.53  10.00 

Propping 5.00  

Water   assessment 1.50              1.50 

Repairing  fences  1.00  

Fertilizer     40.00  

Irrigation  flumes  and  ditches 10.00  

Spraying    chemicals 1.75            


Total   $300.00  $54.63  $202.50 

Total   number  of  boxes  harvested 600  300  600 

Orchard  expense,  box $0.50  $0.17  $0.33 

Packing   expense    36  .50  .29V4 


Total  cost,  per  bushel $0.86  $0.67  $0.62yo 

In  connection  with  the  method  of  keep-  "Bearing  Orchard. — First,  take  an  esti- 

ing  track  of  the  cost  of  producing  a  crop  mate  of  all   of  the  property  for  what  it 

of    apples,     Peter     Hovland,     Wenatchee,  can  be  sold  for  at  present.     Never  mind 

Wash.,  sends  us  an  outline  of  the  system  what  you  paid  for  it,  or  what  you  want 

which  he  follows,  and  says  that  it  "will  for  it.     Put  upon  it  the  price  that  it  is 

show   the   correct   expenses   and    tell   the  worth    today,    then    add    the    interest    of 

grower  about  the  leaks   in   his  business.  this  valuation  to  the  producing  and  mar- 

if  there  are  any."     Mr.  Hovland's  system  keting  expenses  and  divide  them  by  the 

is  as  follows:  number  of  boxes  harvested." 

Value  of  land: 

Irrigated,  with  pipe  lines,  flumes,  ditches $ 

Unirrigated    

Value  of  buildings 


Total    $ 

Productive  expenses: 

1.  Interest  on  valuation  of  property. 

2.  Water  rent. 

3.  Taxes. 

4.  Pruning. 

5.  Brush  hauling. 

6.  Plowing,  harrowing  and  cultivating. 

7.  Grubbing  weeds. 


APPLES 


387 


8.  Fertilizers. 

Barn-yard  manure. 
Commercial  fertilizers. 
Cover  crops. 

9.  Spraying. 

10.  Irrigating. 

11.  Propping. 

12.  Thinning  fruit. 

13.  Repair  on  pipe  lines,  flumes,  ditches. 

14.  Repair  on  fences. 

15.  Repair  of  implements,  harness,   etc. 

16.  Loss  of  trees  and  planting  new  ones. 

17.  Grafting  and  budding. 

18.  Hay  and  grain  for  horses,  and  care. 

19.  Insurance  on  buildings,  horses  and  implements. 

20.  Unexpected  expenses. 


Marketing  expenses. 

1.     Picking. 


2.  Orchard  Hauling. 

3.  Packing 

4.  Boxes,  nails  and  making. 

5.  Paper. 

6.  Nails. 

7.  Hauling. 

8.  Help  in  packing  house. 

9.  Unexpected  expenses. 


In  this  outline,  as  suggested  by  Mr. 
Hovland,  there  are  some  important  items 
which  are  not  considered,  such  as  the 
depreciation  on  the  horses,  tools,  wagons, 
spraying  machines,  etc.,  neither  Is  there 
any  selling  expense,  as  the  grower  per- 
haps sold  his  fruit  direct  and  therefore 
did  not  have  to  allow  a  commission  to 
the  association  or  broker.  No  charge  is 
made  for  grading  the  fruit,  as  that  is 
possibly  included  in  the  packing  charge. 
No  account  is  taken  of  the  cost  of  load- 
ing and  bracing  the  boxed  fruit  in  the 
cars,  although  there  is  such  a  charge 
made  by  most  growers. 

One  thing  included  in  the  above  list  of 
items  that  does  not  seem  to  us  like  a 
direct  charge  on  producing  a  crop  is  that 
of  fertilizers.  As  a  rule,  the  influence  of 
any  application  of  fertilizers,  whether  in 
the  form  of  manure  or  cover  crop,  is  felt 
over  a  period  of  years,  and  under  such 
conditions  it  really  becomes  one  of  the 
assets  and  becomes  chargeable  each  year 
under  the  head  of  depreciation.  In  that 
case  the  annual  charge  for  fertilizers  be- 
comes less. 

We  hope  our  readers  will  consider  these 
figures  as  given  above,  and  will  discuss 


the  plan  as  suggested  by  Mr.  Hovland.  A 
cost  system  is  not  the  product  of  one 
man,  and  neither  is  it  the  outcome  of 
one  year,  but  it  is  the  result  of  the  com- 
bined efforts  of  a  great  many  minds 
working  for  a  period  of  years  on  the 
same  problem.  It  has  taken  a  score  of 
years  for  the  printers  to  work  out  a  cost 
system  that  is  simple  and  accurate,  but 
as  it  now  is  the  matter  of  obtaining  the 
cost  of  printing  any  job  is  comparatively 
simply  and  easily  arrived  at.  In  the  cost 
of  producing  apples,  there  is  an  almost 
innumerable  list  of  things  which  have  to 
be  taken  into  consideration,  but  by  com- 
paring a  number  of  different  plans  and 
discussing  them  freely,  an  outline  can  be 
worked  out  that  will  be  simple  and  serv- 
iceable  to   all. 

The    Fbuit-Gbower, 

St.  Josech.  Mo. 

Cost  of  Spraying 

In  our  effort  to  find  a  unit  of  cost  for 
the  various  kinds  of  labor  performed  In 
the  orchard,  and  in  the  marketing  of 
fruits,  we  give  herewith  an  estimate  made 
by  E.  A.  Burnett,  director  of  the  Nebraska 
Experiment  station.  It  must  be  noted 
that   the   cost   in   Nebraska   may   not   be 


388  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 

exactly  the  same  as  the  cost  in  some  other  rials  may  be  more  or  less,  but  this  will 
states  where  the  labor  is  more  or  less  assist  in  reaching  a  conclusion  as  to  what 
than  in  Nebraska,  or  where  the  raw  mate-      would  be  the  probable  cost. 

Number   of   orchards   sprayed 16 

Total   number  of  trees   sprayed 3,300 

Average  age  of  trees 18  years 

Average  number  of  sprayings  per  year 4 

Average  quantity  of  spray  per  tree  each  year 13   gallons 

Average  quantity  of  spray  per  acre  (50  trees) 650 

Average  cost  of  spray  material  per  100  gallons $0.87 

Average  cost  of  applying  spray  per  100  gallons $0.98 

Average  total  cost  of  spraying  per  100  gallons $1.85 

Average  annual  cost  of  spray  material  per  tree 11.3  cents 

Average  annual  cost  of  applying  spray  per  tree 12.7       " 

Average  total  annual  cost  of  spraying  per  tree 24.0       " 

Average  total  annual  cost  of  spraying  per  acre  (50  trees) $12.00 

Results  of  Spraying 

Average  annual  yield  and  value  per  acre  (estimated  on  basis  of  50  trees)  — 

Sprayed  Trees 

Marketable  fruit  220  bu.         $114.40 

Culls    and    windfalls 55  bu.  3.30 

275  bu.  $117.70 
Unsprayed  Trees 

Marketable    fruit    90  bu.  $36.90 

Culls  and  windfalls  85  bu.  4.25 

175  bu.  $41.15 

Summary 

Difference   between   sprayed   and   unsprayed   trees $76.55 

Average  cost  of  spraying  12.00 


Average  net  gain  per  acre   (50  trees)  from  spraying $64.55 

APPLE   ORCHARD   PROFITS  an    acre.     Last    year    the    apple    crop    in 

_    „    „  Huron  county  was  almost  a  complete  fail- 

XV.    -K.    oLOAN 

ure.     Nevertheless,   we   harvested   nearly 

Huron  County,   Ontario  ^^q  ^,^^^3,^  „g  ^^^^^  350  ^„gg_  ^^  jj  75  ^^ 

In    a    ten-acre    orchard,    the    acre    cost  $4  a  barrel,  or  $43  an  acre,  giving  a  total 

and  expenditure  for  four  years  are  given  of  $413.40  or  $103.35  as  the  average  for 

below.     Ten  acres  usually  contain  about  four  years  off  trees  from  17  to  20  years  of 

400  trees,  or  40  trees  to  the  acre,  but  as  ^ge. 

some  of  my  trees  are  grafted  and  did  not  nqw,  let  us  look  at  the  cost  of  produc- 

bear  at  the   same   time   as  the   others,   I  (fon   and   maintenance.     It  cost   $2.35   an 

will  include  only  350  trees.  acre  for  plowing.  $1.05  an  acre  for  culti- 

The  first  year   we   had   700   barrels   of  vating  three  times,  $3.75  an  acre  for  prun- 

apples    from    these    350    trees,    and    they  ing,    $S   to   $9    for   three    sprayings   with 

were  sold  at  $1.65  a  barrel  on  the  ground,  Bordeaux    mixture.     Last   year   we    used 

or  $132  an  acre.     The  varieties  consisted  lime-sulphur,  which  cost  a  little  more,  for 

of  Ben  Davis,  Baldwin,  Greening,  Spy  and  the   first  spraying,   and   arsenate  of  lead 

King.     In    the    following   year,    the   crop  along  with   it,   fertilizing  at  the   rate  of 

was  much  lighter,  only  250  barrels  from  $2.50  an   acre   up  to   $3   for  manure  and 

the  same  area,  at  $1.50  a  barrel,  or  $45  ashes.     It    is    sometimes    difficult    to    get 

an  acre.     In  the  third  year  we  harvested  ashes,  but  we  get  a  great  deal  of  manure 

750  barrels  at  $2.25  a  barrel,  or  $192,80  at  50  cents  a  load  and  draw  it  ourselves. 


APPLES 


389 


Of    course,    the    benefit   of    fertilizing    is 
spread  over  a  number  of  years. 

The  cost  of  pulling  at  ten  cents  a  barrel 
would  be  practicallj'  $9  an  acre.  That 
makes  a  total  of  $27.60  as  the  total  cost 
an  acre,  without  counting  anything  for 
cover  crops.  We  generally  grow  clover  for 
its  manure  value,  and  if  we  don't  we  al- 
ways have  sufficient  snow.  This  deducted 
from  $103.35,  the  average  for  four  years. 


leaves    a   balance    of   $76.35    an    acre,    or 
$763.50  for  ten  acres. 

We  have  some  sections  of  older  or- 
chards which,  of  course,  give  much  better 
results.  I  will  not  go  into  details,  but 
give  one  example  of  what  we  have  done 
on  several  occasions.  One  plantation,  60 
years  of  age,  consisting  of  35  Spy  trees, 
has  run  as  high  as  $18  a  tree,  and  even 
at  the  low  price  of  $1.50  a  barrel  has 
yielded  $530  an  acre. 


Orcbard  of  air.  31,  C.  Bnrritt,  aionroe  Co..  >.  Y. 
Field  A— 1907— Fifth  Year 

216  apples,  40  pears,  211  plums.     Total,  467  trees;  6.6  acres. 


Total  Hours 

Total 
Cost 

Hours 

per  Acre 

Cost  per 
Acre 

Cost  per 

Operation 

Man 

Horse 

Man 

Horse 

100 

^lulching 

3 
11 

7 
10 

6 
47 
12 
21 

6 

$  1.05 
1.65 
1.75 
2.50 
1.50 
16.45 
1.80 
7.35 

.455 
1.67 
1.06 
1.51 

.91 
7.12 
1.82 
3.18 

.91 

$0.16 
.25 
.26 
.38 
.23 

2.. 50 
.27 

1.11 

$0  22 

35 

Cultivating,  1 

Cultivating,  2 

Cultivating,  3 

Plowing  in  fall 

Banking  trees 

10 

6 

94 

1.06 

1.51 

.91 

14.25 

.38 
.54 
.32 
3.52 
39 

Harrowing 

42 

6.36 

1.58 

Total  labor  cost — 

117 

165 

$34.05 

17.73 

25.00 

$5.16 

$7.30 

Four  loads  manure  at 

$1.50 

$  6.00 

1.15 

5.29 

38.48 

$0.91 
.174 
.801 
5.83 

$1  29 

Equipment  charge .  .  . 

25 

Ta.\es 

1  13 

Interest 

8  23 

Total  cost 

$84.97 

1 

$12,875 

$18  20 

Income,  Cost  and  Profit  on  Beans,  Field  A — 1907 


Income 

Cost 

Profit 

75  bushels  at  $1.50 

$112.50 
21.00 

3J^  tons  pods  at  $6.00 

$133.50 

$94.65 

$38.85 

Loss  on  Field,  1907 


Total 

Per  Acre 

Net  income  from  Beans 

$38.85 
84.97 

$  5  89 

Cost  of  Orchard 

12.87 

Loss 

$46.12 

$6.98 

390 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


"A  summary  of  the  cost  of  the  orchard,  the  net  income  from  the  crop,  the  in- 
come from  the  orchard,  and  the  profit  and  loss  by  years  for  the  eight  years  brings  us 
to  the  meat  of  the  whole  matter." 

Summary  of  Costs  for  Eight  Tears — Field  A — 6.6  Acres 


Year 

Crop  Grown 

Net 

Income 

from 

Crop 

Income 

from 
Orchard 

Orchard 
Cost  of 

Profit 

1903 

Corn $  15.17 

$109.87 
216.16 
83.78 
80.14 
84.97 
64.22 
84.73 
96.35 

$  94  70 

1904 

173.59 

1905 

40.65 

1906 

Beans 120.90 

Beans 38.85 

Corn                             37.68 

$40.76 

1907 

46.12 

1908 

26.54 

1909 

Oats  and  Strawberries 

100.61 
60  70 

$27.88 
38.65 

43.76 
3.00 

1910 

Wheat 

* 

$459.61 

$66.53 

$820.22 

$87.52 

$381.60 

Net  loss  on  field  for  eight  years . 
Average  annual  loss 


Total  cost  per  acre,  exclusive  of  income 

Total  cost  per  acre,  including  income 

Total  net  cost  per  100  trees 

Total  net  cost  per  apple  tree 

Total  net  cost  per  apple  tree,  exclusive  of  income. 

Total  labor  cost  per  acre 

Total  cash  cost  per  acre 


$294.08 

$38.76 

$124.27 
44.55 
62.97 
1.37 
3.80 
35.09 
89.19 


*  No  allowance  is  made  lor  what  could  have  been  raised  on  the  land  if  no  trees  had  occu- 
pied it.    This  amounted  on  the  average  to  $4.00  per  acre  year,  which  should  be  added  to  coat. — Ed. 

Summary  of  the  Cost  of  a  Four-Tear-Old  Apple  and  Peach  Orchard — Same  as  AboTC 


Year 

Crop  Grown 

Net 

Income 

from 

Crop 

Income      „ 

from        Cost  of 
Orchard    Orchard 

Profit        Loss 

1908 

Beans 

Beans 

Beans 

Beans 

$63  37 

.    $130.12 

$62.75 

1909 

66.70 
79.81 
53.20 

85.03 

18.33 

1910 

83.39 

3.58 

1911 

$46.05         61.95 

$37.30   

$267.08 

$46.05  1  $360.49 

$37.30      $84.66 

Total  cost  per  acre,  e.xclusi ve  of  income $72 .  10 

Total  cost  per  acre,  including  income 9.47 

Total  net  cost  per  apple  tree 3.76 

Total  net  cost  per  apple  tree,  excluding  income 2.85 


RuBAL  New  Yobkeb 


APPLES  391 

From  Itbaca,  Xew  York  these   tables   with    reference   to   his   own 

Income     Per     Acre. — The     Information      orchard. 


gathered  on  this  point  is  displayed  in  two 
tables.     One  shows  the  average  gross  in- 


Ayerage  Gross  Income  Per  Acre 


come  per  acre  for  each  of  the  five  years.       1902  $112.00 

The    general    average    for    the    five-year      1903  129.00 


period  is  $109.20  per  acre.     This  is  $16 


1904  98.00 

.        ,  ,       „  ,  1905  103.00 

less  per  acre  than  was  round  for  Orleans       jgQg  j^q^  qq 

county.     The  second  classification  shows  

how  these   incomes  are   distributed   witk  General  average  for  the  five-year 

reference  to  the  number  of  orchards  and 


period    $109.20 


number  of  acres  under  each  group.     The  M    g   Cummings 

grower  will   find   it   interesting  to  study  Ithaca.  N.  Y. 

TWO  FIVE  HUIVDRED  ACRE  ORCHARDS  IN  WESTERN  MICHIGAN 

The  figures  in  the  left  hand  column  are  based  on  returns  from  actual  orchards 
in  first-class  location,  with  good  soil,  and  that  have  had  expert  care  from  the  be- 
ginning. 

The  figures  in  the  right  hand  column  are  based  on  ordinary  location,  average 
soil,  and  on  the  ordinary  or  average  care  given  many  Michigan  orchards  today. 

Original  InTCstment 

500   acres  land    (cleared) $  21,000.00  $  14,000.00 

Ten  teams,  utensils,  harness,  tools,  etc 6,500.00  3,750.00 

Packing  sheds  to  be  built  when  orchard  starts  bearing 2,000.00  

Sheds  and  fences   1,750.00  750.00 

Trees  and  plantings  of  same •      8,250.00  5,000.00 

Total  investment  $  39,500.00  $  23,500.00 

First     four     years'     operation — 1st     period — income     per 
year    on    potatoes,    beans     and     clover,     alternating, 

average     $     8,500.00  $     1,400.00 

Expenditures  Per  Tear 

Work    on    orchard,    including    clover    plantings    on    best 

orchard,   $4.50  $     5,300.00  $     1,610.00 

Taxes  and  insurance,  depreciation,  repairs,  etc 1,250.00  650.00 

Overseeing  and   incidentals 1,500.00  750.00 

Total    expenditures    per   year $     8,050.00  $     3,010.00 

Net  income   per  year 450.00  *1,610.00 

Net   income   four   years    1,800.00  *6,440.00 

Value  of  orchard  end  four  years 62,500.00  30,000.00 

Total  assets  64,300.00  23,560.00 

Less  original   investment 39,500.00  23,500.00 

Net  profit  four  years $  24,800.00  $          60.00 

Net   profit   per   year 6.200.00  15.00 

Interest   on   investment   per  year 16%  1-15  of  1% 

Next  Tliree  Tears'  Operations 

Second   period — fifth  to  seventh  year. 

Income  Per  Tear 

1     case  cherries  per  tree,  $1.25  each  per  case $  25,937.50  $     

%  case  cherries  per  tree,  75c  each  per  case 7,781.25 

1     bushel  peaches  per  tree.  $1.00  per  bushel 20,750.00  

%  bushel  peaches  per  tree,  60c  per  bushel 6,225.00 

Total   income   per  year $  46,687.50  $  14,006.25 


392  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 

Expenditures  Per  Year 

Work  on  orchard    (including  clover  on  best  orchard) $     6,000.00  |     1,610.00 

Taxes  and  insurance,  depreciation,  repairs,  etc 1,250.00  650.00 

Overseeing   and   incidentals 2,250.00  750.00 

Total    expenditures    per   year $     9,500.00  $     3,010.00 

Net  income  three-year  term $112,561.00  $  26,548.75 

Net  income  first  four-year  term 1,800.00  *6,440.00 

Total  net  income  seven  years $114,361.00  $  50,000.00 

Value  of  orchard  end  seven  years $125,000.00  $  50,000.00 

Total  assets  end  seven  years $239,361.00  $  76,548.75 

Less   original   investment 39,500.00  $  23,500.00 

Total  net  profits  for  seven  years $199,861.00  $  53,048.75 

Average  net  profit  per  year 28,551.57  7,578.40 

Percentage  profit  on   investment 71%  32% 


>'ext  Three  Tears'  Operations 

Third  period — eighth  to  tenth  years  inclusive. 


Income  Per  Tear 

Cherries  11/2  cases  per  tree  $1.25 $  38,906.25 

Peaches  11/2  bushel  per  tree  $1.00 31,125.00 

Apples  1/2  bushel  per  tree  $0.90 6,075.00 

Cherries  %  case  per  tree  .$0.75 $  7,781.25 

Peaches  %  bushel  per  tree  $0.60 6,225.00 

Total  income  per  year $  76,106.25  $14,006.25 

Expenditures  Per  Tear 

"Work  on  orchard  (includes  clover  on  best  orchard) $     6.300.00  $  2,610.00 

Taxes,  insurance,  depreciation,  repairs,  etc 1,250.00  650.00 

Overseeing  and   incidentals 3,000.00  1,000.00 

Total    expenditures    per   year $  10.550.00  $  4,260.00 

Net  income  per  year 65,556.25  9,746.25 

Net  income  three  years 196,668.84  29,238.75 

Net  income  first  seven  years 114,361.00  26,548.75 

Value  of  orchard  end  of  ten  years 200.000.00  60,000.00 

Total  assets  end  ten  years 511,029.84  115,787.50 

Less   original   investment 39,500.00  23,500.00 

Total  net  profit  in  ten  years 471,529.84  92,287.50 

Average  net  profit  per  year 47,162.98  9,228.75 

Interest  on  investment  per  year 122%  39% 

Next  Three  Tears'  Operations 

Fourth  period — eleventh  to  thirteenth  years  inclusive. 

Income  Per  Tear 

Cherries  3  cases  per  tree  $1.25  per  case $  77,812.50 

Peaches  1%  bushels  per  tree  $1.00  per  bushel 31,125.00 

Apples  3  bushels  per  tree  $0.90  per  bushel 36,450.00 

Cherries  %  case  per  tree  $0.75  per  case $  7.781.25 

Peaches  %  bushel  per  tree  $0.60  per  bushel 6,225.00 

Apples  %  "bushel  per  tree  $0.40  per  bushel 2,700.00 

Total   income  per  year $145,387.50  $16,706.35 


APPLES 


393 


Expenditures   Per   Year — Same   Tears 

Work  on  orchards   (includes  clover  on  best  orchards) $     7,000.00  $  3,000.00 

Taxes,   depreciation,   repairs,   etc 1,250.00  6.50.00 

Overseeing  and   incidentals 3.500.00  1,250.00 

Total  expenditures  per  year  $  11,750.00  $  4,900.00 

Net  income  per  year 133,637.50  11,806.25 

Net  income  three  years 401,012.50  35,418.75 

Net  income  first  ten  years 311,029.84  55,787.50 

Value  of  orchard  end  fourth  term  300,000.00  70,000.00 

Total  assets  fourth  term $1,012,042.34  $161,206.25 

Less   original   investment 39,500.00  23,500.00 

Total  net  profit  13  years $972,542.34  $137,706.25 

Average  net  profit  per  year 74,810.90  10,593.00 

Interest  on  investment  per  year 195%  45% 

Ben  Newhall 
North  Manitou  Island,  Mich. 


Cost  and  Result  of  Fertilization 

This  is  the  touchstone  to  which  every- 
thing must  yield,  and  we  claim  the  sys- 
tem advocated  will  give  infinitely  better 
results  than  any  other  known.  It  is  a 
system  that  demands  just  the  material 
required  to  make  fruit,  and  in  as  exact 
proportion  as  science  can  indicate.  Under 
this  system  each  tree  may  be  regarded 
in  the  light  of  a  factory,  changing  well 
selected  raw  material  into  the  finished 
product.  Nothing  can  be  more  reason- 
able, nothing  more  simple.  To  produce 
the  results  given  below,  the  retail  cost  of 
fertilizer  has  only  been  from  $8.00  to 
$9.00  per  acre,  or  about  eight  cents  per 
barrel.  My  average  has  been  110  barrels 
for  ten  consecutive  years,  omitting  the 
present  year.  This  means  1,100  barrels 
from  every  acre  of  orchard  in  the  time 
named  of  good  packed  fruit.  This  com- 
pletes my  experiments  along  the  line  of 
low  fertilization,  and  the  results  are 
gladly  given  to  my  brother  orchardists. 
Now  the  question  arises.  How  much  has 
been  lost  by  following  so  closely  a  system 
that  furnishes  material,  seemingly,  in- 
adequate to  the  needs  of  a  heavy  crop? 
How  much  more  of  the  same  fertilizers 
could  have  been  profitably  used?  Would 
50  per  cent  or  100  per  cent  more  have 
increased  the  crop  proportionally?  These 
are  live  questions  to  the  man  whose  in- 
terests lie  largely  in  apple  trees,  and  are 
questions  which  the  writer  now  turns  to 


with   full   purpose  of  making  a  satisfac- 
tory solution. 

Results  of  Fertilization 

Below  is  an  account  kept  with  the  only 
four  acres  of  orchard  in  full  bearing  at 
the  time  it  was  made.  It  is  a  fair  index 
of  many  other  like  crops,  and  in  no  way 
misleading,  as  many  others,  with  the 
same  treatment,  have  done  even  better. 

Pruning     $  10.00 

Fertilizer,  4  acres  at  $9 36.00 

Sowing  fertilizer  2.00 

Discing  and  harrowing 8.00 

Seed  for  cover  crop 5.70 

Sowing  cover  crop 1.50 

Spraying  three  times 22.40 

Barrels,  451  at  25c 113.00 

Picking,    packing   and   truckage, 

at  25c  113.00 

Sundry  expenses    8.40 

$    320.00 
451  barrels  apples,  net  proceeds..  1,017.74 

Net  returns   $    697.74 

This  is  but  a  fraction  short  of  $175, 
net,  per  acre,  or  17 Vi  per  cent  for  the 
owner  on  a  valuation  of  $1,000  per  acre. 
This  seems  better  than  bank  stock  yield- 
ing 41 J  per  cent,  or  even  gold  mines  in 
the  West,  which  promise  wealth  quickly, 
but  usually  wind  up  with  loss  of  expected 
dividend,  and  investment  as  well.  The 
statement  of  1714  per  cent  returns  is  not 
given  as  something  wonderful  or  phe- 
nomenal. On  the  contrary,  it  is  sent  forth 
with  the  full  knowledge  that  even  better 


394 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


results  have  been  obtained  by  many  per- 
sons known  to  the  writer,  who  have  fer- 
tilized with  the  sole  view  of  heavy  crops, 
rather  than  of  demonstrating  a  rule 
which  could  be  worked  out  by  anyone 
along  scientific  lines.  It  shows  what  is 
possible  to  all  who  intelligently  apply 
themselves  to  pleasant,  healthful  orchard 
work  in  the  beautiful  Annapolis  valley 
of  Nova  Scotia. 

IVhat  a  Small  Orchard  Can  Do 

The  following  is  a  record  of  a  small 
orchard  on  the  property  of  Judge  Chip- 
man,   Kentville,  N.   S. 

This  orchard  was  planted  in  1883.  It 
originally  contained  22  trees  of  the  Blen- 
heim Orange  variety,  and  covered  an  area 
of  two-thirds  of  an  acre.  Root  crops 
were  grown  in  the  orchard  for  the  first 
10  or  11  years.  Thereafter  it  was  given 
clean  cultivation  with  the  plow  and  har- 
row. Stable  manure  was  largely  used 
during  the  early  years  of  the  orchard's 
life,  then  commercial  fertilizers  in  the 
form  of  bone  meal  and  muriate  of  potash. 
During  the  last  eight  or  nine  years  the 
fertilizers  applied  have  been  acid  phos- 
phate, muriate  of  potash  and  nitrate  of 
soda,  the  latter  in  small  quantities. 

Product  of  22  Blenheim  Orange  apple 
trees  from  1892  to  1898,  inclusive.  Tree 
run: 

— Barrels — 


24; 


1892  at  9 

years  of  age. . . 

.   22 

1894  "  11 

"      . . . 

.   50 

1896  •'  13 

"      . .  . 

.   80 

1898  "  15 

"      .  . . 

.   90 

One  tree  not  producing  after  1898. 


Product  of  21  trees  from  the  year  1898: 
In  1900  at  17    years    of  age 


1902  ••  19 

1904  "  21 

1905  "  22 

1906  •'  2:i 

1907  ■'  24 

1908  "  25 

1909  "  26 

1910  "  27 


— Barrels — 
.  130 
.  160 
.  140 
.  60 
.  130 
.  15 
90 
.    183 

4% 
912% 


1.154U 

During  the  past  11  years  the  yield  from 
this  orchard  has  averaged  about  83  bar 
rels  per  year,  or  at  the  rate  of  nearly  125 
barrels  per  acre.  At  $2  per  barrel,  tree 
run,  this  means  a  yearly  return  of  $250 
per   acre. 


What  One  Apple  Tree  Has  Done 

Joseph  A.  Kinsman 
Lakeville,  Kings  County,  Xova  Scotia 
On  the  farm  of  Joseph  A.  Kinsman,  in 
Lakeville,  Kings  county,  stands  the  cham- 
pion apple  tree  of  Eastern  America.  A 
letter  written  by  Mr.  Kinsman  on  April 
15,  1899,  contains  interesting  information 
about  this  tree.  Mr.  Kinsman,  under  that 
date,  wrote: 

"It  is  a  pleasure  for  me  to  give  par- 
ticulars about  the  remarkable  Graven- 
stein  apple  tree  of  which  I  have  been  the 
owner  since  1878.  This  tree  is  situated 
on  my  farm,  at  the  base  of  the  North 
mountain,  in  Lakeville.  It  grows  on  the 
side  of  the  bank  of  a  ravine  that  makes 
down  from  the  mountain,  in  which  a 
small  stream  of  water  runs,  the  roots  of 
the  tree  running  into  this  stream.  The 
trunk  of  the  tree  is  nearly  three  feet  in 
diameter.  The  limbs  begin  to  branch  out 
about  six  feet  from  the  ground;  the 
branches  have  a  spread  of  over  SO  feet. 
The  tree  is  now  100  years  old.  It  was 
grafted  to  Gravenstein  some  30  years  ago. 
I  have  about  25  acres  of  orchard,  but  I 
have  no  tree  more  thrifty  than  this  one. 
It  only  bears  on  alternate  years,  as  a 
rule.  On  some  off  years  it  might  have 
four  or  five  barrels  of  apples.  It  is  not 
cultivated  in  any  way.  Nature  having  pro- 
vided everything  that  is  wanted  for  this 
tree.  I  have  kept  a  record  of  the  apples 
it  has  borne  since  I  owned  it,  which  is 
as   follows: 

In  1878  it  produced  15  bbls.  merchantable  fruit 

1880  ••  18  •• 

1882  "  21  •• 

1884  "  20  •■ 

1886  ■■  21  " 

1888  "  23  ■• 

1890  ■'  20  " 

1892  "  21  •■ 

1894  "  26  " 

1896  •'  27  '• 

1898  "  22  •• 


Total 234 


at  $2  per  bbl..  .$468 


I  have  made  no  account  of  the  apples 
that  dropped  during  those  seasons,  nor 
have  I  of  the  loss  in  picking,  which  is 
very  great,  owing  to  the  top  being  nearly 
50  feet  high  on  one  side,  on  account  of  its 
position  on  the  side  of  the  bank.  In 
1896  I  should  have  had  over  30  barrels, 
if  it  had  not  been  for  an  accident  in  the 


APPLES 


395 


breaking  of  a  large  limb  from  tbe  top,  in 
August.  The  apples  have  averaged  me  $2 
per  barrel." 

G.  C.  Miller, 
Middleton.    N.    S. 

POINTS  ON  PACKING  AND  HANDLING 
APPLES  IN  BARRELS 

G.  H.  Vroom 

Dominion  Fruit  Inspector 

Middleton.  Nova  Scotia 

In  compliance  with  your  request  to 
write  something  touching  the  apple  indus- 
try in  the  Province  of  Nova  Scotia,  I  beg 
to  submit  the  following: 

First,  and  very  important  in  packing 
and  marketing  fruit,  is  a  good,  well  made 
package.  The  staves  in  a  barrel  should 
be  so  made  that  when  the  barrel  is  fin- 
ished it  will  be  18%  inches  in  the  bilge, 
inside  measurement.  These  staves  should 
be  thoroughly  dried  before  using  or  mak- 
ing up  into  barrels.  Spruce  is  the  best 
wood  for  apple  barrels,  on  account  of  it 
being  light  to  handle,  and  more  durable 
than  other  kinds  of  soft  wood.  Both  ends 
of  an  apple  barrel  should  be  planed,  and 
should  be  made  of  spruce  wood,  five- 
eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  cut  large 
enough  to  give  a  17-inch  inside  measure- 
ment to  the  head,  when  the  barrel  is  fin- 
ished. Hoops  may  be  either  flat  or  half 
round.  A  split  half-round  hoop  made  of 
birch  or  any  other  tough,  hard  wood,  will 
stand  more  handling  than  a  flat  one,  but 
does  not  give  the  barrel  so  good  a  finish. 
I  think  it  would  be  a  great  advantage  if 
eight  hoops  were  put  on  a  barrel  instead 
of  six.  All  barrels  used  for  packing 
apples  should  be  thoroughly  and  properly 
nailed  before  the  fruit  is  packed  in  them, 
except  the  bottom,  which  should  be  well 
nailed  after  the  barrel  has  been  closed  up. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  the  nails  enter 
the  head,  and  not  go  under  it,  as  is  very 
often  the  case,  and  if  the  barrel  gets  a 
fall,  or  the  pressure  is  heavy  on  any  par- 
ticular barrel  when  in  the  sling,  while  be- 
ing lowered  into  the  ship's  hold,  the  head 
comes  out,  and  the  apples  go  down  among 
the  barrels  and  are  wasted.  Too  much 
care  cannot  be  used  in  nailing  the  barrel. 
The  proper  way  is  to  use  small  nails  and 
liners,  the  same  as  used  in  flour  barrels. 


One  other  important  thing  is  the  stencil- 
ing. There  are  still  left  a  few  people  who 
persist  in  marking  their  barrels  with  pen- 
cil, and  in  some  cases  incompletely  at 
that,  and  the  package  looks  badly,  or,  to 
say  the  least,  has  an  unfinished  appear- 
ance. 

The  Inspection  and  Sale  Act  reads  as 
follows:  "Every  person  who,  by  himself 
or  through  the  agency  of  another  person, 
packs  fruit  in  a  closed  package,  intended 
for  sale,  should  cause  the  package  to  be 
marked  in  a  plain  and  indelible  manner 
in  letters  not  less  than  half  an  inch  in 
length,  before  it  is  taken  from  the  prem- 
ises where  it  is  packed,  with  the  initials 
of  his  Christian  names  and  his  full  sur- 
name or,  in  the  case  of  a  firm  or  corpo- 
ration, with  the  firm  or  corporate  name 
and  address,  with  the  name  of  the  variety 
or  varieties,  and  with  a  designation  of 
the  grade  of  fruit,  which  shall  include  one 
of  the  following  four  marks,  viz.:  Fancy, 
No.  1,  No.  2,  No.  3.  Such  mark  may  be 
accompanied  by  any  other  designation  of 
grade  or  brand,  if  that  designation  of 
grade  or  brand  is  not  inconsistent  with 
or  marked  more  conspicuously  than  the 
one  of  said  four  marks  which  is  used  on 
the  said  package." 

Every  fruit  grower  should  have  a  set  of 
stencils,  so  that  he  will  be  in  a  position 
to  properly  mark  his  barrels,  for  by  so 
doing  he  will  add  to  the  price  in  the 
market,  and  consequently  to  his  bank 
account. 

More  care  than  is  generally  taken 
should  be  exercised  in  handling  from  or- 
chard to  storehouse.  A  great  many  grow- 
ers fill  their  barrels  In  the  orchard,  and 
allow  them  to  sit  about  on  the  ground 
without  the  heads  In  and,  if  rain  hap- 
pens to  fall,  the  apples,  as  well  as  the 
barrels,  are  soaked  with  water.  And 
again,  what  is  nearly  as  bad,  is  to  head 
the  barrels  and  lay  them  down  on  the 
side,  scattered  over  the  orchard  on  the 
cultivated  land,  and  the  rain  spatters 
mud  over  them,  and  by  the  time  the  pack- 
ages are  stored  they  look  anything  but 
attractive,  and  bring  less  money  on  the 
market  because  they  show  unmistakable 
signs  of  carelessness  and  bad  handling. 


396 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Another  mistake  that  is  being  con- 
stantly made  by  growers  and  shippers  is 
in  putting  too  many  barrels  in  one  car. 
In  many  cases  they  are  piled  five  tiers 
high,  and  if  the  car  happens  to  be  opened 
on  the  opposite  side  from  which  it  was 
loaded  at  the  iruithouse,  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  get  the  top  barrels  out  without  in- 
juring them,  and  after  the  barrels  in  the 
center  of  the  car  have  been  removed  very 
many  of  them  get  badly  bumped  while  be- 
ing taken  down  during  the  unloading 
process,  notwithstanding  the  care  taken 
by  the  men  who  handle  them  from  car 
to  ship.  The  barrels  are  rolled  out  on 
the  shed  floor,  and  are  taken  in  slings 
and  lowered  into  the  ship,  six  at  a  time, 
and  stowed  five  tiers  high. 

Speaking  generally,  I  would  say  there 
is  room  for  improvement  in  a  great  many 
ways  in  the  handling  of  the  apple  crop 


in  Nova  Scotia  from  the  time  the  fruit  is 
fullgrown  on  the  tree  until  it  finds  its 
way  into  the  markets  of  the  world,  and 
this  applies  to  local  as  well  as  export 
trade.  In  the  first  place,  more  care 
should  be  exercised  in  the  picking,  so 
that  the  fruit  is  not  bruised  by  being 
thrown  into  the  basket,  and  then  dumped 
carelessly  from  the  basket  into  the  bar- 
rels. This  also  applies  to  the  re-packing 
in  the  fruit  houses.  Apples  should  al- 
ways be  handled  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  will  not  be  bruised.  This  can  be 
done,  and  will  be  done  when  growers 
realize  that  when  they  are  handling 
apples  roughly  they  are  simply  throwing 
money  away.  When  a  barrel  of  nicely 
handled  fruit,  free  from  bruises,  will  sell 
for  $3  on  a  good  market,  a  barrel  of  badly 
handled,  bruised  fruit  will  only  sell  for 
$2,  even  if  the  fruit  in  both  barrels  were 
taken  from  the  same  tree. 


Cost  of  Hauling  to  Market 

Table  Ko.  1. — Average  cost  of  hauling  products  from  farms  to  shipping  points: 
Totals  for  States  represented. 


Number 

of 
Counties; 
report- 
ing 

Average 

Product  Hauled 

Miles  to 

shipping 

point 

Days  for 

round 

trip 

Pounds 

in  one 

load 

Cost  per 
load 

Cost  per 

100 
pounds 

Cost  per 

ton  per 

mi  e 

AddIgs          

114 
226 

22 

8 

981 

555 

110 

51 

99 
761 

316 
14 

798 
19 

569 

18 

78 

5 

113 

152 
1,051 

41 

9.6 

8.8 

9.0 

8.2 

7.4 

11.8 

10.7 

10.4 

11.6 
8.3 
5.2 
7.9 

11.7 
7.3 
8.1 
8.2 
7.5 
8.4 
8.0 
9.8 

9.8 

9.4 

39.8 

.9 
.7 
.8 
,8 
.6 
1.0 
.9 

.  t 

1.1 

.7 
.7 

i:o 

.6 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.7 
.8 
.8 

.9 

.8 

5.6 

2,300 
3,970 
3,172 
2,438 
2,696 
1,702 
1,654 
3,409 

2,181 
2,786 
3,393 
bl,941 
3,665 
2,772 
1,363 
2,679 
2,407 
2,625 
2,410 
2,248 

1,852 
3,323 
4,869 

$2.79 
2.67 
2.75 
2.90 
1.78 
2.76 
2.42 
2.70 

3.53 
2.32 
2.10 
2.00 
3.89 
1.82 
1.67 
2.34 
2.70 
2.23 
1.92 
2.28 

2.84 

2.86 

21.39 

$0.12 
.07 
.09 
.11 
.07 
.16 
.15 
.08 

.16 
.08 
.06 
b     .10 
.11 
.07 
.12 
.09 
.11 
.08 
.08 
.10 

.15 
.09 
.44 

$0.25 

.16 

.20 

Buckwhea-t   

.27 

Corn        

.19 

.27 

Oottonseed      

.28 

Flaxseed  .         

.15 

Fruit      (other      than 

.28 

Hay            

.19 

.23 

Hosts  (live)         

b     .25 

Uops               

.19 

Oats     

.19 

.30 

Potatoes 

.22 

Rice 

.29 

Rye 

.19 

Timothyseed  c 

Tobacco 

.20 
.20 

Vegetables  (other 

than  Potatoes) 

Wheat 

.31 
.19 

Wool 

.22 

a  Kentucky  only,     b  Average  for  six  States  only,     c  Iowa  only. 


APPLES 


397 


Apples 

Apples  were  reported  as  a  surplus  crop 
so  generally  by  the  correspondents  in  this 
investigation  that  a  fairly  good  basis  is 
afforded  for  finding  average  conditions  of 
hauling  this  fruit  from  farms  in  the 
United  States.  Owing  to  the  small  num- 
ber of  returns  from  some  states,  the  aver- 
ages for  the  geographic  divisions  and  for 
the  United  States  in  Table  2  should  be 
used  in  comparison  when  the  figures  for 
a  single  state  are  considered. 

The  high  cost  per  100  pounds  for  haul- 


ing apples  from  farms  in  the  South  Cen- 
tral Division  is  due  largely  to  the  small 
loads  taken,  and  in  the  Western  Division 
the  long  time  for  the  average  round  trip 
makes  the  cost  per  100  pounds  twice  the 
average  for  the  North  and  South  Atlantic 
and  North   Central   Divisions. 

It  is  to  be  noted  in  connection  with  this 
product  that  it  is  the  practice  in  some 
sections  for  the  farmers  to  sell  their 
apples  on  the  trees,  the  buyer  to  do  all 
the  picking  and  hauling.  This,  however, 
does  not  invalidate  the  figures  as  given 
in  Table  2. 


Table  >"o.  2 — .iverage  Cost  of  Hanliug  Apples  from  Farms  to  Shipping  Points 


Number 

of 
Counties 
reported 

Average 

Miles  to 

shipping 

point 

Days  for 

round 

trip 

Pounds 

in  one 

load 

Cost  per 
load 

Cost  per 

100 

pounds 

5 
5 

1 
2 

T 

15 

3 

8 

8.8 
6.2 
7.1 
9.2 
10.6 
7.4 
7.1 
8.2 

1.3 
.5 

.7 
.6 
.7 
.6 

.7 
.8 

2,180 
2,630 
3,000 
3,250 
2,000 
2,523 
2,667 
2,362 

$4.74 
2.02 
2.62 
2.63 
2.80 
2.15 
2.51 
2.73 

$0.22 

New  Hampshire 

.08 

Vermont 

.09 

Massachusetts  . .           .          ... 

.08 

Comiecticut 

.14 

.09 

New  Jersey        .             

.09 

Pennsylvania 

.12 

Virginia 

7 
11 

10.9 
10.0 

1.0 
1.1 

2,750 
2,332 

2.88 
4.00 

.10 

West  Virginia 

.17 

Ohio.           

5 
3 
6 
4 
13 

7.0 
9.7 
5.8 
9.1 
10.5 

.7 

1.2 

.5 

.7 

1.0 

2,170 
2,283 
2,367 
2,538 
2,108 

2.14 
4.20 
1.25 
2.06 
2.56 

.10 

Indiana 

.18 

Illinois 

.05 

Michigan 

.08 

.12 

Xentuckv 

4 
8 
6 

11.6 
11.2 
19.2 

.8 
1.0 
2.0 

1,600 
1,556 
1,700 

2.20 
2.62 
4.76 

.14 

.17 

Arkansas 

.28 

Oregon 

3 

4 

11.8 
15.6 

1.9 
1.7 

2,583 
4,500 

6.02 
10.40 

.23 

California 

.23 

Geographic  Divisions: 

North  Atlantic 

South  Atlantic 

40 
18 
31 
18 
7 

7.9 
10.5 

8.5 
13.8 
13.7 

.7 
1.0 

.8 
1.2 
1.8 

2,490 
2,584 
2,267 
1,617 
3,558 

2.53 
3.18 
2.26 
3.11 
8.36 

.10 
.12 

North  Central. ... 

.10 

South  Central 

.19 

Western 

.23 

States  Represented 

114 

9.6 

.9 

2,300 

2.79 

.12 

Fkaxk  Andkews 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Bulletin  No.  49. 


398 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


HORTICULTUBAL  EXPERIENCE  TABLE 

Standards  of  Efficiency  in  Labor,  in  Machinery,  in  Mana&rement,  Labor,  Cost  and 

Money  Cost  per  Unit  of  Work 


Kind  of  Work 

Con- 
ditions 

1  Number 

Method  1  of  Men 
1     and 
1  Horses 

Wages 

Amount     Time 
of  Work  Required  Mater- 
Done    i      (in           ials 
houra) 

Cost  per 
Items     Unit  of 
of  Cost     Work 
Done 

Work 
Done 

per  hour; 
per  man 

Reported 
by 

Spraying  3-yr.  old 
Peach  trees 

Weather!  Power 

windy     Sprayer 

(Hardie) 

hired  by 

the  day 

2  men 
Iboy 
1  team 

$2.50  ea. 
i  $5.00 

350  trees 
2?  acres 

6  hours 

—  gals. 

1:10  Rex 

Spray 

labor 
Spray 

per  gal. 
per  tree 
perbarrel 

First    picking    of 
Peaches 

Fruit 
much 

scattered 
3-year 

old  trees. 

1  man 

$2.50 
a  day 

18  boxes 

5  hours 

Labor       $0.07 
$1.25     per  box 

6  boxes 

S.F. 
Smyzer 
Wapato 

Wash. 

Clearing  ]and 

Leveling  land  (ex- 
treme and  ordi- 
nary cases) 

Putting  Water  on 
land .  . 

gasoline 
pump 

,i>y. 

electnc 

plant, 

etc. 

Flume  building . . 
Blasting  hardpan. 
Planting 

Irrigating 

Cultivating 

Packing . 

Box  making 

Storing 

Shipping 

Selling,  etc 

(Arrangement  suggested  by  Prof.  S.  F.  Smyzer,  North  Yakima,  Wash.,  covering 
the  various  items  of  orchard  cost.) 


SOME  POINTS  IX  ORCHARD 
MANAGEMENT 

Adapted    to    Nortli    Central    Wasliington 

Organization  of  the  Company  Orchard 

Work 

The  consulting  horticulturist,  who  has 
charge  of  the  orchard  worit  makes 
trips  to  the  orchards  every  few  weeks 
and,  with  the  other  officers  of  the  com- 
pany, outlines  the  work  in  advance.  The 
consulting  horticulturist  stays  with  the 
heads  of  departments  and  men  until  he  is 


sure  that  all  details  of  the  work  will  be 
carried  out  properly. 

Next  in  line  is  the  superintendent  or 
foreman.  This  office  is  filled  by  a  man 
well  up  in  horticulture  and  who  also  has 
executive  ability.  Under  the  superintend- 
ent is  the  head  freeman,  who  has  as 
many  assistants  as  the  size  of  the  orchard 
company  requires.  The  irrigation  depart- 
ment is  headed  by  a  man  especially 
trained  in  this  line.  He  advises  with  the 
irrigators,  measures  the  water  and  sees 
that   each    type   of   soil    is   properly    irri- 


APPLES 


399 


gated.  Each  orchard  laborer  has  a  spe- 
cial tract  on  which  he  stays  during  the 
season,  and  is  held  responsible  for  the 
labor  on  that  tract. 

On  his  trips  the  consulting  horticul- 
turist gives  evening  lectures  to  all  the 
men;  the  effort  is  to  train  them,  to  in- 
spire them  in  the  work  and  develop  great- 
er individual   interest  among  them. 

riaiining:  the  Orchard 

When  the  company  decides  to  make  a 
new  planting,  the  soil  is  first  selected  and 
examined  very  carefully.  Both  the  sur- 
face soil  and  subsoil  are  examined.  Or- 
chardists  often  overlook  the  subsoil  e.xam- 
ination  but  it  is  very  important.  The 
tree  does  a  great  deal  of  work  below  the 
surface  and  to  get  the  best  results  must 
have  a  congenial  subsoil. 

The  best  commercial  varieties  are  then 
selected  which  are  best  suited  to  the  alti- 
tude, soil  and  other  conditions.  The  vari- 
eties are  always  arranged  so  as  to  secure 
cross-pollinization.  Honey  bees  being  the 
chief  agents  of  cross-pollination,  are  kept 
in  the  orchard  as  soon  as  the  orchard 
comes  into  bearing. 

The  orchards  are  usually  planted  30 
feet  on  the  square  with  a  tree  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  square.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  trees  in  the  centers  of  the  squares 
make  also  an  orchard  30  feet  on  the 
square.  In  other  words,  we  have  a  double 
orchard  each  with  its  cross-pollination 
varieties.  All  the  trees  stand  for  11  or 
12  years,  and  then  the  orchard  of  least 
value  is  cut  out.  If  we  plant  a  variety 
that  is  somewhat  untried,  we  always 
double  It  with  a  thoroughly  proven  vari- 
ety. The  reason  is  evident:  if  the  ques- 
tionable variety  does  not  prove  better 
than  the  proven  variety  it  can  be  grubbed 
out  at  the  end  of  11  or  12  years,  and  the 
permanent  orchard  not  injured  in  the 
least.  This  is  a  good  way  to  handle  ques- 
tionable but  promising  varieties,  such  as 
the  Delicious  and   Stayman   Winesap. 

This  system  of  planting  permits  the 
renewal  of  orchards,  a  very  important 
consideration  for  the  orchardists  of  the 
arid  West.  If  it  proves  true,  as  many 
predict,   that  most   of  our  orchards   will 


have  passed  the  best  bearing  period  at 
the  age  of  35  or  40  years,  it  behooves  us 
to  plan  our  orchards  so  that  they  can  be 
renewed  at  about  that  time  if  necessary. 
By  this  system  of  planting,  young  trees 
can  be  replanted  in  the  centers  of  the 
squares  when  the  orchard  is  25  or  30 
years  old  and,  when  the  young  trees  come 
into  bearing,  the  old  ones  can  be  cut  out. 
Our  aim  is  to  make  the  orcharding 
permanent,  and  to  this  end  we  safeguard 
ourselves   in   every   possible  way. 

Planting  Two-Tear-Old  Trees 

Whether  to  plant  one  or  two-year-old 
trees  is  a  question  on  which  there  is  a 
difference  of  opinion.  I  will  set  down  my 
results  and  let  the  reader  judge  for  him- 
self. During  the  last  two  years  we  have 
planted  over  80,000  two-year-old  trees,  we 
have  averaged  about  a  95  per  cent  stand, 
and  the  trees  at  the  end  of  the  second 
year  average  better  than  the  one-year-old 
trees  that  have  been  three  years  in  the 
orchard.  We  have  saved  a  year  by  plant- 
ing the  two-year-old  stock.  We  get  bet- 
ter heads  when  planting  the  two-year-olds. 
It  is  hard  for  a  one-year-old  tree,  when 
planted  in  the  orchard,  to  make  its  root 
connection  with  the  soil  and  put  out  a 
good  head  the  first  year.  They  usually 
put  out  a  weak  head  with  poor  crotches. 
If  the  tree  is  allowed  to  stand  in  the 
nursery  another  year,  where  it  has  its 
root  connections  with  the  soil,  it  puts  out 
a  good  head  with  strong  crotches  and 
leaders  with  the  proper  angle  (about  45 
degrees)  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  If 
the  tree  does  not  have  a  good  head  do 
not  plant  it.  This  insures  good  heads  on 
the  trees,  a  very  important  point,  because 
the  whole  tree  structure  is  built  on  the 
head,  and  more  trees  break  down  because 
of  weak  heads  than  from  any  other  cause. 

However,  it  is  harder  to  grow  the  two- 
year-old  trees  than  the  one-year-old  trees. 
If  you  are  not  going  to  give  the  two-year- 
old  trees  the  special  care  they  require  I 
would  advise  you  not  to  plant  them. 

Pruning  Young  Trees 

The  main  thing  here  is  to  develop  a  per- 
manent tree  structure.  If  the  tree  is  a 
one-year-old  and  puts  out  a  poor  head,  re- 


400 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


head  it.  Have  never  less  than  four  or 
more  than  six  leaders.  Have  the  leaders 
spaced  up  and  down  on  the  trunk  so  as 
not  to  form  bad  crotches.  Have  the  lead- 
ers spaced  around  the  tree  so  that  no 
leader  Is  directly  under  another,  but  let 
each  have  a  position  of  its  own,  so  that 
when  you  look  directly  down  on  the  tree 
the  leaders  look  like  the  spokes  of  a 
wheel.  When  the  leaders  have  grown  to 
be  about  Jive  and  a  half  to  six  feet  high 
cut  them  back  to  about  four  and  one-half 
to  five  feet  high.  The  next  year  after 
this  is  done,  the  first  series  of  permanent 
fruit  bearing  laterals  will  come  out  with- 
in a  foot  or  eighteen  inches  of  the  top 
of  the  leader.  Select  two  to  four  of  the 
best  laterals  in  a  permanent  position 
and  cut  the  others  off.  Leave  some  of 
the  low  laterals  for  temporary  bearing. 
These  can  be  cut  off  after  they  have 
borne  four  or  five  years.  The  strong 
inside  shoots  that  come  inside  the  tree 
opposite  the  first  series  of  permanent  lat- 
erals should  be  wrapped  together  to  grow 
into  living  braces  where  needed.  Cut  the 
leader  two  or  three  feet  above  the  first 
series  according  to  the  variety  and  the 
next  year  bring  out  a  second  series  of 
permanent  laterals.  The  idea  is  to  have 
a  permanent  tree,  with  the  fruit-bearing 
laterals  in  a  permanent  position,  thus  the 
ti'ee  has  the  maximum  amount  of  fruit- 
bearing  wood,  a  very  important  point  for 
the  fruit  growers  in  a  country  where  the 
trees  bear  so  heavily.  If  this  method 
is  carried  out  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
cut  large  limbs  out  of  the  trees  when  they 
get  older. 

.Slimmer  Pruning: 
Tardy  varieties  and  varieties  that  are 
slow  to  come  into  bearing  should  be  sum- 
mer pruned.  The  principal  varieties  in 
our  district  which  require  summer  prun- 
ing are  Spitzenburgs,  Yellow  Newtowns, 
Arkansas  Blacks.  Delicious  and  Stayman 
Winesaps.  Most  of  the  summer  pruning 
is  done  when  the  trees  are  from  three 
to  seven  years  old,  and  is  continued  long- 
er if  necessary.  The  summer  pruning 
should  be  done  when  the  terminal  buds 
swell.  This  varies  with  the  varieties  from 
the  20th  of  July  to  the  last  of  August.    At 


summer  pruning  time  four  things  should 
be  done. 

First:  Make  the  cross  ties  or  living 
braces  if  the  tree  is  the  right  age,  and 
the   braces  are   necessary. 

Second:  Give  the  tree  a  normal  thin- 
ning out  or  pruning. 

Third:  Make  all  the  fruit  spurs  pos- 
sible by  forcing  all  the  fruit  spurs  that 
have  grown  into  shoots  (leaving  a  cluster 
of  leaves  where  the  little  shoot  grew  out) ; 
and  all  small  whip  growth  in  the  bearing 
area  of  the  tree,  back  into  fruit  spurs. 
Cut  the  fruit  spurs  that  have  grown  on 
into  shoots  back  just  beyond  the  leaf 
cluster,  leaving  the  leaf  cluster  to  form 
the  spur.  Cut  the  little  shoots  that  have 
no  leaf  clusters  back  to  about  four  or  five 
inches  in  length.  About  75  per  cent  of 
these  cuts  will  change  back  into  fruit 
spurs  the  first  year;  those  that  do  not 
should  be  cut  again. 

Fourth:     Cut  out  the  water  suckers. 

Proper  summer  pruning  does  not  in- 
jure the  tree.  But  by  this  one  should 
direct  some  of  the  energy  from  growing 
into  bearing.  There  is,  however,  much 
damage  done  by  unwise  and  improper 
summer  pruning.  Unless  the  summer 
pruning  is  very  accurately  done  and  at 
the  right  time  it  is  better  not  to  attempt 
it  at  all.  But  when  properly  done  the 
yield  of  some  varieties  may  be  doubled 
the  first  five  years  of  bearing,  and  a 
better  bearing  habit  for  the  future  be 
given  them. 

Irrigating:  Young  Trees 

Too  many  growers  irrigate  young  trees 
in  the  same  manner  as  old  bearing  trees; 
they  delay  the  early  irrigations  more  or 
less  and  irrigate  heavily  later  on.  This 
is  alright  with  old  trees  that  have  many 
roots  and  a  large  amount  of  moist  soil 
to  draw  from;  with  the  young  trees, 
especially  the  newly  planted  tree,  the 
roots  are  in  contact  with  a  very  small 
quantity  of  soil.  For  this  reason  the 
ground  should  be  irrigated  often.  Give 
the  heavy  irrigations  early  and  frequent- 
ly so  that  the  young  trees  will  get  a 
quick  early  start.  Cut  the  water  down 
early  enough  in  the  fall  so  that  they  will 


APPLES 


401 


|iioi)eiiy  cure  up  for  the  winter,  thus  pre- 
venting to  a  large  extent  winter  injury. 

Pests  on  Yoiiug:  Trees  in  XorOi  Central 

Wasliiugrton 

Cnt  Worms  and  AVeevils 

Cut  worms  and  weevils  are  among  the 
worst  pests  on  young  trees  in  this  dis- 
trict They  may  be  controlled  absolutely 
by  paper  cone  protectors  made  of  two  ply 
glazed  paper.  The  shape  of  the  paper 
when  cut  is  that  of  a  triangle  with  the 
peak  cut  square  off.  The  size  varies  with 
larger  trees,  but  for  young  trees  the  pa- 
pers are  cut  six  inches  across  the  top; 
eleven  inches  across  the  bottom  and  sev- 
en inches  high.  Two  of  these  are  stuck 
together  with  a  band  of  tree  tangle  foot 
across  the  paper.  In  this  manner  a  man 
can  take  a  large  quantity  of  protectors  in 
a  basket.  The  paper  when  folded  around 
the  tree  makes  a  cone  with  a  band  of 
tangle  foot  around  on  the  inside  of  the 
cone.  This  protector  makes  it  impossible 
for  a  cutworm  or  weevil  to  get  up  the 
tree  and  eat  out  the  buds.  A  pin  is  stuck 
through  the  top  of  the  cone  and  a  small 
piece  of  paper  adhesive  tape  is  stuck 
across  the  bottom;  these  hold  the  cone 
in  perfect  shape  and  prevent  any  binding 
on  the  tree.  It  Is  a  very  serious  injury 
and  often  absolutely  ruinous  to  young 
trees  to  have  the  buds  eaten  out  two  or 
three  times  before  the  tree  makes  a 
growth.  By  this  method  of  control  these 
pests  can  be  perfectly  and  inexpensively 
held  in  check.  Where  there  are  cutworms 
and  no  weevils  and  the  condition  is  not 
bad  enough  to  require  protectors,  cut- 
worms are  often  controlled  with  poison 
bait  made  of  bran,  syrup  and  zinc  ar- 
senlte. 

Woolly  Aphis 

The  object  in  mentioning  woolly  aphis 
is  to  urge  the  growing  of  tobacco  to  help 
in  the  control  of  this  pest.  I  think  this 
can  be  done  in  most  of  the  fruit  growing 
districts  in  the  Northwest.  The  woolly 
aphis  must  be  killed  both  on  the  tree  and 
on  the  roots  in  the  ground,  in  order  to 
make  a  thorough  job  of  it.  They  can  be 
killed  on  the  tree  by  spraying  with  crude 
oil  or  Black  Leaf  40.  To  kill  them  in  the 
ground    throw    the    dirt    back    from    the 


crown  of  the  tree  and  spray  the  roots 
with  tree  spray,  then  put  two  pounds 
or  more  of  tobacco  stems  and  leaves 
around  the  trunk  of  the  tree  just  above 
where  the  roots  join  the  trunk.  This 
tobacco  prevents  the  woolly  aphis  from 
going  up  or  down  from  top  to  root  or 
from  root  to  top.  The  result  is  that  the 
aphis  are  killed  off  the  roots.  This  meth- 
od has  heretofore  been  impractical  be- 
cause the  tobacco  stems  and  leaves  had 
to  be  shipped  from  the  tobacco  growing 
states,  and  the  quality  could  not  be  de- 
pended upon.  But  by  growing  our  own 
tobacco  this  problem  is  solved,  and  the 
control  of  the  woolly  aphis  becomes  com- 
paratively inexpensive  and  easy. 

Greeu  A|ihis 

Green  Aphis  should  be  killed  off  from 
the  young  trees.     This  is  done  by  spray- 
ing with  Black  Leaf  40  as  soon  as  they 
appear  and  whenever  they  appear. 
Borers 

The  flathead  apple  tree  borer  does  con- 
siderable damage  on  newly  planted  trees. 
This  pest  may  be  controlled  by  paper 
cones  made  of  magazine  leaves.  Simply 
take  the  leaf  of  paper,  fold  down  the  cor- 
ner, make  a  cone  around  the  tree;  fit 
the  cone  tightly  at  the  top  and  put  a  pin 
in  to  hold  it;  never  use  a  string  or  wire 
as  this  may  girdle  the  tree.  Bury  the 
bottom  of  the  cone  about  an  inch  in  the 
ground;  this  cone  prevents  the  mother 
beetle  from  laying  her  eggs  on  the  tree 
just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  the 
young  borers  can  not  get  into  the  tree. 
After  the  tree  makes  one  good  growth 
there  is  then  very  little  danger  of  borer 
damage. 

Gopliers 

In  addition  to  trapping  and  poisoning 
gophers,  we  have  had  considerable  suc- 
cess catching  them  in  pits  dug  in  the  or- 
chard. These  pits  are  dug  six  to  eight 
feet  deep  and  two  or  three  feet  across. 
Sometimes  poisoned  raisins  with  anise  oil 
on  them  are  put  in  the  pits.  Anise  oil  at- 
tracts all  rodents.  Whether  the  anise  oil 
is  put  in  the  pits  or  not,  a  great  many 
gophers  fall  in  and  die,  being  unable  to 
get  out. 

R.  Edward  Trumble 


402 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


COMPOSITION  OF  APPLES 

The  following  tables  showing  the  com- 
position of  certain  varieties  of  apples  are 
the  averages  taken  from  more  elaborate 
tables  worked  out  by  Alwood  and  David- 


son of  the  Virginia  Experiment  Station. 
Apples  vary  in  composition  with  the 
variety  and  slightly  with  the  environment. 
This  variation  determines  to  some  extent 
the  uses  to  which  they  shall  be  put. 


Table  >'o.  1 — Percentages  by  Weights  of  Juice  and  Pomace  of 


Juice 


Pomace 


Loss 


Summer  Apples — 8  varieties. 
Autumn  Apples — 11  varieties 
Winter  Apples — 19  varieties . 
Crab  Apples — 7  varieties  ... 


53.20 
53.92 
52.16 
57.31 


43.34 
43.95 
45.59 
41.42 


3.46 
2.13 
2.25 
1.27 


Table  >'o.  2 — Analysis  of  Juice  from  Same  Samples 


Grams  per  100  C.  C. 


Specific 
Gravity 


Total 
Solids 


Total 
Sugar 


Reducing     Cane     !  Acid  as  i  Tannin 
Sugar    ,    Sugar    Sulphuric! 


Summer  Apples 
Fall  Apples ... 
Winter  Apples . 
Crab  Apples .  . . 


1.049 
1.054 
1.062 
1.062 


12.33 
13.76 
14.29 
15.69 


9.53 
10.66 
11.43 
11.71 


5.85 
6.93 
7.04 
8.08 


3.50 
3.53 
4.16 
3.45 


0.36 
0.41 
0.50 


0.069 
0.050 
0.122 


Table  >'o.  3 — Analysis  of  Pomace,  Same  Samples 


Grams  per  100  Grams 

Moisture 

Ash 

Total 
Sugar 

Reducing 
Sugar 

Cane 
Sugar 

Acid  as     Tannin 
Sulphuric 

Summer  Apples 

83.29 
80.81 
80.98 
70.85 

0.37 
0.37 
0.35 
0.48 

8.66 

9.12 

9.34 

10.25 

5.49 
6.32 
6.13 
6.85 

3.00 
2.66 
3.10 
3.23 

0.33     

Fall  Apples 

Winter  Apples 

Crab  Apples 

0.32        0.055 
0.39        0.127 
0.51         0.127 

Table  No.  4 — Sugars  and  Acids  in  Wliole  Fruit,  Same  Samples 


Grams  per  100  Grams 


Total 
Sugar 


Total 

Total 

Reducing 

Cane 

Acid 

Sugar 

Sugar 

Sugar 

Sugar 

in 
Pomace 

in 
Juice 

5.63 

3.24 

0.31 

4.64 

4.64 

6.58 

3.11 

0.34 

4.38 

5.42 

6.57 

3.70 

0.40 

5.94 

4.29 

7.54 

3.38 

0.49 

4.26 

6.73 

Per  cent 

of  Sugar 

left  in 

Pomace 


Summer  Apples 
Fall  Apples .... 
Winter  Apples . . 
Crab  Apples .  .  . 


9.11 

9.94 

10.47 

11.10 


45.58 
44.08 
40.77 
38.33 


APPLES  403 

Table  >'o.  o — Moisture,  Drj  Matter,  Ash,  Mtrogeu,  Etc.,  iu  Whole  Fruits 


Grams  per  100  Grams 

Moisture 

Solids 

Nitrogen 

Ash 

P25           K20           CaO 

Summer  Apples 

82.81 
87.90 
85.38 
82.83 

17.19 
12.09 
14.62 
17.16 

0.060 
0.045 
0.056 
0.062 

0.29 
0.22 
0.26 
0.365 

0.056        0.190        0.020 
0  016        0  115        0  0065 

Winter  Apples 

Crab  Apples . . . 

0.023        0.155    ;    0.009 
0  026        0  200    i    0  0095 

r>FERME>TED    APPLE   JUICE 

An  inexpensive  method  of  preserving 
apple  juice  so  that  the  product  will  be 
free  from  objectionable  sediment  and  a 
pronounced  "cooked"  taste,  and  can  be 
kept  in  closed  containers  without  the  use 
of  chemical  preservatives,  has  apparently 
never  been  devised.  Experimental  work 
was  undertaken  with  a  view  to  develop- 
ing such  a  method,  and  it  is  believed  that 
a  satisfactory  procedure  has  been  evolved. 
The  main  problems  were:  (1)  The  clari- 
fication of  the  juice:  (2)  the  sterilization 
of  the  juice;  (3)  the  carbonation  of  the 
juice;  and  (4)  the  question  as  to  the  best 
container  for  the  sterilized  product. 

The  Clarification   of  the  Juice 

Fresh  apple  juice  contains  notable 
quantities  of  solid  matter,  which  will  set- 
tle out  on  prolonged  standing,  forming 
a  bulky  deposit.  In  the  case  of  raw  juice 
this  consists  of  dirt  particles,  starch 
grains,  fragments  ot  the  cell  walls  of  the 
apples,  and.  finally,  albuminous  matter, 
yellow-brown  in  color  and  very  bulky. 
The  albuminous  matter  composes  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  the  sediment.  The 
character  of  this  sediment  when  heated  to 
140°  to  158°  F.  (60°  to  70°  C.)  remains 
about  the  same,  except  that  the  starch 
grains  are  no  longer  apparent,  the  starch 
being  wholly  or  partly  gelatinized. 

This  sediment  is  very  objectionable, 
since  its  presence  seriously  detracts  from 
the  appearance  of  the  finished  juice  after 
sterilizing  by  heat.  In  the  finished  juice 
the  albuminous  matter  forms  slimy  par- 
ticles, yellow  to  dark  brown  in  color, 
which  very  readily  mix  with  the  juice 
when  agitated,  and  are  slow  to  settle. 
The  product  looks  as  though  the  most  un- 


cleanly methods  had  been  used  in  its  prep- 
aration, whereas  the  reverse  has  been 
the  case.  The  removal  of  the  materials 
which  form  the  sediment  is,  therefore, 
one  of  the  most  important  steps  in  the 
preparation  of  a  marketable  product. 
The  methods  at  present  used  for  this  pur- 
pose are  two:  (1)  Filtration,  and  (2) 
sedimentation  of  the  sterilized  juice  in 
large  casks. 

Filtration  is  expensive  and  slow,  and, 
while  a  product  of  great  brilliancy  is  ob- 
tained, the  cost  of  the  plant  and  the 
operation  of  the  process  will  undoubtedly 
prevent  its  extended  use.  Paper  pulp 
is  ordinarily  employed  for  the  filter  ma- 
terial, and  the  albuminous  matter  in  the 
juice  quickly  forms  a  dense  layer  over 
the  surface.  The  ensuing  filtration  is 
very  slow,  and  a  large  filtering  surface 
is  required  for  practical  use. 

Sedimentation  by  gravity  of  juice  heat- 
ed to  140°  to  158°  (60°  to  70°  C),  and 
then  allowed  to  cool  in  closed  casks,  is 
very  slow.  Unhealed  juice  can  not,  of 
course,  be  used,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
fermentation  soon  sets  in.  A  period  of 
five  to  seven  days  is  required  to  produce 
a  juice  relatively  free  from  sediment.  At 
this  time  as  much  as  possible  of  the  super- 
natant juice  is  withdrawn  from  the  sedi- 
ment. The  objections  to  this  method  lie  in 
(1)  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  juice  ster- 
ile during  the  sedimentation  period;  (2) 
the  large  amount  of  cooperage  required 
for  any  considerable  output  of  juice, 
and  (3)  the  fact  that,  owing  to  the  bulk 
of  the  sediment,  considerable  quantities 
of  juice  can  not  be  drawn  off.  The  juice 
left  with  the  sediment  is  then  only  suit- 
able for  vinegar  stock.     In  addition  only 


404 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


partial  clarification  is  secured.  These  ob- 
jections to  sedimentation  are  the  result 
of  numerous  tests  with  barrel  lots  of 
juice. 

A  method  of  clarification  which  is  free 
from    the    above   objections,    and    is    also 
cheap  and  may  be  applied  on  a  small  or 
large   scale,   is   clarification   by   use   of   a 
cream   separator.       Repeated   trials   have 
shown   that   a   cream   separator   can   suc- 
cessfully  clarify   the   juice,   leaving   only 
traces  of  sediment  in  the  product.     Abso- 
lute clearness  of  the  juice  is  not  produced 
by  use  of  the  machine,  but  practically  all 
sediment  can  be  removed  by  this  process. 
In  the  e.xperimental  work  to  be  described 
a  hand-power  cream  separator  of  the  disk 
type  was  employed.    The  first  trial  of  the 
method  indicated  that  a  satisfactory  clari- 
fication  of   apple   juice   could   readily   be 
obtained    by    use    of    the    separator,    and 
many     further     trials     have     confirmed 
these   early    indications.     The   suspended 
matter  in  the  juice  collects   in  the  bowl 
of  the  separator,  while  the  clean  juice  runs 
out  through  the  milk  and  cream  screws. 
After  a  run  of  the  juice  through  the  ma- 
chine,   the    heavier    particles    originally 
present — the   starch   grains   and   any   soil 
or  dirt  particles,  together  with  some  al- 
buminous matter— are  to  be  found  tightly 
packed  in  the  lower  part  of  the  tubular 
shaft  in  the  bowl  of  the  machine,  while 
a  heavy  layer  of  albuminous  material  is 
invariably  packed  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
bowl  and  a  lighter  layer  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  bowl  cover.    The  disks  remain  quite 
free  from  sediment.     When  the  space  be- 
tween the  disks  and  the  sides  of  the  bowl 
is    quite    filled    with    sediment,    the    flow 
from  the  milk  screw  ceases  and  the  flow 
from  the  cream  screw  is  much  increased. 
At    this    time    the    machine    should    be 
stopped  and  the  bowl  cleaned.     The  juice 
from  the  milk  screw  is  invariably  consid- 
erably cleaner  than  that  from  the  cream 
screw.     The    reason    for   this    is   not   ap- 
parent;   the    fact,    however,    was    always 
observed.        The    juice    from    the    cream 
screw  is,  in  turn,  much  clearer  than  the 
untreated  juice. 

An  extended  series  of  tests  established 
the    following   facts    with    regard    to    the 


method  of  clarifying  by  passing  through 
a  separator,  using  unfermented  juice  and 
a  machine  of  the  size  indicated. 

First.  The  amount  which  may  be  run 
through  the  machine  before  it  is  neces- 
sary to  stop  and  clean  the  bowl  is  from 
25  to  40  gallons,  depending  on  the  quan- 
tity of  sediment  present  in  the  juice. 

Second.  The  rate  at  which  the  juice 
passes  through  the  machine  is  about  45 
gallons  per  hour,  where  a  delivery  tube 
of  450  pounds  per  hour  (for  milk)  is  em- 
ployed. On  fitting  the  separator  with  a 
delivery  tube  of  750  pounds  capacity  per 
hour,  less  perfect  clarification  was  effect- 
ed than  when  the  smaller  delivery  tube 
was  used. 

Third.  But  very  little  increase  in  the 
degree  of  clarification  or  capacity  for 
sediment  was  secured  when  juice  heated 
to  140°  to  158°  F.  (60°  to  70°  C.)  was  run 
through. 

Fourth.  When  heated  juice  was  allow- 
ed to  stand  over  night  and  to  cool  and 
settle  before  passing  through  the  separa- 
tor, the  supernatant  juice  contained  much 
less  sediment  than  the  original  juice  and 
two  to  three  times  as  much  could  be 
passed  through  the  machine  before  clean- 
ing became  necessary  than  when  unsedi- 
mented  juice  was  used. 

Fifth.  Two  separations  are  necessary 
when  working  with  a  separator  of  the  size 
employed.  The  first  treatment  removes 
the  bulk  of  the  sediment,  and  the  second 
takes  out  nearly  all  of  the  remainder. 

Sixth.  Running  the  juice  more  than 
twice  through  the  separator  improves  the 
character  of  the  product  but  little,  as 
only  very  small  amounts  of  the  suspended 
matter  in  the  juice  are  removed. 

Seventh.  The  best  conditions,  as  work- 
ed out  by  experiment,  for  clarifying  apple 
juice,  are  as  follows,  working  with  a 
hand  machine  with  a  capacity  for  milk  of 
450  pounds  per  hour. 

(a)  The  juice  must  be  freshly  ex- 
pressed and,  to  be  of  high  quality,  should 
be  prepared  from  sound,  well-ripened  fall 
or  winter  apples. 

(b)  It  should  be  received  in  a  clean 
barrel  or  cask,  which  must  not  contain 
any  fermentation  residues.     This  point  is 


APPLES 


405 


very  important,  as  experience  has  shown 
that  the  very  fine  deposit  formed  in  fer- 
menting juice  can  not  be  successfully  re- 
moved by  the  separator,  and  this  deposit 
is  difficult  to  clean  from  the  sides  and  bot- 
toms of  fermentation   casks. 

(c)  The  juice  is  then  passed  through 
the  separator,  using  the  necessary  pre- 
cautions as  to  oiling  and  starting  the 
machine,  and  turning  the  crank  at  the 
rate  of  45  turns  per  minute.  Twenty-five 
to  forty  gallons  of  fresh  juice  can  be 
run  through  before  the  capacity  of  the 
bowl  for  sediment  is  reached.  The  juice 
which  comes  through  the  milk  screw  is 
collected  separately. 

(d)  As  soon  as  the  milk  screw  becomes 
clogged  the  machine  is  stopped  and  the 
bowl  is  cleaned. 

(e)  The  juice  collected  from  the  milk 
screw  is  passed  through  again  and  the 
juice  then  coming  from  the  milk  screw 
is  collected  as  before.  The  clarification 
of  25  gallons  of  juice,  using  one  machine 
of  the  capacity  indicated  and  a  juice  con- 
taining sediment  in  such  quantity  that  a 
run  of  that  amount  will  fill  the  space  be- 
tween the  disks  and  the  sides  of  the 
bowl  with  sediment,  requires  about  one 
hour  and  a  quarter,  the  juice  passing 
through  the  bowl  twice. 

The  Sterilization  of  the  Juice 

As  soon  as  the  juice  is  clarified  by  the 
separators,  it  must  be  sterilized  in  closed 
containers.  The  points  which  have  been 
carefully  determined  in  this  work  have 
been  the  lowest  safe  temperature  and  the 
shortest  period  of  heating  for  bottle  and 
for  cans. 

If  the  juice  is  not  to  be  packed  and 
shipped,  glass  fruit  jars,  or  bottles  with 
patent  stoppers,  may  be  employed,  but  to 
stand  shipping  well,  sealed  cans  or  cork- 
stoppered  bottles  must  be  used. 

Sterilization   in   Bottles 

In  the  work  with  bottles,  quart  bottles 
of  the  champagne  type  were  used.  These 
were  filled  with  clarified  juice,  some  air 
space  being  left  to  allow  for  expansion  of 
the  liquid  on  heating.  The  bottles  were 
placed  upright  and  entirely  submerged 
in  water  in  a  tank  which  could  be  heated 


by  a  jet  of  steam.  About  fifteen  minutes 
were  required  to  bring  the  water  in  the 
tank  up  to  the  temperatures  employed  in 
the  several  sets  of  experiments,  namely. 
140°,  149°,  and  158°  P.  (60°,  65°  and  70° 
C).  After  the  bottles  were  placed  in  the 
tank  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  minutes 
were  required  for  the  contents  of  the  bot- 
tles to  attain  the  temperature  used.  One- 
half  hour  was,  therefore,  allowed  before 
beginning  to  count  time  in  these  tests — 
fifteen  minutes  to  bring  them  both 
up  to  the  temperature,  and  fifteen 
minutes  holding  at  this  temperature. 
The  bottles  were  withdrawn  at  in- 
tervals and  set  away  on  their  sides  in 
baskets,  being  kept  in  a  warm  room 
whose  temperature  was  quite  constant 
day  and  night,  between  70°  and  75°  F. 
The  bottles  were  agitated  and  notes  taken 
on  them  from  day  to  day. 

The  results  show  that  a  temperature  of 
149°  F.  (65°  C.)  for  one  hour  will  give 
good  results  and  that  158°  F,  (70°  C.)  for 
one-half  hour  also  gives  good  results.  Only 
a  very  slight  cooked  taste  is  given  to 
the  juice  by  heating  at  158°  for  one  hour 
— slightly  more,  however,  than  is  given 
by  heating  at  149°   for  the  same  period. 

Sterilizing  in   fans 

One-gallon  packers'  cans  were  employed. 
These  were  first  carefully  rinsed  with 
water,  filled,  sealed  (rosin  dissolved  in  al- 
cohol being  used  as  flux),  and  then  heat- 
ed in  the  same  manner  as  the  bottles. 
The  juices  employed  were  thoroughly  typi- 
cal and  were  clarified  by  passing  twice 
through  the  separator.  A  full  half  hour 
was  found  by  a  careful  test  to  be  neces- 
sary for  heating  the  contents  of  the  can 
up  to  the  bath  when  the  water  in  the 
bath  was  cold  to  start  with,  and  this 
period  was  only  slightly  shortened  when 
the  bath  was  hot  at  the  time  the  cans 
were  placed  in  it.  Unfortunately,  the 
periods  of  heating  were  not  short  enough 
nor  the  temperatures  used  low  enough  to 
indicate  unsafe  conditions,  since  none  of 
the  cans  spoiled;  but  proper  treatment 
was  found  to  be  very  readily  given  at  low 
temperatures  and  for  brief  periods.  It 
was  expected   that   the   cans  which   were 


406 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICl'LTrRE 


only  heated  up  to  149°  F.  (65°  C.)  in 
the  hot  water  and  then  removed  would 
surely  spoil.  These  cans  remained  sound, 
however,  and  thus  the  period  of  heating 
indicated  as  sufficient  for  canning  is  un- 
expectedly short.  When  the  cans  were 
removed,  they  were  cooled  over  night  and 
allowed  to  stand  in  the  same  room  as 
that  in  which  the  bottles  were  held.  Ow- 
ing to  the  large  bulk  of  juice  in  the 
cans  of  the  size  employed  (1  gallon),  it 
is  evident  that  the  juice  was  maintained 
at  a  sterilizing  temperature  longer  than  it 
bottles  or  small-sized  cans  had  been  used. 
This  fact  must  be  kept  in  mind  if  the 
results  here  obtained  are  applied  to  other 
sizes  than  gallon  cans. 

The  Carbonatiou  of  tlie  Juice 

In  addition  to  experimental  work  on 
clarifying  and  on  heating  the  juice,  in- 
vestigations were  made  on  carbonating  it 
with  a  view  to  disguising  the  slight  cook- 
ed taste  which  it  is  impossible  entirely 
to  avoid.  Carbonating  also  increases  the 
palatability  of  the  juice  in  the  opinion 
of  many  persons.  The  method  used  con- 
sisted in  carbonating  the  juice  under 
slight  pressure  and  then  heating  in  bot- 
tles or  cans,  and  no  difficulty  was  en- 
countered. In  the  simple  experiments  de- 
vised and  carried  on  in  connection  with 
this  work,  the  carbon  dioxid  (carbonic- 
acid  gas)  was  secured  from  a  firm  hand- 
ling soda-water  supplies.  It  was  obtained 
in  liquid  form  in  a  steel  cylinder  furnish- 
ed with  a  reduction  valve  and  a  gauge 
and  delivery  tube,  so  as  to  deliver  at  pres- 
sures up  to  30  pounds.  After  clarification, 
the  juice  was  carbonated  by  pouring  it 
into  a  clean  keg  and  running  in  the  gas 
up  to  a  pressure  of  15  pounds. 

The  keg  was  provided  with  a  thick 
pine  bung,  through  the  middle  of  which 
was  bored  a  half-inch  hole,  which  received 
the  rubber  delivery  tube  from  the  cy- 
linder of  compressed  gas.  The  bung  was 
soaked  in  water  for  a  few  minutes  be- 
fore use,  so  that  it  could  be  driven  in 
to  make  a  tight  joint,  and  was  so  fitted 
that  it  projected  beyond  the  surface  of 
the  keg  and  could  be  readily  loosened 
when   carbonation    was    finished.     About 


12  gallons  of  juice  were  poured  into  the 
keg.  Carbon  dioxid  was  admitted  before 
driving  the  bung  in  airtight  in  order 
to  expel  the  air  which  fills  the  space  in 
the  keg  not  occupied  by  the  juice.  The 
bung  was  then  driven  in  by  tapping  with 
a  hammer  and  more  gas  admitted.  The 
keg  was  vigorously  rocked  so  as  to  thor- 
oughly agitate  the  juice  and  so  accelerate 
the  absorption  of  the  gas. 

The  gauge  was  watched,  and  in  these 
experiments  the  pressure  was  not  allowed 
to  go  beyond  1.5  pounds  per  square  inch. 
The  juice  used  in  the  carbonating  work 
was  quite  cool,  ranging  from  48°  to  68° 
F.  (9°  to  20°  C.)  in  the  different  experi- 
ments. As  the  carbonating  of  liquids  is 
apparently  well  understood,  no  attempts 
were  made  to  correlate  the  pressure,  tem- 
perature, and  amount  of  gas  which  could 
be  dissolved  in  the  juice.  In  these  ex- 
periments the  juice  was  carbonated  at  a 
pressure  not  exceeding  15  pounds  until  a 
sample  was  drawn  tasting  distinctly  of 
the  gas,  this  being  the  amount  of  car- 
bonation desired.  Working  under  these 
conditions  in  the  different  trials,  from 
fifteen  minutes  to  one-half  hour  was  re- 
quired to  carbonate  12  gallons  of  juice. 
The  stream  of  gas  was  then  stopped,  the 
bung  cautiously  loosened,  the  contents 
of  the  keg  poured  out,  and  the  juice  bot- 
tled or  canned. 

The  gas  remains  for  some  time  in  the 
juice  when  under  atmospheric  pressure 
and  only  gradually  diminishes  in  quan- 
tity, so  that  great  haste  in  sealing  the 
juice  is  not  necessary.  If  the  carbonated 
juice  is  to  be  sterilized  in  cans  they 
must  be  heated  in  stout  frames  to  pre- 
vent distortion  of  the  can  while  hot  and 
consequent  bursting.  The  finished  canned 
product  bulges  the  ends  of  the  cans  to 
some  extent,  but  not  enough  to  cause 
permanent  bending.  The  juice  must  not 
be  too  highly  charged  with  the  gas  nor 
removed  from  the  frames  while  still  hot. 
or  such  bending,  with  consequent  weak- 
ening of  the  soldered  joints  and  bursting 
of  the  can,  may  occur. 

The  Best  Containers  for  Sterilizing'  Juice 

In  the  work  with  juice  treated  as  above 
(Ipscril)ed.    bottles    and    cans    have    been 


APPLES 


407 


used  as  containers.  The  other  containers 
which  might  have  been  tried  were  barrels 
or  kegs  and  jugs.  Owing  to  the  great 
liability  to  leakage  and  consequent  infec- 
tion of  juice  when  treated  in  barrels  and 
kegs,  these  containers  are  considered  im- 
practicable when  the  juice  is  to  be  kept 
indefinitely.  Jugs  are  considered  to  be 
too  cumbersome  and  at  the  same  time  too 
fragile  to  be  handled  readily  in  compari- 
son with  cans. 

For  bottles,  sound  corks,  well  soaked  in 
hot  water,  should  be  used.  These  can  be 
wired  in  before  the  bottles  are  heated;  or 
tin  cork  holders,  which  may  be  bought  on 
the  market,  may  be  used.  The  exposed 
end  of  the  cork  should  be  dipped  in  hot 
paraffin  or  hot  grafting  wax  after  heating, 
to  prevent  the  cork  from  drying  out 
with  consequent  serious  danger  of  infec- 
tion of  the  bottled  juice. 

No  trouble  was  experienced  in  sealing 
the  cans.  As  previously  noted,  standard 
1-gallon  packers'  cans  were  employed. 
These  had  a  2  7-16-lnch  opening  and 
were  filled  to  within  about  one-quarter 
inch  of  the  opening.  The  can  was  then 
wiped  and  the  flux,  consisting  of  rosin 
dissolved  in  alcohol,  was  applied.  Hem- 
med caps  were  employed  for  sealing — 
that  is,  the  tin  cover  which  fitted  over 
the  opening  in  the  can  was  fitted  with  a 
rim  of  solder.  For  sealing  the  can,  a 
capping  steel  and  soldering  copper  are 
required,  also  a  gasoline  furnace  for  heat- 
ing the  steel  and  copper,  and  a  supply 
of  flux,  solder  and  sal  ammoniac. 

Barrels  and  kegs  can  be  successfully 
used  as  containers  for  sterilized  juice 
when  it  is  desired  to  keep  juice  sweet  for 
a  limited  period  of  a  few  days  or  weeks. 
The  cask  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
well  steamed,  and  filled  with  the  juice 
heated  to  between  149°  and  158°  F.  (65° 
to  70°  C).  The  cask  can  then  be  bunged, 
but  considerable  contraction  takes  place 
on  cooling,  with  resulting  strain  on  the 
cask  and  consequent  increase  in  the  dan- 
ger of  leakage.  It  is  a  much  better  pro- 
cedure to  close  with  a  clean  cotton  plug, 
and  when  the  cask  and  contents  are  cool 
to  remove  the  plug  and  quickly  insert  a 


wooden  bung  which  has  ben  sterilized  by 
soaking  in  alcohol.  Two  experiments 
were  carried  on  with  success  with  50-gal- 
lon  barrels,  following  this  procedure. 
This  juice  kept  for  ten  days  without 
showing  fermentation.  At  this  time  the 
barrels  were  emptied  and  used  for  other 
purposes. 

In  the  experiments  with  barrels,  and 
in  all  other  work  in  which  the  juice  was 
heated  except  in  bottles  and  cans,  a 
pasteurizer  designed  by  Mr.  Given,  of  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry,  was  employed.  It 
proved  to  be  a  very  useful  machine  and 
was  capable  of  heating  the  juice  with  per- 
fect control  of  temperature  at  any  desired 
rate  up  to  several  hundred  gallons  per 
hour. 

The  cost  of  handling  apple  juice  when 
it  can  be  obtained  perfectly  fresh  in  clean 
barrels  is  slight.  The  only  expense  of 
separating  the  juice  is  for  the  labor,  and 
if  a  small  steam  generator  be  used  in 
connection  with  a  turbine  separator  this 
cost  can  probably  be  lessened.  Bottles  of 
the  champagne  type  cost  from  3  to  5  cents 
each,  and  gallon  cans  cost  from  4  to  5 
cents  each  in  lots  of  1,000.  On  account  of 
the  acid  nature  of  apple  juice,  the  cans 
employed  should  be  made  of  a  high  grade 
of  tin  plate  and,  as  with  other  canned 
products,  the  juice  should  not  be  allowed 
to  stand  in  the  can  after  opening.  With 
a  view  to  lessening  the  action  of  the 
juice  on  the  walls  of  the  can,  lacquering 
the  inside  of  the  can  with  a  vegetable 
gum  was  tried.  Considerable  less  action 
of  the  juice  on  the  tin  was  noted  when 
the  lacquered  can  was  used. 

Sterilizing  requires  a  tank  of  water 
which  can  be  heated  by  steam  or  in  any 
other  way  so  that  it  can  be  easily  main- 
tained at  the  desired  temperature.  The 
apparatus  for  carbonizing  is  simple  and 
cheap,  and  the  method  is  easy  of  applica- 
tion. 

The  chemical  work  in  connection  with 
the  experiment  has  been  to  determine  the 
composition  of  the  juices  employed  and 
the  effect  of  the  treatment  on  the  com- 
position of  the  juice.  The  results  of  this 
work  show  that  the  chemical  composition 
is  practically    unchanged     by  the    treat- 


408 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


ment  of  clarifyiug.  carbonating,  and  heat- 
ing. 

See  Cider. 

H.   C.   Gore. 
Of  the  Bureau  of  Cliemisti-y.  Washingtun.  D.  C. 

THE  POLLI>ATIO>   QUESTION 

Every  practical  orchardist  has  now 
come  to  realize,  or  if  he  has  not,  he 
should,  that  one  of  the  most  important 
phases  of  orcharding  is  the  problem  of 
pollination.  It  must  be  considered  in  se- 
lecting any  variety  for  planting.  The 
question  has  been  one  of  scientific  interest 
for  many  years  and  unfortunately  con- 
siderable has  been  written  on  this  sub- 
ject before  definite  information  was  at 
hand,  with  the  result  that  many  of  the 
recommendations  of  today  must  be  con- 
sidered  without  foundation. 

Too  many  times  one  is  prone  to  consider 
that  any  lack  in  the  setting  of  fruit  is 
purely  and  wholly  due  to  the  absence  of 
proper  pollination.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
there  are  many  causes  other  than  pollina- 
tion which  must  be  taken  into  account. 
Among  the  first  of  these  we  may  mention 
the  inability  of  certain  varieties  to  set 
fruit,  or  of  certain  spurs  on  the  tree  to 
mature  fruit  from  the  blossoms  which  oc- 
cur on  them  in  the  spring.  To  drop  their 
fruit  seems  to  be  as  much  a  character  of 
certain  varieties  as  is  the  color,  flavor,  or 
any  other  character  of  the  variety.  From 
carefully  conducted  experiments  we  must 
conclude  that  by  no  means  is  all  the 
spring  and  .June  drop  to  be  attributed  to 
lack  of  pollination. 

Another  one  of  the  important  causes  of 
dropping  of  blossoms  is  the  vegetative 
vigor  of  the  trees.  If  a  tree  is  growing  too 
vigorously  it  frequently  runs  entirely  to 
wood  and  scarcely  produces  any  blossoms, 
and  the  few  that  it  may  produce  are 
usually  shed  very  soon  after  the  bloom- 
ing period  is  past.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  trees  which  are  in  a  very  poor  condi- 
tion. While  the  latter  may  bloom  more 
profusely  than  those  which  are  growing 
vigorously,  some  blossoms  are  as  incapable 
of  setting  fruit  as  are  those  on  the  former. 

Insects    and    diseases    also    frequently 


cause  the  loss  of  many  blooms.  Some  are 
destroyed  outright  by  the  various  diseases, 
such  as  scab,  anthracnose,  or  blight  and 
in  the  case  of  peaches  and  plums  by  the 
Ijrovvn  rot  fungus.  Many  blossoms  may  be 
ruined  when  quite  young  by  attacks  of 
insects.  Even  some  of  the  blossoms  which 
may  be  set  are  later  killed  by  these  same 
causes  before  they  have  made  any  consid- 
erable size  and  are  frequently  shed  at  the 
time  of  the  so-called  June  drop. 

It  is  almost  too  well  known  to  need 
mentioning  that  rain  or  snow  during  the 
blooming  period  is  the  cause  of  failure 
of  many  blossoms.  This  loss  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  much  of  the  pollen  Is  destroyed 
by  rain  and  the  stigmas  of  the  blossoms 
are  injured  to  such  a  degree  that  pol- 
lination and  consequent  fertilization  is 
impossible.  Of  course  no  fruit  is  produced 
vinder  such  conditions.  In  this  connec- 
tion, however,  it  may  be  well  to  mention 
the  fact  that  usually  all  the  blossoms  do 
not  come  on  at  the  same  time  and  enough 
may  meet  with  favorable  conditions  to 
produce  a  fair  crop. 

One  of  the  most  serious  climatic  condi- 
tions with  which  we  must  contend  is 
frost.  Injury  from  this  cause  is  brought 
about  in  two  ways:  first,  by  winter  freezes 
and  second,  by  spring  frosts.  In  the  form- 
er instance  the  fruit  buds  are  either  killed 
outright  during  the  winter,  or  are  injured 
only  to  the  extent  that  they  are  inca- 
pable of  producing  fruit.  That  is.  the 
flowers  expand  and  without  careful  in- 
spection appear  normal,  but  on  closer  ex- 
amination it  is  usually  found  that  the  pis- 
tils or  heart  of  the  very  young  fruit  has 
been  killed.  Injury  from  late  spring 
frosts  is  manifested  in  various  ways.  The 
young  fruit  is  subject  to  injury  from  the 
time  the  fruit  buds  have  opened  until 
the  time  the  fruit  is  as  large  as  a  garden 
pea  or  even  later.  If  the  frost  is  very 
severe  the  young  fruit  is  generally  killed 
outright  as  is  recognized  by  a  very  notice- 
able blackening  a  few  hours  after  the 
frost.  In  certain  instances,  generally  af- 
ter pollination  has  occurred,  a  light  or 
medium  frost  does  not  entirely  kill  the 
blossom  but  seems  to  allow  a  certain  de- 
gree of  development.     Usually  in  such  in- 


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409 


stances  the  seeds  are  killed  and  there  is 
little  or  no  development  of  them,  though 
there  may  be  some.  I'sually  such  fruit 
develops  somewhat  abnormally,  frequently 
producing  in  pears  what  is  described  as 
"bull-neck."  Such  fruit  will  usually  hang 
on  the  trees  up  to  the  time  they  are 
ready  to  make  the  last  swell  before  pick- 
ing time,  then  they  will  drop  in  quan- 
tities. Often  if  not  too  badly  injured 
they  will  develop  sufficient  size  to  be  mar- 
ketable. 

Another  cause  of  the  shedding  of  some 
fruit,  though  probably  in  general  of  an 
inconsiderable  quantity,  is  the  spraying 
of  trees  when  in  full  bloom.  Careful  ex- 
periments conducted  along  this  line  by 
several  experimenters  have  demonstrated 
that  when  the  trees  were  thoroughly 
sprayed  before  the  blossoms  had  been  pol- 
linated they  failed  to  set  fruit.  Usually, 
however,  if  two  or  three  days  have 
elapsed  after  pollination  and  before  the 
spraying,  such  fruits  will  set  perfectly. 
Furthermore,  on  most  varieties  the  blos- 
soms open  at  intervals  for  several  days 
and  one  spraying  would  not  be  likely  to 
injure  all  the  blossoms  in  any  one  clust- 
er. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  and 
as"  pointed  out  above  that  we  must  take 
into  consideration  several  factors  other 
than  pollination  when  we  are  looking 
for  the  cause  of  failure  of  blossoms  to 
set.  However,  we  think  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  all  varieties  of  pome  fruits,  at 
least  apples  and  pears,  even  though  the 
varieties  are  termed  self-fertile,  are  bene- 
fited by  having  other  varieties  planted 
with  them  as  poUenizers.  By  the  term 
self-fertile  variety  we  mean  one  which  is 
capable  of  setting  perfect  fruit  without 
the  aid  of  pollen  from  another  variety. 
By  self-sterile  we  mean  that  a  variety  is 
not  capable  of  setting  fruit  without  some 
other  variety  being  planted  with  It  to 
furnish  pollen.  One  frequently  meets 
with  the  term  partially  self-fertile,  or 
partially  self-sterile.  By  this  is  meant 
that  under  certain  conditions  a  limited 
number  of  fruits  will  set.  By  far  the 
greater  number  of  our  varieties  must 
be  classed  in  the  self-sterile  or  partially 


self-sterile  list  and  as  above  pointed  out 
it  is  always  best  to  plant  two  or  more 
varieties  together.  However,  we  must 
guard  against  planting  too  many  vari- 
eties. One  variety  as  a  pollenizer  for 
another  will  serve  every  purpose  that 
twenty  would.  Thus  an  orchard  of  Bart- 
letts  and  d'Anjous  would  serve  to  pol- 
linate each  other  as  well  as  if  we  plant- 
ed among  them  a  dozen  or  more  vari- 
eties. In  the  past  one  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  has  been  that  the  orchardists 
have  gone  on  the  supposition  that  if  a 
little  is  good,  more  will  be  better  and 
some  have  planted  all  the  way  from  fif- 
teen to  twenty  varieties,  many  of  them 
worthless,  merely  for  the  sake  of  secur- 
ing cross-pollination.  This  is  a  mistaken 
idea  and  one  that  should  be  guarded 
against.  Of  course,  if  one  wishes  to  grow 
a  number  of  varieties  for  other  reasons 
there  can  be  no  objection  from  a  pollina- 
tion standpoint  but  otherwise  it  is  to  be 
avoided. 

The  main  point  that  must  be  taken  in- 
to consideration  in  the  study  of  the  pol- 
lination problem  is  the  so-called  second- 
ary effect  of  pollen.  By  this  we  mean  the 
effect  let  us  say,  of  Spitzenburg  pollen  on 
a  Newton  apple  in  the  immediate  cross. 
Much  has  been  written  for  and  against 
the  use  of  certain  pollenlzers  and  we 
believe  that  we  must  conclude  that  in 
.general  there  is  very  little  effect  other 
than  a  change  in  size  of  the  fruit,  in- 
crease in  percentage  of  set,  and  uniform- 
ity of  crop.  Flavor,  quality,  keeping 
quality  and  color  are  probably  not  affect- 
ed in  the  least. 

This  suljject  has  been  discussed  from 
the  earliest  times,  ever  since  the  pollin- 
ation problem  has  begun  to  be  investi- 
gated, but  from  carefully  conducted  ex- 
periments the  last  several  j-ears  we  be- 
lieve that  we  must  conclude  that  if  other 
noticeable  effects  are  manifested  they 
are  exceptionally  rare  indeed.  The  same 
conclusions  have  been  reached  by  other 
very  careful  workers  along  this  line.  Too 
much  credence  has  been  placed  in  spo- 
radic instances  of  apparent  effect.  Thus 
we  frequently  hear  that  if  a  Spitzenburg 
apple    has    a    bright    yellow    band    from 


410 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


calyx  to  stem,  it  is  considered  to  have 
been  pollinated  by  a  Newtown,  or  if  a 
Ben  Davis  has  a  similarly  placed  dark 
red  band,  that  it  was  pollinated  by  a 
Baldwin.  These  suppositions  must  be 
held  to  be  false  and  the  effect  attributed 
rather  to  bud  variation.  We  have  met 
with  many  instances  of  this  sort  and  are 
forced  to  conclude  that  the  pollen  which 
was  used  had  absolutely  nothing  to  do 
with  the  color.  Soil,  the  methods  of 
pruning,  fertilization,  cultivation,  irriga- 
tion and  other  orchard  practices  will  in- 
fluence color,  quality,  etc..  far  more  than 
will  the  pollen  of  neighboring  varieties. 
As  had  been  mentioned,  the  three  great- 
est factors  influenced  by  pollination,  are 
size,  percentage  of  set,  and  uniformity. 
Certain  varieties  of  pollen  may  possibly 
produce,  when  applied  to  any  given  vari- 
ety, a  smaller  fruit  than  normal,  and 
certain  other  varieties  may  produce  a 
larger  fruit  than  normal.  One  of  the 
points  that  should  be  emphasized  in  this 
consideration  is  that  cross-fertilized  fruits 
generally  produce  more  seeds  than  do 
those  which  are  self-fertilized  and  furth- 
ermore the  greater  the  number  of  seeds 
usually  the  greater  the  size  and  weight 
of  the  fruit  itself.  In  fact,  seed  produc- 
tion seems  to  be  the  exciting  cause  of 
the  growth  of  the  flesh  of  the  fruit.  Of- 
ten in  self-fertilized  fruits,  while  the 
fruit  will  come  to  full  maturity,  it  is 
not  more  than  a  fifth  or  quarter  of  the 
size  of  a  cross-fertilized  fruit  and  is  gen- 
erally seedless.  Cases  of  fruit  production 
without  pollination  are  recorded,  but 
among  the  pomes  at  least,  this  condition 
must  be  considered  exceptional. 

It  may  be  well  also  to  call  attention  to 
the  fart  that  pears  will  not  serve  to  polli- 
nate apples  nor  will  apples  pollinate 
pears,  though  the  various  species  of 
apples  will  interpollinate  and  the  same 
holds  true  for  pears.  Cherries,  plums,  or 
peaches  also  cannot  be  considered  in  any 
way  to  serve  as  pollenizers  for  either  ap- 
ples or  pears  of  any  variet.v. 

The  question  then  arises,  what  are  the 
essentials  of  a  good  pollenizer.  First  of 
all  we  may  say  that  the  two  varieties 
must  bloom  at  the  same  time.     That  fact 


is  self-evident  for  if  one  variety  is  out  of 
bloom  before  the  other  begins  it  may  as 
well  not  be  there  so  far  as  furnishing 
pollen  is  concerned.  Second,  the  two  va- 
rieties must  have  an  affinity  for  each 
other.  That  is  to  say,  the  pollen  of  one 
must  be  acceptable  to  the  pistils  of  the 
other:  and  such  as  is  going  to  give  the 
best  and  most  uniform  fruits  and  great- 
est percenta.ge  of  set.  Third,  both  must 
be  good  pollen  producers.  If  a  shy  pollen 
bearer  is  planted  with  an  abundant  pollen 
bearer,  the  variety  which  produces  little 
pollen  will,  of  course,  be  greatly  benefited, 
but  there  will  be  little  reciprocal  action, 
as  is  readily  seen.  Such  an  example  would 
be  the  planting  of  the  Winesap  and  Rome 
Beauty.  The  Winesap  produces  very  lit- 
tle pollen,  whereas  the  Rome  Beauty  pro- 
duces plenty.  The  former,  therefore, 
would  have  an  abundance  of  Rome  Beauty 
pollen  to  fall  back  on,  but  the  Rome 
Beauty  would  stand  slight  chance  of  be- 
ing crossed  by  the  Winesap.  Fourth,  both 
varieties  preferably  should  be  commercial. 
This  is  simply,  of  course,  a  practical  point 
in  economics.  Fifth,  both  varieties  should 
come  into  flower  at  about  the  same  age. 
For  example,  were  the  idea  to  pollinate 
the  Wagener  with  Northern  Spy,  the  re- 
sult would  be  that  for  several  years  the 
Wagener  would  be  without  a  pollenizer,  in 
that  it  comes  into  bearing  much  earlier 
than  the  Northern  Spy.  Such  a  discrep- 
ancy can  be  made  up  in  a  measure  by  the 
use  as  fillers,  of  dwarf  trees  of  the  late 
bearing  variet.v.  Such  dwarfs  will  bear 
several  years  in  advance  of  the  standard 
and  later  can  be  readily  removed. 

Careful  experimentation  has  shown  that 
very  little,  if  any  pollen  of  our  tree  fruits 
other  than  nut  trees,  is  transported  by 
the  wind.  Probably  99  per  cent  or  more 
of  the  transfer  of  pollen  is  done  by  in- 
sects. Prime  among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned the  honey  bee.  Bumble  bees,  ants, 
flies,  moths  and  short-tongued  bees  play 
an  important  part.  However,  there  is  no 
doubt  but  that  the  common  hive  bee  is 
by  far  the  best  of  all,  and  it  will  pay 
every  orchardist  to  have  a  few  stands 
among  his  trees. 

In   putting  out  an   orchard  the  system 


APPLES 


411 


recommended  to  secure  the  best  results 
from  pollination  is  to  plant  four  rows  of 
each  variety,  be  there  two  or  more.  Such 
an  arrangement  would  allow  for  conve- 
nient harvesting,  pruning,  etc.,  and  serves 
better  than  planting  four  and  one,  which 
is  sometimes  recommended.  Of  course,  so 
far  as  pollination  is  concerned,  the  lat- 
ter arrangement  is  entirely  permissible  if 
one  wishes  to  grow  a  larger  proportion  of 
one  variety  than  another,  but  in  general 
if  one  can  have  the  varieties  blocked  more 
or  less  many  of  the  orchard  operations 
will  be  simplified.  For,  as  is  well  known, 
the  several  varieties  frequently  require 
quite  different  attention.  To  illustrate,  if 
the  Bartlett  were  not  used  to  pollinate 
d'Anjou  pears,  and  the  same  were  planted 
four  rows  of  d'Anjou  to  one  of  Bartlett,  it 
is  readily  seen  that  the  Bartletts  must  be 
harvested  earlier  than  the  d'Anjou  with 
the  result  that  there  would  be  consid- 
erable tramping  and  hauling  through  the 
latter,  thus  not  only  compacting  the 
ground  unnecessarily,  but  also  incurring 
the  risk  of  knocking  off  fruit,  disturbing 
props,  etc.  Many  similar  instances  could 
be  cited. 

While  by  no  means  complete,  the  fol- 
lowing list  of  commercial  varieties  most 
grown  at  the  present  time  are  grouped 
according  to  the  desirability  of  interplant- 
ing  to  secure  best  results  from  pollination. 
Any  variety  occurring  in  any  column  is 
well  pollinated  by  any  one  or  more  of  the 
varieties  in  the  same  column. 

Apples 

Early 
*Gravenstein  Tetofski 

Oldenburg  Wealthy 

Red  Astrachan  *Yellow  Transparent 

Late 
Arkansas  Black  Red  Cheek  Pippin 

Baldwin  Rome  Beauty 

Ben  Davis  Spitzenburg 

Black  Twig  Wagener 

Gano  Willow  Twig 

Grimes  Golden  Winesap  (a  shy  pol- 

Jonathan  len  producer  gen- 

Mclntosh  erally) 

Newtown  White  Winter  Pear- 

Northern  Spy  main 

Ortley  Yellow  Bellflower 


Pears 

Early 

Bartlett 

Clairgeau 

d'Anjou 

Howell 
Keiffer 

Late 

Angouleme 

Bosc 

Du  Cornice 

Easter  Beurre 
P.  Barry 

Winter  Nelis 

It  must  be  remembered  in  this  connec- 
tion that  in  general,  the  greater  the  alti- 
tude, or  the  farther  north  varieties  are 
grown,  the  later  in  the  season  will  be 
their  blooming  periods  and  that  the  so- 
called  early  bloomers  come  very  little  in 
advance  of  the  late  bloomers.  In  milder 
climates  or  lower  altitudes  these  same 
early  varieties  may  be  entirely  out  of 
bloom  before  the  late  varieties  begin. 
Thus,  also,  it  may  be  found,  especially 
among  the  late  bloomers,  that  certain  va- 
rieties in  certain  localities  will  bloom 
nearly  or  entirely  together  and  in  other 
localities  they  will  bloom  nearly  or  en- 
tirely together  and  the  entire  blooming 
season  shortened.  The  lists  are  based  on 
general  Oregon  conditions  for  a  normal 
season. 
Laboratobt  fob  Horticultural  Research, 

May   2.   1912.  Corvallis,   Oregon. 

Proltlenis  in  Orchard  Pollination* 

The  idea  of  mixing  varieties  to  insure 
pollination  is  not  a  new  one.  Darwin  has 
taught  that  "Nature  abhors  perpetual 
self-fertilization;"  that  "It  is  injurious 
and  results  in  inferior  and  less  fertile  off- 
spring," and  that  "Plants  are  endlessly 
modified  to  insure  cross-fertilization." 
.Just  how  much  the  apple  is  modified  to 
secure  crossing  of  varieties  will  be  seen 
later. 

It  has  long  been  the  practice  of  Cali- 
fornia prune  growers  to  mix  their  vari- 
eties. Waugh  (Vermont  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Report,  1897)   found  that  most  vari- 


*  In  manv  localities  these  varieties  bloom 
sufficiently  late  to  serve  to  pollinate  many  of 
those  listed  as  late  bloomers. 


*  The  necessity  of  accurate  and  scientific  in- 
formation concerning  the  pollination  of  our 
fummon  fruits  is  recognized  by  everyone  who 
has  given  the  subject  a  moment's  thought.  In 
the  work  done  b.v  the  Horticultural  Depart- 
ment of  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  the 
peach,  plum,  grape  and  apple  are  the  fruits 
upon  which  the  most  data  has  been  collected. 
The  above  article  is  based  upon  the  worl{  done 
liy  Mr.  Geo.  O.  Green,  assistant  in  horticulture, 
and  submitted  by  him  as  his  thesis  in  his  worli 
for  the  degree  of  Master  of  .Science. 


412 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICCLTL'RE 


eties  of  plums  are  self-steiile;  Waite  (U. 
S.  Division  of  Vegetable  Pathology,  Bull- 
etin 5)  shows  results  of  many  experi- 
ments carried  on  with  the  pear  to  show 
the  affinity  of  certain  varieties  for  the 
pollen  of  certain  other  varieties.  Some  of 
the  most  interesting  discoveries  made  by 
Waite  are.  that  the  descriptions  given  by 
"Warder,  Thomas  and  Downing  were  true 
only  for  the  fruits  resulting  from  cross- 
fertilization;  that  the  fruits  from  cross- 
fertilization  were  much  larger  and  that 
the  flavor  was  much  better  in  the  crossed 
varieties  than  the  fruits  resulting  from 
self-fertilization. 

Everyone  has  noticed  that  isolated  fruit 
trees  failed  to  bear  fruit  though  they 
blossomed  full  each  year.  The  Wild 
Goose  plum  is  a  very  good  illustration  of 
this  self-sterility  in  fruit  trees,  familiar  to 
everyone  who  has  planted  this  variety  in 
isolated  positions. 

This  self-sterility,  as  it  is  called,  is  the 
inability  of  the  pollen  of  a  plant  to  fer- 
tilize its  own  ovules  or  those  of  other 
plants  of  the  same  horticultural  variety 
and  is  indicated  in  fruit  trees  by  the  con- 
tinued dropping  of  the  fruiting  organs  be- 
fore the  fruits  have  become  well  formed, 
although  fruits  often  drop  from  other 
causes,  as  frost,  general  debility  of  the 
tree,  etc. 

No  one  can  say  why  a  variety  should 
refuse  its  own  pollen  and  accept  that  of 
another  variety.  Accepting  Darwin's  law 
that  "Perpetual  self-fertilization  is  injuri- 
ous and  results  in  inferior  and  less  fertile 
offspring."  we  would  admit,  that,  in  the 
countless  ages  of  the  selection  of  the 
apple,  inferior  offspring  and,  perhaps,  the 
entire  loss  of  fertility  has  been  avoided 
by  self-sterility.  In  the  apple,  self-fertil- 
ization has  been  guarded  against  in  differ- 
ent ways,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  descrip- 
tions and  experiments  which  follow. 

Detiiiitioii   of   Terms   Used 

Self-sterility:  Inability  of  pollen  to 
fertilize  ovules  of  same  horticultural 
variety. 

Self-fertile:  A  plant  is  said  to  be  self- 
fertile  when  the  pistil  will  accept  i)ollen 
from  a  plant  of  the  same  horticultural 
variety. 


Cross:  Union  of  pollen  cell  and  ovule 
of  two  distinct  horticultural  varieties.  In 
no  case  is  it  meant  the  transfer  of  pollen 
from  one  flower  to  another  on  the  same 
tree  or  from  one  flower  of  a  variety  to  the 
pistil  of  another  individual  tree  of  the 
same  horticultural  variety. 

Pollination:  Act  of  transferring  of 
pollen  to  the  pistil. 

Fecundation:  Union  of  pollen  cell  and 
the  ovule. 

Fertilization:  A  general  term  to  in- 
clude both  the  preceding  terms. 

The  flower  of  the  apple  is  regular  and 
perfect  in  all  of  its  parts;  petals  and 
sepals  five,  petals  varying  in  color  from 


FiK.  1.  Xo.  1.  Oulleu  Stamens  Before  Dehisr- 
ins.  No.  2.  CuUen  Outer  Row  of  Stamens 
Dehisced. 

a  pure  white  to  a  faint  rose:  stamens  20 
or  less,  filaments  of  two  lengths,  one  set 
of  anthers  ripening  later  than  the  other 
(see  figure  I),  anther  two-celled  dehiscing 
along  the  outer  margin,  the  two  cells  not 
always  dehiscing  at  the  same  time  but 
the  dehiscance  of  both  taking  place  within 
a  very  short  period;  pistils  ripening  be- 
fore the  stamens,  stigma  extremely  papil- 
lose and  in  a  condition  to  catch  and  retain 
pollen  before  it  is  receptive,  though  it  is 
in  a  receptive  condition  as  soon  as  the 
flower  opens;  stigma  secreting  a  sticky 
fluid    which   also   aids   in    holding   pollen 


APPLES 


413 


falling  on  the  pistil,  much  more  of  the 
fluid  being  secreted  by  the  pistil  if  the 
stigma  is  not  pollinized  with  acceptable 
pollen  than  would  be  it  it  were  fertilized 
as  soon  as  receptive;  pistils  remaining 
erect  and  fertile  for  several  days  after 
maturing  if  acceptable  pollen  is  not  ap- 
plied to  them.  Upon  the  reception  of 
pollen  the  pistil  wilts  in  a  very  few- 
hours,  or  at  most,  in  the  course  of  a  day. 
In  the  bud  the  stamens  are  turned 
inward  toward  the  center  of  the  flower 
while  each  pistil  is  recurved  on  the  style. 
The  pistils  are  the  first  to  assume  an 
erect  position,  as  may  be  inferred  from 
their  early  ripening.  The  ovary  is  in- 
ferior, inserted  below  the  calyx.  Figure 
1  shows  the  position  of  the  parts  of  the 
flower.  The  flowers  are  sidewise,  turn- 
ing toward  the  light,  thus  preventing 
wetting  of  the  pollen  and  insuring  self- 
pollination  if  no  pollen  is  brought  from 
another  flower.  Although  Nature  has 
made  self-fertilization  mechanically  pos- 
sible in  the  apple,  she  has  made  self- 
fecundation  impossible  In  the  majority 
of  cases,  and  experiments  go  to  show 
that  self-fertility  is  the  exception  and 
not  the  rule.  These  experiments  also 
show  that  these  self-fertile  varieties  are 
safe  ones  to  use  for  the  fertilization  of 
other  self-sterile  varieties. 

Causes  of  Failure  of  Blossoms  to  Set 
Fruit 

Some  of  the  causes  of  failures  of  or- 
chards to  set  fruit  are  here  enumerated. 

1.  The  trees  or  the  blossoms  may  be 
injured  from  drought. 

2.  The  fruit  buds  may  be  injured 
from  winter  freezes. 

3.  The  fruit  buds  may  be  injured 
from   late  spring  frosts. 

4.  The  blossoms  may  be  injured  from 
a  lack   of  proper  nourishment. 

•5.  The  tree  may  fail  to  bloom  from 
an  excess  of  certain  kinds  of  nourish- 
ment. 

6.  Fruits  may  fail  to  set  from  im- 
proper pollination. 

1.  The  trees  or  the  blossoms  may  be 
injured  from  drought. — It  sometimes  hap- 
pens that  a   very   wet  spring   with   such 


weather  as  will  stimulate  the  trees  into 
a  very  strong  growth  during  the  earlier 
part  of  the  growing  period  is  followed 
by  a  summer  and  tall  of  extreme  drought. 
Under  such  conditions  the  fruit  trees  are 
unable  to  set  fruit  buds  with  sufficient 
vitality  to  carry  them  far  enough  to 
form  fruit.  Fruit  buds  make  heavier 
demands  on  the  tree  than  leaf  buds. 
After  such  extremes  as  the  above  the 
tree  uses  its  whole  energj'  to  recover  its 
vegetative  power,  and  it  may  often  hap- 
pen that  a  tree  will  fail  to  set  fruit 
from   this  cause. 

2.  The  fruit  buds  -may  be  injured  by 
uinter  freezes. — It  is  impossible  to  say 
just  how  much  freezing  the  fruit  buds 
of  the  apple  will  stand.  In  sections  of 
this  country,  where  the  air  is  less  dry 
than  in  the  West,  the  buds  will  stand  a 
much  lower  degree  of  temperature  than 
they  will  in  our  drj-  atmosphere  and  a 
ver.v  low  temperature  of  one  winter  will 
have  less  of  an  evil  effect  on  the  fruits 
of  our  region  than  another  winter  when 
the  thermometer  does  not  record  so  low 
a  degree  of  temperature.  There  are  so 
many  influences  that  affect  the  forma- 
tion of  fruit  buds  and  their  proper  nour- 
ishment that  it  is  impossible  to  say  how 
far  and  to  what  extent  freezing  affects 
the  next  summer's  crop  of  apples.  The 
vitality  of  the  buds,  their  maturity,  the 
condition  of  the  atmosphere  as  to  mois- 
ture, the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil, 
and  the  amount  of  snow  on  the  ground 
are  a  few  of  the  things  we  must  con- 
sider. 

3.  The  buds  may  be  injured  by  late 
spring  frosts. — The  amount  of  injury  to 
buds  from  frosts  cannot  be  computed:  a 
few  days  before  or  after  the  blossoming 
period  may  make  an  untold  amount  of 
difference.  Buds  that  have  been  injured 
by  frosts  may  yet  have  enough  vitality 
to  bloom  and  yet  not  have  enough  to  set 
fruit.  Some  buds,  from  their  position, 
their  state  of  maturity,  or  because  they 
are  more  hardy,  may  be  less  injured 
than  others  on  the  same  tree.  Varieties 
considered  tender  may  be  able  to  set 
fruit  after  experiencing  an  unusually 
heavy  frost,  yet  fail  the  next  year  when 


414 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


lighter  frosts  have  touched  them.  The 
advancement  or  retardation  of  the  buds 
may  account  for  this.  Though  neither 
the  pistil  nor  the  stamens  are  badly  in- 
jured by  the  frost,  the  ovary  may  be  so 
badly  injured  that  fecundation  is  impos- 
sible. Heavy  frosts  during  the  blossom- 
ing period  may  so  impair  the  fruiting 
organs  as  to  cause  the  dropping  of  the 
fruits  after  they   have  set. 

4.  The  trees  may  lack  proper  nour- 
ishment.— This  may  be  from  a  lack  of 
water  or  it  may  be  from  a  lack  of  other 
plant  foods.  Orchards  which  have  been 
improperly  cultivated,  or  which  have 
grown  heavy  crops  of  apples  and  have 
not  had  the  elements  removed  by 
these  crops  returned,  may  fail  to  set 
fruit  buds  in  the  proper  manner.  In  an 
experiment  with  pollen  from  an  improp- 
erly nourished  Missouri  Pippin,  it  was 
found  that  this  pollen  was  very  much 
less  potent  than  the  pollen  from  a  more 
thrifty  tree.  Poorly  nourished  trees  were 
found  to  be  more  liable  to  self-sterility. 
Many  orchards  set  in  the  early  history 
of  the  different  sections  have  ceased 
bearing,  in  all  probability  from  the 
effects  of  continued  starvation,  and  many 
other  younger  orchards  fail  to  set  fruit 
from  the  same  cause. 

5.  The  trees  may  fail  to  set  fruit 
from  an  excess  of  certain  kinds  of  nour- 
ishment.— The  above  may  be  the  case  or 
they  may  have  plant  food  at  the  wrong 
season  of  the  year.  It  is  a  well  known 
fact  that  the  reproductive  and  the  vege- 
tative powers  of  a  tree  are  exercised  in 
direct  opposition  to  each  other,  and  a 
tree  making  too  great  a  vegetative 
growth  is  liable  to  be  barren.  This  is 
especially  true  of  orchards  planted  close 
to  barns,  feed-lots  or  corrals,  where  the 
owner  is  in  the  habit  of  dumping  ma- 
nures. Under  such  favorable  conditions 
to  the  development  of  the  vegetative 
portion  of  a  tree,  it  would  be  much 
longer  in  reaching  maturity  and  would 
never  bear  as  well  as  another  tree  plant- 
ed in  soil  with  nearer  the  optimum 
amount  of  plant  food  or  with  plant  food 
better  adapted  to  its  needs.  On  such  a 
tree    the    fruit    buds    would    be    few    and 


would  go  into  winter  in  an  immature 
condition,  with  few  chances  of  escaping 
winter  injury.  Orchards  may  fail  to  set 
fruit  because  of  too  great  a  growth  dur- 
ing the  season  when  fruit  buds  are  form- 
ing. A  later  fall  growth  may  open  the 
road  to  winter  injury  because  of  im- 
proper ripening  of  the  wood.  Winter 
killing  of  the  immature  wood,  together 
with  the  fruit  buds,  is  very  often  the 
result. 

6.  Blossoms  may  fail  to  set  fruit  from 
improper  pollination. — Though  the  trees 
may  be  in  perfect  health,  the  winter  may 
not  have  been  severe  and  the  orchard 
may  be  a  mass  of  bloom,  there  may  be 
only  a  fraction  of  a  crop.  Isolated  trees 
which  are  self-sterile  cannot  set  a  full 
crop  of  fruit  because  so  few  bees,  the 
only  agents  of  pollination  acting  at  a 
distance,  visit  two  trees  very  far  apart 
during  the  same  absence  from  the  hive, 
and  very  few  of  the  blossoms  would  thus 
be  fertilized.  The  same  would  be  true 
of  large  blocks  of  trees  planted  to  single 
varieties.  The  bees  would  carry  little 
else  than  the  pollen  of  that  variety.  An- 
other case  of  improper  pollination  is 
noticed  when  the  weather  is  damp  and 
cold  during  the  blossoming  period.  Such 
weather  prevents  the  work  of  bees  and 
often  causes  the  germination  or  the 
decomposition  of  the  pollen  grains.  Even 
when  the  pollen  grains  are  not  entirely 
spoiled,  may  it  not  happen  that  when 
slightly  wet  pollen  falls  on  the  stigma 
it  possesses  just  enough  vitality  to  ger- 
minate and  start  fecundation,  but  not 
enough  to  carry  it  through  all  the 
changes  necessary  to  complete  fertiliza- 
tion? If  such  be  the  case,  the  pistil 
after  responding  would  waste  away. 
Vigorous  pollen  would  thus  be  prevented 
from  fertilizing  the  pistil,  when  the 
weather  became  bright  and  warm  enough 
to  properly  ripen  the  pollen  and  bring 
out  the  bees,  and  fruit  would  fail  to  set 
as   it  should. 

Dry,  hot  and  windy  weather  may  so 
badly  injure  the  stamens  that  they  can- 
not properly  mature  their  pollen  or  it 
may  cause  the  dehiscence  of  the  anthers 
before   the   pollen   is  mature.     The  same 


APPLES 


415 


theory  may  be  applied  to  the  partial 
fecundation  of  the  ovules  by  pollen  in- 
jured in  this  manner  as  that  injured  by 
wet  and  cold. 

Pollen  grains  may  be  entirely  washed 
away  during  extremely  wet  weather  or 
blown  away  during  dry  periods.  High 
winds  may  waste  the  greater  amount  of 
pollen  and  may,  during  very  hot  weather, 
when  the  pistil  is  in  a  receptive  condi- 
tion, so  entirely  dry  up  the  fluids  se- 
creted by  the  stigma  as  to  make  germi- 
nation impossible  or  even  blow  away 
what  pollen  is  held  by  the  stigma  by 
reason  of  its  roughened  surface.  Dust 
storms  during  the  time  when  the  pistil 
Is  receptive  may  make  pollination  im- 
possible from  the  fact  that  the  papillose 
stigma  catches  dust  particles  which  ab- 
sorb the  juices  there  secreted  and  thus 
covers  the  stigma  with  a  coating  of  very 
fine  particles  of  dust  firmly  cemented  to- 
gether by  this  sticky  fluid. 

Several  years  ago  Prof.  W.  J.  Beal,  of 
Michigan,  published  a  series  of  articles 
on  the  classification  of  apples  by  their 
flowers.  Pomologists  gave  little  atten- 
tion to  the  work  and  nothing  has  been 
heard  of  it  since.  Orchardists  need  a 
more  scientific  and  systematic  classifica- 
tion than  is  offered  by  Thomas,  Down- 
ing, and  Warder,  who  base  their  classi- 
fication on  season  or  color.  In  the  study 
of  the  forms  of  blooms  and  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  organs  of  the  flowers,  it  was 
found  that  each  variety  possesses  def- 
inite characteristics  that  might  be  used 
to  distinguish  it  from  other  varieties. 
These  characteristics  are  often  modifica- 
tions to  insure  pollination  or  to  prevent 
self-fertilization,  as  in  the  case  of  Grimes 
Golden,  in  which  the  pistils  recurve  out- 
ward, as  shown  in  Figure  2.  In  some 
of  the  fiowers  of  this  variety  this  char- 
acter is  developed  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  make  self-pollination  absolutely  im- 
possible. The  position  of  the  pistil  also 
insures  pollination  from  visits  of  bees. 
Other  forms  of  pistils  are  shown  in  the 
Ben  Davis,  which  has  a  very  straight, 
upright  pistil,  and  Smokehouse,  which 
has  a  very  large  knobbed  pistil. 

These     modifications     of     pistils,     the 


habits  of  the  anthers  in  dehiscing,  the 
shape,  size  and  color  of  the  flower,  the 
fruits  and  the  definite  characters  of  the 
lately  introduced  Russian  varieties,  all 
offer  a  basis  of  scientific  classification  of 
the  apple.  This  classification  might  be 
in  groups,  possessing  certain  characters, 
much  in  the  same  way  as  Waugh  has 
classified  the  "Apples  of  the  Fameuse 
Type"  (Vermont  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin  S3,  1900).  Such  a  knowledge  of 
relationship  might  be  used  to  insure 
wider  crosses  and  greater  fruitfulness  in 


Fi 


g.  2.  No.  4.  Keciured  Pistils  of  Grimes  Gold- 
en. No.  .">.  Pistils  of  Smokehouse.  No.  6, 
Pistils  of  Ben  Davis. 


our  orchards  rather  than  the  present 
haphazard  method  of  planting  very 
closely  related  varieties  near  each  other. 
These  characters  might  well  lead  one  to 
think  that  Winesap,  Arkansas  Black, 
Mammoth  Black  Twig  and,  perhaps, 
Benoni,    are    closely    related. 

Agents  of  Folliuatioii 

During  the  years  of  especially  favor- 
able weather  and  when  all  things  are  in 
the  proper  conditions  for  the  largest 
crops  and  the  greatest  fruitfulness,  the 
apple  seldom  sets  more  than  from  four 
to   seven   per   cent  of  the   flowers   borne. 


416 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


The  conditions  must  be  favorable  beyond 
expectation  when  ten  per  cent  of  the 
flowers  set  fruit.  A  correspondent  asks 
why  more  apples  were  borne  on  the 
north  side  than  on  the  south  of  his 
trees  in  the  summer  of  1901.  Taking  the 
bloom  chart  for  1901  and  comparing  the 
directions  of  the  wind  during  the  days 
when  the  trees  were  in  bloom,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  wind  held  steadily  south- 
west, blowing  from  five  to  20  miles  per 
hour.  The  question  then  arose  as  to 
why  the  blossoms  on  the  south  side  of 
the  tree  were  not  fertilized  by  the  wind 
carrying  pollen  from  the  tree  directly 
south  of  it  in  the  same  row.  if  the  wind 
is  an  agent  of  pollination.  The  theory 
was  advanced  at  the  time  that  perhaps 
bees  did  most  of  the  work  of  pollina- 
tion and  worked  out  of  the  wind.  Later 
experiments  have  gone  to  show  that  this 
is  largely  true,  though  they  do  work  in 
the  wind.  During  the  blooming  period 
of  Huntsman,  when  it  was  not  blowing 
a  gale,  the  wind  was  south  or  east.  To 
find  out  how  much  truth  there  was  in 
the  above  theory,  the  bees  were  counted 
on  each  side  of  the  tree  in  a  hasty  way 
so  as  to  count  as  tew  as  possible  twice. 
During  the  time  when  Huntsman  was  in 
full  bloom,  with  an  east  wind  and  the 
sun  shining  warmly,  there  were  counted 
20  bees  on  the  west  side  and  eight  on 
the  east.  Taking  the  same  tree  with  a 
wind  blowing  at  a  rate  of  about  seven 
or  eight  miles  an  hour  from  the  south 
and  small  'choppy"  clouds  flying,  there 
were  counted  16  bees  on  the  north  side 
and  five  on  the  south.  On  April  30 
Kinnaird  was  in  full  bloom  and  an  east 
wind  was  blowing  at  a  rate  of  10  or  12 
miles  an  hour.  The  day  was  warm  and 
sunny  and  the  bees  were  out  in  force. 
Five  bees  were  counted  on  the  east  side 
and  10  on  the  west  of  one  tree  and  on 
another  of  the  same  variety  four  bees 
were  counted  on  the  east  side  and  16 
on  the  west.  These  figures  cannot  be 
laid  to  the  bees'  preference  to  sunshine 
or  shade  as  they  worked  in  the  full  sun- 
shine in  one  case  and  in  the  shade  on 
another.  There  was  not  much  difference 
in  the  temperature  for  the  different  days. 


By  watching  the  bees  during  the  time 
when  the  work  of  pollinating  the  flowers 
was  being  carried  on,  it  was  noticed 
that  in  every  case  the  bees  chose  the 
side  of  the  tree  most  protected  from  the 
wind.  The  honey  bee  was  the  principal 
visitor,  though  other  bees  were  noticed 
to  be  at  work.  But  two  bumble  bees 
were  noticed  during  the  whole  week  that 
the  work  was  being  carried  on.  Six 
species  of  bees  were  noticed  at  one  time 
at  one  tree.  Bees  were  noticed  to  visit 
the  same  flower  five  or  six  times  during 
the  course  of  15  or  20  minutes,  and  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  each  flower  was  visited 
25  or  30  times  during  the  day,  and  could 
scarcely  have  escaped  pollination  from 
this  source.  Many  other  insects  were 
seen  to  visit  the  flowers  to  eat  the  pollen, 
to  gather  honey  or  to  prey  on  other  in- 
sects. In  any  case  they'  may  have,  to 
some  extent,  aided  in  pollination.  The 
greatest  agent  of  pollination  is  undoubt- 
edly the  honey  bee.  though  in  its  ab- 
sence other  species  would  carry  on  the 
work  to  such  an  extent  as  to  insure  a 
crop  of  apples  were  the  weather  favor- 
able for  the  work  of  bees  during  the 
blooming  period. 

To  ascertain  the  extent  to  which  the 
wind  is  an  agent  of  pollination,  micro- 
scope slides  were  set  in  the  orchard  to 
catch  pollen.  These  slides  were  pre- 
pared by  smearing  them  with  pure  glyc- 
erine. The  slides  were  numbered  and 
the  height  and  distances  were  recorded 
for  that  number.  Afterwards  these  slides 
were  taken  in  and  examined  with  a 
microscope  to  find  how  many  pollen 
grains  had  been  caught.  The  days  when 
these  slides  were  put  in  the  orchard 
were  ideal  for  pollination.  The  sun  was 
shining  and  a  great  many  anthers  were 
dehiscing.  The  wind  was  blowing  at  a 
rate  of  about  five  or  six  miles  an  hour. 
The  slides  set  very  near  a  full  blooming 
Rome  Beauty  were  left  four  hours.  Num- 
ber one  was  set  at  a  height  of  about  six 
feet  and  20  feet  away  from  the  tree,  but 
one  grain  of  pollen  was  found  to  adhere 
to  it:  number  two  at  eight  feet  high  and 
12  feet  from  the  tree  caught  but  one 
pollen   grain:    number  three  at  a  height 


APPLES 


417 


of  three  feet  and   15   feet  from  the   tree 
caught   but  five  grains. 

On  April  28  slides  were  set  near  a  very 
full  blooming  Kinnaird  and  left  seven 
and  one-half  hours  in  a  wind  blowing 
four  or  five  miles  per  hour.  Number 
four  was  set  at  a  height  of  six  feet,  15 
feet  from  the  tree,  and  caught  10  grains 
of  pollen.  Number  five  was  set  at  a 
height  of  six  feet,  25  feet  from  the  tree, 
and  caught  but  three  grains  of  pollen. 
Number  six,  at  a  height  of  three  feet,  15 
feet  from  the  tree,  held  five  grains  of 
pollen.  The  same  day  slides  were  set 
near  a  tree  of  Cullen  and  left  for  the 
same  length  of  time,  seven  and  one-half 
hours.  Number  seven  was  set  at  a  height 
of  eight  and  one-half  feet,  33  feet  from 
the  tree,  and  caught  but  seven  grains  of 
pollen. 

From  foregoing  results  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  wind  does  aid  in  pollination. 
The  reason  why  more  grains  of  pollen 
were  caught  by  the  slides  further  away 
from  the  tree  than  those  close  to  it  is 
because  the  grains  of  pollen  hold  to- 
gether to  some  extent  until  they  are 
blown  apart  by  the  wind.  Though  this 
is  all  true  it  cannot  be  expected  that 
the  wind  is  much  of  an  agent  in  the 
pollination  of  orchards.  To  illustrate,  let 
us  compare  the  apple  with  the  pine.  The 
pine  is  fertilized  almost  entirely  by  the 
wind  and  without  doubt  there  are  as 
many  pistils  to  fertilize  in  pine  as  in 
the  apple;  yet,  though  there  are  showers 
of  pollen  from  the  pine  that  make  the 
ground  yellow,  some  of  the  pistils  escape 
fertilization,  as  will  be  seen  on  the  ex- 
amination of  a  pine  cone,  by  the  number 
of  infertile  seeds  it  contains.  By  com- 
paring the  amount  of  pollen  produced  by 
the  apple  with  that  produced  by  the  pine, 
it  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  wind  is  a 
very  insignificant  agent  in  the  pollina- 
tion of  our   orchards. 

The  notes  as  to  the  number  of  pollen 
grains  were  taken  for  about  one  square 
centimeter.  As  each  apple  blossom  con- 
tains five  pistils  and  each  is  only  the 
fraction  of  a  centimeter,  wind  pollina- 
tion would  be  more  accidental  than 
otherwise.  G.   O.   Greene, 

Manhattan.   Kan. 


Hybridiitatioii 

ProdHOtion  of  New  Varieties  by  Cross 

Pollination 

From  our  own  experience  and  the  ex- 
perience of  others,  it  would  appear  that 
if  a  good  late  keeping  apple  is  desired, 
the  chances  are  very  slight  that  it  will 
be  produced  from  seeds  of  an  early 
apple.  On  the  other  hand,  seeds  from  a 
late  keeping  apple  will  not,  necessarily, 
produce  late  keeping  varieties.  Apples 
have  been  so  inter-crossed,  in  nature,  for 
hundreds  of  years,  that  the  characteris- 
tics of  many  varieties  are  apparent  in 
the  seedlings  of  one.  It  is  possible  that 
there  never  was  a  case  where  a  seedling 
of  a  cultivated  variety  of  apple  was  iden- 
tical in  every  respect  with  its  parent. 
If  it  is  desired,  then,  to  originate  a  new 
variety,  the  following  methods  are  recom- 
mended as  being  the  most  likely  to  pro- 
duce the  variety  with  the  characteristics 
sought  for,  although  thousands  of  seed- 
lings may  have  to  be  grown  to  attain 
this  purpose: 

1.  To  produce  a  hardy  apple  where 
no  apples  have  yet  been  found  hardy: 
Sow  seeds  of  apples  which  have  ripened 
in  a  climate  as  nearly  similar  as  pos- 
sible. 

2.  To  produce  a  hardy  long  keeping 
apple  of  good  quality:  Sow  seeds  of  long 
keeping  apples  of  good  quality  which 
have  ripened  in  a  similar  climate,  and 
when  possible  have  both  parents  long 
keeping   varieties. 

3.  To  produce  an  apple  having  certain 
characteristics,  as  regards  hardiness, 
vigor  and  productiveness  of  tree,  and 
quality,  size  and  appearance  of  fruit: 
Sow  seeds  of  varieties  having  most  of 
the   characteristics   desired. 

4.  If  seedlings  are  to  be  grown  on  a 
large  scale,  more  varieties  having  the 
characteristics  desired  will  probably  be 
obtained  if  trees  of  several  named  sorts 
blossoming  at  the  same  time  be  planted 
in  close  proximity  in  the  orchard,  and 
the  seeds  used  from  fruit  borne  on  these 
trees.  The  trees  thus  planted  should 
combine  all  the  good  points  in  the  stand- 
ard aimed  at,  for  the  variety  to  be  orig- 
inated. 


418 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Apple  seeds  germinate  best  when  sown 
in  the  autumn.  If,  however,  it  is  not 
convenient  to  sow  them  at  that  time, 
they  may  be  stratified;  that  is,  mixed 
with  sand,  slightly  moist,  but  not  wet, 
and  kept  in  a  cool  but  dry  place  until 
spring.  Seeds  should  not  be  sown  in  the 
autumn  in  soil  which  heaves  much;  bet- 
ter hold  them  over  and  sow  them  as 
early  in  the  spring  as  the  soil  can  be 
worked.  If  apple  seeds  become  very  dry 
they  may  not  always  germinate  satis- 
factorily, and  this  should  be  guarded 
against.  The  seeds  should  be  sown  thin- 
ly, about  two  inches  deep,  in  rows  from 
two  and  one-half  to  three  feet  apart.  Or, 
if  the  quantity  is  small,  beds  may  be 
prepared  and  the  seeds  sown  in  rows 
about  six  inches  apart.  If  sown  in  the 
autumn,  most  of  them  should  germinate 
the  following  spring  and  make  a  growth 
of  from  one  to  two  feet  that  season. 
They  should  be  transplanted  the  follow- 
ing spring  into  rows  from  two  and  one- 
half  to  three  feet  apart,  placing  them  12 
inches  apart  in  the  rows.  The  next 
spring  they  should  be  in  good  condition 
for  planting  in  the  seedling  orchard. 

Cross-bred  and  Hybrid  Varieties 

Those  varieties  which  are  originated 
by  artificial  cross-fertilization  and  hy- 
bridization are  called  cross-bred  and  hy- 
brid, respectively.  A  hybrid  is  a  cross 
between  two  species:  as,  for  instance, 
between  Pyrus  Mains,  the  apple,  or  a 
variety  of  it,  and  Pyrus  haccata,  the 
Siberian  crab.  A  cross-bred  is  a  cross 
between  two  varieties  of  the  same  spe- 
cies, as,  for  instance,  between  the  North- 
ern  Spy  and  Mcintosh   Red  apples. 

Although  nearly  all  our  best  apples 
have  been  originated  as  seedlings,  the 
reason  is,  not  that  good  varieties  cannot 
be  produced  by  artificial  cross-fertiliza- 
tion, but  that  comparatively  little  sys- 
tematic work  has  been  done  in  this 
direction  in  America  until  recent  years. 
When  one  considers  that  a  very  large 
number  of  chance  seedlings  have  been 
the  result  of  natural  cross-fertilization 
of  the  flowers  of  different  varieties  (for 
it  is  now  an  established  fact  that  many 


varieties  of  apples  are  self-sterile)  it  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  a  much  larger 
percentage  of  good  apples  will  be  ob- 
tained if  the  flowers  are  pollinated  arti- 
ficially, as  then  only  the  varieties  which 
have  the  characteristics  desired  in  the 
seedlings  will  be  used  as  the  parents, 
and,  although  it  has  been  already  said 
that  apples  have  been  so  inter-crossed  in 
nature  for  hundreds  of  years  that  there 
is  no  certainty  what  the  seedlings  of 
any  variety  will  be  like,  yet  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  parents  will  be  more 
likely  to  predominate  than  those  of  vari- 
eties whose  blood  has  intermingled  at  a 
more  remote  period.  Before  beginning 
any  work  of  this  kind,  it  is  important, 
then,  to  decide  what  kind  of  an  apple  is 
most  desired,  and  to  select  as  parents 
those  varieties  which  have  as  many  of 
the  qualities  sought  for  as  possible.  The 
seedlings  raised  will  probably  have  more 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  female  par- 
ent than  of  the  male,  and  this  should 
be  taken  into  consideration  when  select- 
ing the  variety  for  that  purpose.  There 
is,  however,  no  certainty  in  the  matter, 
and  in  originating  cross-bred  apples  it 
is  wise  to  do  some  crossing  with  one 
variety  as  the  female  parent,  and  some 
with  the  variety  as  the  male  parent.  A 
hybrid,  however,  is  almost  certain  to 
partake  moi-e  of  the  female  parent  if 
the  species  differ  widely. 

The  season  when  one  may  pollinate 
apple  blossoms  is  very  limited,  as  there 
is  only  from  a  week  to  10  days  during 
which  the  work  may  be  done.  In  the 
blossom  of  the  apple  the  organs  of  re- 
production represent  both  sexes.  When 
the  pollen,  which  is  the  fine  dust  con- 
stituting the  male  part  of  the  flower, 
comes  in  contact  with  the  stigma,  which 
is  the  upper  part  of  the  female  organ, 
fertilization  is  liable  to  take  place,  and 
this  must  be  prevented  if  artificial  pol- 
lination is  to  be  performed.  The  pollen 
which  is  contained  in  the  anthers  is 
shed  almost  as  soon  as  the  blossoms 
open,  and  work  must  begin,  therefore, 
when  the  flower  is  in  bud.  There  are 
usually  five  or  six  buds  in  a  cluster  on 
apple  trees,  but  generally  only  the  strong- 


APPLES 


419 


est  of  these  set  fruit.  The  more  the 
flower  bud  is  developed,  the  greater 
chances  there  will  be  that  artificial  pol- 
lination will  be  successful.  The  opera- 
tor, however,  must  be  certain  that  no 
pollen  has  already  been  shed.  Two  or 
three  of  the  weakest  and  least  developed 
buds  are  pinched  off  and  the  remainder 
are  left  to  be  operated  upon,  or,  if  some 
of  the  flowers  are  open,  they  are  re- 
moved and  the  others  left.  A  pair  of 
small  tweezers  are  very  good  for  this 
purpose.  They  should  be  perfectly  smooth 
at  the  tips,  both  outside  and  inside,  so 
that  no  pollen  will  lodge  there.  The 
petals  of  the  buds  are  now  removed  by 
means  of  the  tweezers;  the  anthers 
which  contain  the  pollen  are  then  re- 
moved, by  breaking  the  filaments  off, 
and  thrown  away.  In  removing  the 
petals  and  anthers,  great  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  stigmas  are  not  injured, 
as,  if  they  are,  failure  is  certain.  Only 
the  female  part  of  the  flower  now  re- 
mains. The  stigmas  are  in  condition  to 
receive  the  pollen  when  they  become 
moist.  They  will  remain  in  this  condi- 
tion for  a  day  or  two.  Pollen  may, 
however,  be  applied  to  the  stigmas  be- 
fore they  are  ready,  as  pollen  will  stay 


in  good  condition  longer  than  the  stig- 
mas. If  the  pollen  is  not  applied  imme- 
diately, the  flowers  which  have  been 
operated  upon  should  be  covered  with  a 
stout  paper  bag  and  the  mouth  tied 
tightly  about  the  twig,  so  that  no  insect 
can  get  in.  Flower  clusters  of  the  vari- 
ety of  apple  which  is  to  supply  the  pollen 
and  be  the  male  parent  of  the  future 
seedlings,  should  be  gathered  just  before 
the  buds  open,  and  the  twigs  put  in 
water  until  the  blossoms  open  and  the 
pollen  is  shed,  which  can  be  easily  de- 
tected as  the  anthers  burst  open,  when 
the  pollen  becomes  quite  visible  to  the 
naked  eye.  If  the  flowers  are  taken  in 
the  orchard  after  they  open  there  is 
every  probability  that  insects  may  have 
deposited  pollen  from  other  varieties 
there,  and  thus  the  parentage  of  the 
cross-bred  variety  would  not  be  certain. 
When  the  pollen  and  stigmas  are  ready, 
the  bag  is  removed  and  the  stigmas  then 
well  covered  with  the  pollen.  This  may 
either  be  effected  by  holding  the  flower 
in  the  fingers  and  rubbing  the  anthers 
against  the  stigmas,  by  putting  some  of 
the  pollen  on  the  finger  nail  and  thus 
rubbing  it  on.  or  by  applying  it  on  the 
end   of   a   knife   or   some   other   flat   sur- 


Flower  of  Apple  Prepared  for  Cross-Fertilizing — 1,  flower  just  before  opening; 

2,   the   petals   removed ;    3,    the  anthers   removed ;    4.   one   of   the 

anthers  ;  5  and  6,  views  of  pollen  highl.v  magnified. 


420 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


face.  The  camel's  hairbrush,  which  is 
often  recommended,  is  not  a  safe  thing 
to  use,  as  pollen  may  stick  in  the  hairs, 
and  if  several  kinds  are  worked  with, 
there  will  be  no  certainty  as  to  the 
parentage.  After  this  operation  has  been 
performed  the  bag  should  be  put  on 
again  and  tied  tightly  as  before.  A  label 
should  then  be  attached  to  the  twig,  on 
which  should  be  written  a  number,  the 
names  of  the  male  and  female  parents, 
the  number  of  flowers  operated  on,  and 
the  date  on  which  the  work  was  done. 
This  record  should  also  be  kept  in  a 
notebook.  When  the  blossoming  period 
is  over,  and  the  fruit  is  well  set  the 
paper  bag  should  be  removed,  a  record 
taken  of  the  number  of  apples  which 
have  set,  and  then  a  gauze  or  muslin 
bag  tied  over  the  fruit  instead  of  the 
paper  one.  The  apples  should  then  be 
left  to  grow  and  ripen  in  the  orchard. 
Late  apples  which  are  not  thoroughly 
matured  when  harvested  should  be  left 
as  long  as  possible  before  the  seeds  are 
taken  out.  The  seeds  should  be  re- 
moved, however,  in  time  to  sow  them 
before  winter  sets  in.  They  should  be 
counted  and  the  number  recorded  with 
the  other  data,  and  then  treated  the 
same  as  has  already  been  recommended 
in  the  paragraph  on  Seedling  Varieties. 
Much  systematic  work  has  been  done 
in  Canada  in  originating  varieties  of 
apples  by  cross-fertilization  and  hybrid- 
ization. To  the  late  Charles  Arnold,  of 
Paris,  Ont.,  and  to  the  late  P.  C.  Demp- 
sey,  of  Trenton,  Ont.,  is  due  great  credit 
for  work  done  at  a  time  when  few  were 
interested  in  the  scientific  asiiects  of 
fruit-growing.  The  Ontario  apple,  which 
was  originated  by  Charles  Arnold  by 
crossing  the  Northern  Spy  with  the  Wag- 
ener,  is  a  worthy  memorial  to  that  gen- 
tleman, it  being  one  of  our  best  and  most 
profitable  commercial  apples.  The  Tren- 
ton and  Walter  apples  are  two  of  Mr. 
Dempsey's  crosses,  and  are  among  the 
best  apples  of  their  season.  The  late 
horticulturist  of  the  Central  Experimental 
Farm,  Mr.  John  Craig,  also  did  some 
work  in  this  direction,  and  some  of  his 
crosses    which    have    fruited   are    promis- 


ing. During  the  past  eight  years  the 
writer  has  done  some  work  also,  the  ob- 
ject being  to  obtain,  if  possible,  hardy, 
late-keeping,  productive  apples  of  fine 
color  and  good  quality,  which  are  much 
needed  in  Northern  and  Eastern  Ontario 
and  the  Province  of  Quebec.  The  Mc- 
intosh Red  and  Lawver  apples  were 
used  for  this  work  at  first.  They  are 
good  sized  red  apples,  and  also  annual, 
though  not  heavy,  bearers.  The  Mcin- 
tosh Red  apple  is  probably  unsurpassed 
in  quality  by  any  apple  of  its  season. 
The  Lawver  apple  is  the  best  keeping 
apple  yet  fruited  at  the  Central  Experi- 
mental Farm,  it  having  been  kept  in 
good  condition  in  an  ordinary  cellar  for 
over  a  year.  It  was  thought  when  these 
crosses  were  made  that  the  Lawver 
would  continue  to  prove  hardy  at  Ottawa, 
but  this  variety  was  winter-killed  in 
1903-4. 

Bud-Tarieties,  Sports 
These  are  chance  variations  from  the 
ordinary  types  which  are  sufficiently  dis- 
tinct to  be  regarded  as  different  vari- 
eties. For  instance,  if  the  fruit  on  one 
branch  of  a  tree  which  has  not  been 
grafted  or  budded  is  quite  different  from 
that  on  the  others,  it  is  a  bud-variety. 
Bud-varieties  may  be  propagated  and 
perpetuated  the  same  as  other  kinds. 

Individuality  in  Apple  Trees 

Records  are  kept  of  the  yields  from 
each  individual  tree  in  the  orchard  at 
the  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa, 
hence  it  is  known  what  each  tree  pro- 
duces. It  has  been  found  that  there  is 
a  marked  variation  in  trees  of  the  same 
age  planted  at  the  same  time  and  grow- 
ing under  very  similar  conditions.  It  is 
now  recognized  by  some  of  the  best  au- 
thorities that  each  bud  of  a  tree  has 
individual  characteristics  which  separate 
it  from  all  other  buds  and,  although  the 
differences  in  buds  are,  in  most  cases,  so 
slight  that  it  is  impossible  to  detect 
them,  yet  in  some  Instances  they  may 
be  quite  marked.  Fruit  growers  have 
noticed  that  one  tree  or  bush  is  more 
productive  than  another  or  bears  larger, 
more    highly    colored    or    better    flavored 


APPLES 


421 


fruit  than  other  trees  of  the  same  vari- 
ety, but  few  persons  have  recorded  the 
yields  from  different  trees,  and  little 
definite  information  has  been  published 
on  the  subject.  From  the  records  kept 
at  the  Central  Experimental  Farm,  it  is 
shown  that  some  trees  have  yielded  from 
two  to  four  times  as  much  as  others. 
The  following  table  gives  the  results  ob- 


tained. Scions  have  been  taken  from 
these  trees  and  have  been  both  top- 
grafted  and  root-grafted  to  learn  if  this 
individuality  is  perpetuated  as  it  is  im- 
portant to  learn  if  the  tendency  towards 
heavy  or  light  bearing  is  continued  when 
scions  are  taken  from  these  trees  and 
grafted.  w.  T.  Macoun, 

Ceuti-al   Experimental  Farms,   Ottawa. 


APPLES— WEALTHY 
(Planted,  1896)— Yielded  in  Gallons 


Tree 

1899 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

Total 

Yield 

1899-1905 

1 

1.0 

2.0 

1.75 

9.0 

7.5 

3.25 

7.5 

2.25 

.5 

12.0 

2.25 

6.5 

6.5 

1.0 

8.5 

11.25 

12.25 

11.25 

7.5 

6.25 

5.5 

2.25 

2.25 

2.0 

2.75 
2.5 
2.25 
15.5 
7.75 
3.5 
10.0 
.5 
.25 

"4!5' 

.5 

3.5 

4.0 

1.0 

15.0 
12.0 
8.0 
20.5 
23.0 
24.0 
19.0 
21.5 
27.5 
30.0 
21.5 
18.5 
20.0 
34.0 
21.5 
22.5 
22.5 

'27;6' 
7.5 

ieio' 
■■2!6' 

.5 

"8'.5' 
4.5 

17.0 
14.0 
6.5 
1.0 
23.0 
17.5 

IQ.Q 
21.0 
17.5 
31.0 
13.5 
20.5 
17.0 
31.5 
16.5 
8.5 

1.0 

8.0 

7.0 
28.0 
13.0 

5.0 
19.0 

5.0 
20.0 

8.0 
10.0 
13.5 
19.0 

8.0 
16.0 
23.5 
16.0 

39.0 

o 

39.0 

3 

37.5 

4 

103.25 

5                .    .              

88.25 

6 

59.75 

7 

72.5 

8 

45.5 

9 

80.0 

10 

1.0 
1.25 

68.75 

11 

75.0 

12 

55.0 

13 

4.25 
2.5 

75.0 

14 

67.5 

15 

83.25 

16 

3.0 

76.25 

17 

50.0 

APPLE  S— McM  AH  AN 

(Planted,  1888)— Yielded  in  Gallons 


Tree 

1898 

1899 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

Total 

Yield 

1899-1905 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

62.0 
42.0 
32.0 
35.0 

■'i!6" 

29.0 

4.5 
9.5 
9.0 

83.0 
6.0 
49.0 
34.5 
55.0 
46.0 
19.5 
27.0 

2.0 
12.5 
18.0 

4.0 

49.0 

.5 

4.0 

9.0 

147.0 
98.0 
55.0 
63.0 

'69!5' 
19.0 
53.0 

1.5 
23.0 
63.5 
34.0 
61.0 
43.0 
39.5 
15.5 

141.0 

116.0 

56.0 

67.0 

■72!6' 
14.0 
54.0 

40.0 
30.0 
108.0 
69.0 
98.0 
96.0 
37.0 
35.5 

476.5 
328.5 
410.5 
306.5 
300.5 

6 

29.0 

.5 

7.0 

360.5 

7 

143.0 

8 

210.0 

APPLES PATTEN'S  GREENIJiG 

(Planted,  1892)— Yielded  in  Gallons 


Tree 

1898 

1899     1900     1901  1  1902     1903 

1904 

1905 

Total 

Yield 

1899-1905 

1.                               .    .           . 

27.0 
2.0 
2.0 

13.0 
1.0 

2.0  !  35.0       1.5     71.0 

15.0 
55.5 
67.0 
15.0 
21.0 

84.0 
7.5 
26.0 
45.0 
54.0 

34.0 
66.0 
69.0 
45.0 
75.0 

269.5 

2 

6.0 
31.0 

14.0     19.0     24.0 
1.5     40.5  ;  22.0 
6.5               !  12  0 

194.0 

3 

259.0 

4 

136.5 

5 

19.6         .5  !  17.5 

188.0 

422 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Effect  of  Cross-Pollination  on  tlie  Color 
of  Apples 

There  has  been  some  discussion  in  the 
past  as  to  tlie  effect  of  cross-pollination 
on  the  color  of  apples.  Some  have  talien 
the  ground  that  such  crossing  did  effect 
the  color  of  the  variety  crossed,  others, 
that  no  such  effect  was  produced  and 
that,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  no  effect 
could  be  looked  for. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  position  of 
investigators  at  the  present  time  on  this 
point,  some  50  letters  were  sent  to  heads 
of  departments  of  horticulture  in  the 
various  experiment  stations  in  the  coun- 
try and  to  others  whose  knowledge  or 
opportunity  for  observation  would  en- 
title them  to  an  opinion.  The  majority 
of  opinions  thus  far  seems  against  the 
theory.  All  shades  of  opinion,  however, 
are  given. 

"From  my  personal  observation  made 
in  an  orchard  of  from  100  to  200  trees 
I  find  that  there  is  no  immediate  effect 
of  pollination  upon  the  color  of  the 
different  varieties  of   fruit." 

G.  E.  Adams, 
Rhode  Island   State  College. 

"As  far  as  color  is  concerned  we  find 
that,  after  working  six  years,  very  little 
change  is  produced  directly  by  pollina- 
tion. We  have  made  no  observations  that 
lead  us  to  believe  that  color  was  directly 
affected  by  pollination.  Wherever  we 
have  detected  any  change  in  color  it  has 
been  slight.  The  benefits  of  cross-pollin- 
ation are,  first,  that  you  get  a  larger 
percentage  of  blossoms  to  set;  second, 
that  there  are  occasional  changes  in 
size   and   form."  C.    I.   Lewis, 

Oregon   Experiment   Station. 

"I  have  never  seen  among  fruit  trees, 
except  in  a  few  instances,  the  color  and 
form  which  I  could  believe  had  any  evi- 
dence of  being  changed  by  cross-pollina- 
tion. I  think  that,  in  a  case  where  apples 
turn  dark  or  striped,  it  is  wholly  the 
result  of  their  having  been  crossed  be- 
fore, similar  to  bud  sports,  which,  in 
fact,  they  are,  in  my  opinion.  The  whole 
matter  is  in  heredity,   not  from   pollen." 

LUTIIER    BtTRB.4NK. 
Santa   Rosa,   Cal. 


"Top  grafting  one  variety  of  apples  on 
another  will  not  change  the  color  of  the 
fruit,  nor  will  cross-pollination.  The 
cross  is  not  completed  until  the  seeds 
have  been  planted  and  the  new  tree  pro- 
duced." 

F.  Waxden, 
Seattle,  Wash. 

"Speaking  from  the  standpoint  of  a 
number  of  years  of  observation  I  do  not 
believ^e  that  any  definite  effect  of  this 
kind  (change  in  color)  can  be  counted 
upon  with  certainty.  One  frequently 
finds  examples  of  Greenings  being  appar- 
ently affected  by  the  pollen  of  a  Russet 
variety  standing  in  somewhat  close  prox- 
imity, but  I  do  not  think  you  can  count 
on  these  effects  occurring  with  continu- 
ous regularity.  They  are  to  be  regarded 
as  occasional  and  somewhat  sporadic. 
The  influence  of  cross-pollination  seems 
to  be  associated  with  affinities  of  vari- 
eties for  each  other." 

John  Craig, 
New   York   State   Agricultural    College. 

"Observations  on  cross-pollination  of 
apples  at  this  station  do  not  furnish  any 
evidence  that  the  color  of  varieties  is 
affected." 

Albert  Dickens, 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

"Insofar  as  our  knowledge  of  plant 
breeding  goes,  the  application,  for  ex- 
ample, of  Arkansas  Black  pollen  to  Spitz- 
enburg  would  have  no  effect  on  the  color 
of  the  resulting  apples.  The  pollen 
affects  only   the  seeds." 

James   G.   Moore, 
University  of  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture. 

"I  am  inclined  to  think  that  there  is 
not  much  basis  for  this  theory  (Effect 
of  foreign  pollen  on  the  color  of  apples). 
The  case  is  quite  different  from  that  of 
Xenia  in  corn,  inasmuch  as  we  are  here 
concerned  with  the  color  of  adnate  parts 
of  the  seed  rather  than  the  color  of  the 
seed  coat." 

H.  L.  Price, 
Virginia    Experiment    Station. 

"I  have  made  numerous  cross-pollina- 
tions between  various  varieties  of  apples 


APPLES 


423 


resulting  in  several  hundred  good  fruits. 
In  none  of  these  have  I  ever  seen  the 
slightest  indication  that  the  pollen  from 
one  variety  affects  the  color  of  the  vari- 
ety upon  which  it  is  used." 

R.  A.  Emebson, 
University  of  Nebraska,  Dept.   of  Hortioultui-e. 

"I  am  of  the  opinion  that  there  is  no 

reason  why  such  a  variation    (change  of 

color)    should    follow   on   the   surface    of 

the  fruit  by  the  cross-pollination." 

Fabian   Garcia, 

New    Mexico    College    of    Agricultural    and    Me- 
chanical  Arts. 

"In  recent  years  we  have  done  con- 
siderable cross-breeding  of  apples  here 
at  the  experiment  station  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  new  varieties.  We  have  never 
found  that  the  pollen  used  to  fertilize  a 
given  variety  in  any  way  modified  the 
color  of  that  variety.  For  instance,  we 
have  used  Jonathan  quite  largely  in  our 
crosses  and  have  crossed  it  with  a  goodly 
number  of  varieties,  some  of  which  are 
pure  yellow.  We  have  never  found  that 
a  Jonathan  fertilized  with  a  yellow  apple 
pollen  was  any  paler  in  color  than  when 
fertilized  by  a  bright  red  apple  like  the 
King  David." 

J.   C.   Whittix, 
University  of  Missouri,  Columbia,  Mo. 

"I  am  of  the  opinion  that  no  change 
of  color  will  result  from  crossing  apples 
of  different  colors." 

H.  S.  Erode, 
Whitman  College.  Dept.  of  Biology. 

"So  far  as  my  observation  goes  and 
also  from  the  standpoint  of  the  botany 
of  the  fruit,  I  have  grave  doubts  if  there 
is  any  direct  influence  of  the  pollen  of 
one  variety  on  the  color  of  the  fruit  of 
another  variety." 

E.   P.   Bennett, 
The  Colorado  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

"In  my  opinion  the  cross-fertilizations 
of  apples  has  no  appreciable  effect  on 
the  color  of  the  fruit.  I  realize  that 
some  horticulturists  differ  in  regard  to 
this.  In  fact  it  is  difficult  to  find  any 
two  horticulturists  who  will  agree  as  to 
the   effect   of   the   cross-pollenization.     It 


is  difficult  to  understand  how  it  can 
affect  the  coloring  of  the  apples  or  the 
quality  of  the  fruit,  i.  e.,  looking  at  it 
from  a  standpoint  of  a  plant  breeder." 

J.  N.  Alderman, 
West  Virginia   University. 

"As  to  the  matter  of  theory  regarding 
the  pollen  of  one  variety  of  fruit  affect- 
ing the  color  of  another  variety,  I  have 
never  tested  it  out  by  scientific  experi- 
ment but  I  have  been  observing  fruits 
for  many  years  that  had  every  oppor- 
tunity to  be  as  affected  and  have  never 
seen  anything  that  leads  me  to  believe 
that  there  is  such  influence.  The  skin 
of  each  variety  seems  to  have  its  char- 
acteristic color  regardless  of  others  that 
grow   near   it." 

H.  E.  Van  Deman. 

"All  of  my  experience,  in  crossing 
plants  of  different  kinds,  would  lead  me 
to  believe  that  there  would  be  very  little 
if  any  effect  shown  on  the  color  of  fruit 
that  received  pollen  from  some  other 
variety." 

E.  J.  Kyle, 
.\gricultural   and  Mechanical   College   of  Texas. 

"I  see  no  reason  why  cross-pollination 
should  have  any  effect  upon  the  color  of 
the  fruit.  The  edible  portion  of  the 
apple  and  the  skin  are  derived  from  the 
calyx  and  receptacle  and  not  from  any 
portion  of  the  plant  which  comes  from 
the  fertilized  egg,  consequently  there 
could  be  no  direct  effect  as  the  result  of 
a    cross-fertilization." 

George   M.   Reed, 
University   of   Missouri. 

"I  regret  that  I  have  no  experimental 
data  upon  the  subject  proposed  in  your 
letter  of  December  1st.  There  is  a  firm 
horticultural  conviction  that  there  may 
be  a  modification  of  the  current  growth 
of  fruit  while  a  cross-pollenized  seed  is 
maturing.  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  this 
conviction  is  warranted  by  observation, 
but  I  cannot  cite  specific  demonstration 
thereof." 

E.    J.    WiCKSON, 
University  of  California. 


424 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


"We  have  for  three  years  been  carry- 
ing on  apple  breeding  experiments  at 
this  station,  the  object  being  to  secure 
an  apple  better  adapted  to  Idaho  condi- 
tions than  now  existing  varieties.  In 
the  spring  of  1910  we  made  approxi- 
mately 5,000  crosses.  From  this  work  we 
got  a  little  better  than  2,000  apples.  The 
varieties  that  we  are  using  are  Ben 
Davis,  Spitzenburg,  Wagener.  Jonathan 
and  Winesap.  In  the  fall  of  1910  I 
noticed  a  variation  in  size,  flavor  and 
color.  The  color  factor  was  the  most 
interesting  one  to  me.  As  a  rule  the 
female  parent  characters  were  exceed- 
ingly strong.  By  placing  the  apple  from 
certain  parents  together,  such  as  Jona- 
than and  Ben  Davis,  and  comparing  this 
bunch  of  apples  with  the  apples  secured 
by  a  Spitzenburg  and  Ben  Davis  cross, 
I  noticed  a  very  superior  color  on  the 
latter  crop.  In  other  words,  when  the 
Spitzenburg  was  used  as  a  male  the 
crosses  all  showed  the  Ben  Davis  char- 
acters in  form,  size  and  texture  of  flesh, 
but  much  more  highly  colored  than  the 
crosses  where  the  Ben  Davis  was  used 
as  a  male  and  the  above  named  variety 
used  as  a  female.  These  conditions  were 
not  so  noticeable  among  our  crosses  of 
1911  but  were  slightly  showing.  We  do 
not  have  sufficient  proof  at  the  present 
time  to  say  that  such  conditions  will 
always  exist  but  I  am  inclined  to  think 
that  the  color  character  will  respond  to 
environmental  influence  more  quickly 
than   any   others.*" 

W.  H.  Wicks, 

Universit.v   of  Idalio.  College  of  Asriculture. 

"In  all  of  my  long  years  of  experience 
in  hand  pollinating  apple  blossoms  in 
connection  with  apple  breeding  work,  I 
have  rarely  seen  any  change  in  color  or 
form  which  could  be  attributed  only  to 
the  immediate  influence  of  the  pollen. 
There  came  to  my  notice  some  years 
ago,  an  apple  on  which  two-flfths  was 
the  color  of  the  Pewaukee.  The  apple 
was    produced    on    a    Pewaukee    tree    in 


•  Observation  on  the  1912  crop  convinced 
Professor  Wicks  that  there  was  nothing  In  the 
theory  and  that  the  supposed  effects  on  the 
1911  crop  were  due  to  environmental  causes. — 
Ed. 


which  the  branches  interlaced  with  those 
of  an  adjacent  Wealthy  tree.  The  effect 
of  the  immediate  influence  of  pollen  was 
so  clear  and  unmistakable  that  I  had 
the  apple  modeled  in  wax.  The  model  is 
now  in  the  museum  at  the  State  Experi- 
ment Station  at  Geneva,  N.  Y." 

S.  H.   Beach, 

Iowa    State   College   and   Expeiiment    Station. 

"There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that 
the  source  of  pollen  might,  to  a  very 
limited  extent,  modify  the  size  of  the 
fruit  produced  and,  in  some  rare  cases, 
the  color  to  a  slight  extent." 

O.    M.    MOBEIS, 

State   College  of  Washington. 

"In  my  own  experience  I  do  not  re- 
member any  instance  that  attracted  my 
attention  save  occasional  specimens  of 
apples  seen  bearing,  say,  a  sharply  de- 
fined longitudinal  band  of  red  on  a  yel- 
lowish apple,  the  band  covering  one-fifth, 
two-fifths  or  three-fifths  of  the  apple. 
The  only  explanation  I  have  ever  seen 
of  this  is  that  the  apple,  having  five 
stigmas,  in  this  case.  one.  two  or  three 
stigmas  had  been  pollinated  with  pollen 
from  a  red  variety,  but  this,  I  think,  is 
merely  a  theoretical   explanation." 

E.    W.M,KER, 
College   of  Agi'iculture,   Fayetteville.   Ark. 

SELF-FERTILE    AND   SELF-STERILE 
FRUITS 

Some  varieties  of  fruits  are  more  or 
less  completely  unable  to  pollinate  them- 
selves, and  they  should  be  planted  near 
other  varieties  to  insure  fruitfulness. 
Any  variety  will  fertilize  any  other 
variety  of  the  same  species,  so  far  as 
known,  if  the  bloom  occurs  at  the  same 
time.  In  general,  in  planting  a  self- 
sterile  variety,  every  second  or  third 
row  should  be  planted  to  some  other 
variety.  The  subject  is  little  understood, 
but  the  following  lists  represent  the  best 
of  our   knowledge. 

Pears  (Waite) 

Varieties  more  or  les^  self-sterile. — 
Anjou.  Bartlett.  Boussock.  Clairgeau, 
Clapp,   Columbia.    De   la  Chene,   Doyenne 


APPLES 


425 


SieuUe.  Easter,  Gansels  Bergamotte, 
Gray  Doyenne,  Howell.  Jones,  Lawrence, 
Louise  Bonne,  Jlount  Vernon,  Pound, 
Sheldon,  Souvenir  du  Congress,  Superfin, 
Colonel  Wilder,  Winter  Nelis. 

Varieties  generally  self-fertile. — An- 
gouleme,  Bosc,  Brockworth,  Buffman, 
Diel,  Doyenne  d'Alencon,  Flemish  Beauty, 
Heathcote,  Kieffer,  Le  Conte,  Manning 
Elizabeth,  Seckel,  Tyson,  White  Doyenne. 

Apples   (Waite  and  Fairchild) 

Varieties  more  or  less  self-sterile. — 
Bellflower,  Chenango  (Strawberry),  Grav- 
enstein.  King,  Northern  Spy,  Norton, 
Melon,  Primate,  Rambo,  Red  Astrachan, 
Roxbury  Russet,  Spitzenburg,  Tolman 
Sweet. 

Varieties  mostly  self-fertile. — Baldwin, 
Codling,   Greening. 

"The  varieties  of  apples  are  more  in- 
clined to  be  sterile  to  their  own  pollen 
than  the  pears.  With  the  former,  in  the 
great  majority  of  cases,  no  fruit  resulted 
from  self-pollination.  The  results,  as  a 
rule,  however,  were  less  clear-cut  than 
in  the  pear,  because,  with  most  of  the 
self-sterile  varieties,  an  occasional  fruit 
will  set  under  self-pollination,  and  none 
of-  the  varieties  were  very  completely 
self-fertile." — Waite. 


Otlier  Fruits 

"The  quince  seems  to  fruit  nearly  as 
well  with  its  own  pollen  as  with  that  of 
another  variety." — Waite. 

Many  of  the  native  plums  are  notori- 
ously self-sterile,  particularly  Wild  Goose. 
Other  self-sterile  varieties  are  Miner, 
Wazata,  Minnetonka,  Itaska.  Varieties 
more  or  less  self-fertile  are  Moreman, 
Newman,  Wayland,  Golden  Beauty,  Mari- 
anna.    Deep   Creek,    Purple   Yosemite. 

Strawberries  often  lack  stamens  alto- 
gether, whilst  others,  like  Crescent,  have 
so  few  and  so  poor  stamens  that  they 
are  practically  self-sterile.  Ordinarily, 
there  should  be  a  row  of  a  perfect- 
flowered  variety  for  every  two  rows  of 
a  pistillate  or  infertile  variety. 

Grapes   (Beach) 

Unfruitful  when  planted  by  themselves. 
— Black  Eagle,  Brighton,  Eumelan,  Mas- 
sassoit.  Wilder,  Rogers'  No.  5,  Gaertner, 
Merrimac,  Requa,  Aminia,  Essex,  Barry, 
Herbert,  Salem, 

Able  to  set  fruit  of  themselves. — Con- 
cord, Diamond,  Niagara,  Winchell  or 
Green  Mountain,  Rogers'  Nos.  13,  24,  and 
32,    Agwam,    Delaware. 

(Bailey's  Rule  Book,  pages  121,  122.) 


426 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


formal  Bloom  Chart 


APPLES 


No.  of 
Obser- 
vations 


APRIL 


MAY 


23    I   24   I   25    I   26    I    27    I   28   I   29   I   30   I     1     I     2    I     3    I    4 


May     

Benoni     

Peach    Pond    . . . 

Stevensun      

Early    Ripe    .... 

Fanny     

Gideon     

Oldenburg     

Seedless     

Early  Harvest  . 
Red  Astrachan  . 
Smith    Cider    .  . . 

Arkansas     

Bentley      

Gravenstein    .... 

Jonathan     

Stump     

Ridge     

Smokehouse    .... 

Keswick    

Red  June   

Pilot    

Colton    I 

Capp    

Berry   Red    

Summer    Pearmain. 

Buckingham 

Bullock    

Cannon     

Crop     

Horse    

Ivanhoe     

Sharp     

Bough      

Yellow    Bellflower.. 
Late     Strawberr.v .  . 

Milam     

Nero     

Yellow   Transparent 

Primate    

Stark     

Alexander     

Baldwin     

Boskoop     

Chenango    

Esopus    

Eureka    

Fameuse    

Gano    

Jersey   Sweet    I 

Missouri      I 

Nickajack   I 

Peck     I 

Pewaukee    I 

Plumb     I 

Shockley     

Swaar     I 

Tetofski    I 

Via    I 

Washington     I 

Willow    ' 

Wolf  River I 

Yates    I 

York    I 

Bryant     I 

Fall   Orange    I 

Fall    Pippin    

Jumbo    I 

Lankford    1 

St.  Win.  Pearmain.  I 


9 

8 

9 

10 

10 

8 

10 

10 

3 

9 

9 

9 

10 

10 

10 

5 

10 

9 

9 

9 

9 

2 

6 

5 

9 

8 

8 

6 

9 

7 

10 

8 

8 

0 

10 

4 

5 

9 

9 

8 

9 

9 

7 

8 

10 

10 

8 

9 

10 

10 

9 

9 

10 

9 

10 

9 

10 

8 

7 

10 

10 

9 

10 

9 

9 

10 

10 

9 

9 

9 


APPLES 
Normal  Bloom  Chart — Continued 


427 


APPLES 


No.  of 
Obser- 
vatioDS 


APRIL 


MAY 


I  27  I  28  I  29  I  30  I    1 


I   3 


6   I   7   I    8   I   9   I  10  I  11  I  12 


Limber  Twig   .  . . 

Loy    

Maiden   Blush    .  . 

Nash     

Rebel      

Robertson  White 
Summer    Rose.  . . 

Wiliiams    

Stewart     

Baltzley     

Aibemario     

Arliansas   Beaut.v 

Bonum     

Coffelt     

Lawyer    

Grimes     

Hubbardston  .  . . 
Rog:er"s   Sweet    .  . 

Royal   Red    

Vanderspiesel     .  . 

Wealthy    

White  Pippin  .  .  . 
Arlsansas  Blatk  . 
Cumberiand    .... 

Jefferis    

Sops-of-Wine     .  .  . 

Wagener    

Mann    

Beauty    of   Kent. 

Ben   Davis    

Chattahoochee  .  . 
Tompliins  King  . 
R.    I.    Greening.  . 

Winesap    

Mason    Stranger 
Newtown  Pippin 

Ortley    

Roxbury    

Sadie   Sweet    .  . .  . 

Tewksbur.y     

Virginia    Beauty 
Arlsansas   Red    .  . 
World    Wonder    . 
Mt.   Boomer    .... 

Tolman    

Rome    

Walbridge     

Porter    

Wythe    

Northern  Snv  .  . 
Moore   Seedling    . 

Mother     

Richland    , 

Ralls    


10 

9 

10 

10 

9 

6 

10 

10 

8 

9 

8 

10 

9 

6 

8 

10 

10 

5 

8 

7 

10 

10 

5 

5 

10 

9 

9 

7 

9 

10 

3 

9 

9 

10 

10 

8 

10 

9 

3 

9 

6 

2 

8 

9 

9 

9 

8 

8 

3 

8 

3 

9 

2 

7 


CRAB  APPLES 

No.  of 
Obaer- 
vations 

APRIL 

MAY 

21 

22 

23  1  24  1  2.5  1  26  1  27  1  28  1  29  1  30 

1       2 

3    1    4   1   5    1   6 

Lake  Yellow   . . 

8 
11 
12 
13 

9 

9 
11 

8 
11 
10 

8 
10 
10 

* 
* 

» 

* 
* 

• 

• 
• 

1 
•       • 

• 

• 
V 

* 

* 

* 

* 
• 

• 
« 
• 
• 

'.  ', 

* 

Transcendant     

Hyslop     

Maiden  Blush    

Elgin     

* 
* 

^ 

English    

Quaker   Beauty    

Red   Siberian    

Whitney    

Blushing    Maid    

Montreal    Beauty    .... 

V     V 

* 

The  dates  above  given  were  worked  out  by  the  Virginia  Experiment  Station  and  will,  of 
course,  vary  with  the  locality,  but  the  bloom  period  of  the  varieties  given  would  be  in  the  same 
relation  to  each  other. — Ed. 


428 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


VARIETIES  OF  APPLES 


Explanations 

A 

autumn 

G 

good 

S     summer 

a 

early  autumn 

Q 

green 

s      small 

a 

late  autumn 

k 

kitchen 

s      striped  or  splashed 

B 

best 

L 

large 

V     very 

b 

both  family  and  market 

M 

medium 

VG  very  good 

b 

both  kitchen  and 

market 

m 

market 

W    winter 

C 

cider 

0 

orange 

\V     early  winter 

c. 

conical 

ob 

oblate 

w     late  winter 

dr 

dark  red 

pip. 

pippin 

wi    white 

e. 

earlv  summer 

r 

red 

y       yellow 

f 

family 

r 

roundish 

fl 

flat 

ru 

russet 

The  asterisk  (•)  indicates  the  rating  lor  cultivation  in  the  northern,  central  and  southern 
divisions  of  the  United  States,  as  given  by  the  American  Pomoiogical  Society,  the  numerais  of 
the  iast  three  columns  representing  the  number  of  commendatory  stars  given  to  each  variety  on 
the  basis  of  one  star  (or,  very  meritorious,  two  stars)  for  a  state.  Those  marked  °  are  com- 
mended for  trial.  The  numerals  after  certain  of  the  varieties  refer  to  the  popular  synonyms, 
given  below  the  table. 


Names 


Size 


Form 


Color 

Qual- 
ity 

Use 

Season 

rs 

G 

6 

W 

rs 

G 

6 

a 

yr 

VG 

b 

W 

gy 

VG 

b 

W 

yr 

VG 

b 

W 

yr 

VG 

I 

W 

yr 

VG 

f 

A 

yr 

G 

6 

W 

gy 

VG 

f 

a 

gy 

VG 

f 

a 

r 

G 

f 

W 

rs 

VG 

b 

a 

yr 

VG 

b 

W 

rg 

VG 

b 

W 

ry 

VG 

b 

W 

y 

G 

b 

A 

y 

B 

b 

W 

r 

VG 

b 

W 

rs 

G 

6 

a 

y 

G 

f 

W 

yr 

B 

b 

W 

yr 

G 

b 

w 

yr 

VG 

b 

s 

gy 

VG 

b 

w 

rs 

VG 

f 

w 

yr 

B 

b 

w 

yr 

G 

f 

s 

gr 

G 

m 

a 

dr 

G 

f 

W 

s 

G 

b 

a 

yr 

VG 

b 

W 

r 

G 

m 

W 

ry 

G 

b 

W 

yr 

VG 

m 

a 

yrs 

G 

m 

a 

gy 

VG 

b 

S 

yr 

G 

m 

a 

r 

G 

m 

A 

N.        C. 
Div.    Div. 


S. 
Div. 


Akin 

Alexander 

American  Beauty 

American  Golden  (Pip.) 

Arkansas 

Arnold's  Beauty 

Aromatic  Carolina 

Arctic 

Autumn  Bough 

Autumn  Swaar 

Babbitt 

Bailey  Sweet 

Baker 

Baldwin 

Baltimore 

Baltzby 

Banana  (Winter  B.). . . . 

Beach 

Beauty  of  Kent 

Belden  Sweet 

Belmont 

Ben  Davis  (N.  Y.  Pip.). 

Benoni 

Bentley's  Sweet 

Berkshire  Spy 

Bethlehemmite 

Bevan  (B.'s  Favorite). . 
Bietigheimer  (Red  B.). 

Black  (Jersey) 

Bledsoe 

Blenheim  (Pippin) 

Blue  Pearmain 

Bogdanoff 

Bonum 

Borovinka 

Bough 

Bourassa 

Bowen  (Favorite) 


L 
L 
L 
L 
L 
M 
L 
L 
M 
M 
M 
L 
L 
L 
M 
L 
M 
L 
L 
M 
L 
L 
M 
M 
M 
L 
M 
L 
M 
L 
L 
L 
M 
L 
M 
L 
M 
M 


re 

re 

rob 

rob 

re 

fl 

fl 

re 

re 

rob 

r 

re 

rob 

re 

re 

rob 

re 

ob 

re 

re 

re 

re 

rob 

rob 

re 

rob 

fle 

fle 

fl 

r 

rob 

re 

ob 

rob 

rob 

ob 

re 

rob 


11* 
2* 
3* 

2* 

2* 


2* 

21* 

2* 


•->* 


1* 

6* 

5* 

10* 


10* 
2* 
1* 
2* 


I' 
1* 
11* 
1* 
1* 
1* 


7* 
30* 
16* 

2* 


1* 
2* 


9* 


2* 

12* 

2* 

1* 


APPLES 
Varieties  of  Apples — Continued. 


429 


Names 


Size 

Form 

L 

ft 

M 

r 

M 

re 

M 

re 

L 

fl 

L 

L 

c 

L 

rob 

L 

rob 

M 

fl 

S 

re 

M 

rob 

M 

flc 

M 

rob 

L 

rob 

L 

re 

M 

rob 

M 

rob 

M 

ob 

L 

re 

M 

r 

M 

re 

M 

rob 

M 

flc 

L 

re 

L 

rob 

L 

vc 

M 

rob 

M 

fl 

M 

obc 

M 

rob 

L 

c 

L 

re 

M 

rob 

L 

rob 

M 

r 

M 

r 

I. 

rob 

L 

rob 

.M 

r 

M 

re 

M 

ob 

.M 

ob 

L 

rob 

U 

fle 

L 

rob 

M 

re 

L 

re 

M 

rob 

L 

obc 

M 

rob 

M 

re 

M 

rob 

L 

rob 

M 

rob 

M 

r 

M 

rob 

S 

fl 

M 

r 

L 

re 

Colorl  Qual-   Use   Season 
,   ity   , 


N. 
Div. 


C. 
Div. 


S. 
Div. 


Bower's  Nonpareil.  ... 

Bowling's  Sweet 

Brittle  Sweet 

Broadwell 

Brown 

Bruce's  Summer 

Bryan,  ^Irs.  B 

Buckingham  (2} 

Buff 

Buftiugtou 

Bullock's  Pippin  (3)... 

Bmicombe 

Burlington  l.Pippin; .  .  . 
Cadwallader  (Golden). 

Calef  Sweet 

Calkins  ^.C.'s  Pippin).. 

Camack  Sweet 

Camfield 

Canada  Baldwin 

Canada  Reinette 

Cane  Creek  Sweet .... 

Cannon  Pearmain 

Carolina  Beauty 

Carolina  Watson 

Carlough 

Carter's  Blue 

Celestia 

Champlain  (N yackj . .  . 

Chattahoochee 

Chenango  (S'berry^  .  . 

Clark  Pearmain 

Clayton 

Clyde  (.Beauty) 

Cogswell 

Cole's  Quince  

Collins 

Colton  (Ea.  C.) 

Colvert 

Cooper 

Cooper  Early 

Cooper  Market .... 

Cornell 

Cox's  Orange  (Pippin;. 

Cracking 

Creek 

Cross 

Cullasaga 

Curtis'  Sweet 

Dan  vers'  Sweet   

Delicious 

Detroit  Red 

Disharoon 

Dominie 

Drap  d'Or 

Dutch  Mignonne 

Dyer  (35) 

Early  Harvest    

Early  Joe 

Early  Margaret 

Early  Pennock 


l/r 

V6 

yr 

G 

rs 

VG 

ay 

VG 

rs 

VG 

ob 

yr 
yr 

y 

yru 

yr 

yr 

y 
y 

yr 

y 
gr 

r 

gy 
y 

rs 
dr 

gyr 
gy 

gr 

gy 

yr 

y 

gr 

y 

yr 
gr 
yr 
gr 
s 

y 

yr 
gr 

y 

yr 

yr 

yr 

y 

yr 
rs 
ys 
yr 
gy 

yrs 
r 

g 
gr 

y 

rs 

gy 
gy 
yr 

rs 

g 


VG 

VG 

G 

G 

B 

G 

VG 

G 

VG 

G 

G 

G 

VG 

VG 

G 

VG 

G 

G 

G 

VG 

VG 

G 

G 

VG 

VG 

G 

G 

B 

VG 

VG 

VG 

G 

G 

G 

G 

G 

VG 

G 

VG 

VG 

G 

G 

VG 

B 

G 

G 

VG 

VG 

G 

VG 

VG 

B 

VG 

G 


m 
f 
b 
b 


b 

f 

f 

b 

m 

m 

b 

b 

b 

m 

b 

m 

b 

b 

b 

b 

m 

b 

b 

m 

m 

m 

b 

f 

k 

b 

b 

m 

k 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

f 

m 

f 

b 

f 

b 


W 

a 

a 

a 

a 

S 

a 

W 

W 

S 

w 

w 

\y 

\v 

\y 

\y 

w 

w 

w 

w 

s 

w 

w 

s 

w 


a 

W 

a 

W 

W 

w 
w 
w 
w 

s 

a 

a 

A 

W 

a 

a 

a 

W 

S 

w 

a 

W 

W 

W 

A 

W 

S 

W 

a 

S 

S 

S 

S 


2* 
5* 
3* 


2* 
2* 
5* 
9* 
16* 
5* 
1* 
2* 


12* 
1* 

2* 

12* 

4* 


10* 
2* 
3* 
2* 
2* 
4* 


2' 
9* 
4* 
2* 
6* 

'2*' 
1* 
1* 
2* 

6*' 


14* 

5* 

2* 

9* 

25* 

11* 

12* 

10* 


12* 
4* 

2* 


6* 

ii*' 


5* 

1* 
2* 
1* 
4* 

15* 
3* 

9* 
2* 


430 


KNCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL,  HORTICULTURE 
Tarieties  of  Apples — Continued. 


Names 


Size    Form  Color  Qual-   Use   Season:    N 
ity  Div. 


C. 


S. 


Div.  ;  Div. 


Early  Ripe 

Early  Strawberry  (.4) 

Edgar  Red  Streak 

English  Russet 

Esopus  Spitzenburg 

Etowah 

Eustis 

Evening  Party 

Ewalt 

Excel 

Fallawater  (5) 

Fall  Harvey 

Fall  Jenneting 

Fall  Orange 

Fall  Pippin 

Fall  Queen  (Haas) 

Fall  Wine 

Fameuse  (6) 

Family 

Fanny 

Faust  Winter 

Ferdinand 

Ferris 

Fink 

Foundling 

Fourth  of  July 

Fulton 

Gabriel 

Gano  (Payton) 

Garden  Royal 

Garretson 

Gilpin  (7; 

Golden  Ball 

Golden  Russet 

Golden  Sweet 

Granite  Beauty 

Gravenstein 

Green  Cheese 

Green  Newtown 

Green  Sweet 

Grimes'  Golden 

Haas  Fall  Queen 

Hall 

Hamilton 

Hartford  Sweet 

Haskell  Sweet 

Hawthornden 

Hewes'  Crab 

Hibernal 

Higby  Sweet 

High  Top  Sweet  (8) 

Hockett's  Sweet 

Holland  Pippin 

Hoover  (Bl'k  CoalJ 

Horn 

Horse  (Haas) 

Hubbardaton  (H.'s  Nonsuch). 

Hunt  Russet 

Huntsman's  Favorite 

Hurlbut 


L 

M 

M 

M 

L 

L 

L 

L 

L 

L 

L 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

L 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

L 

M 

M 

S 

L 

M 

L 

L 

L 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

S 

L 

L 

M 

M 

S 

M 

M 

S 

M 

L 

M 

M 

L 

L 

M 

L 

M 


rob 

r 

rob 

re 

ob 

obc 

rob 

fi 

r 

obc 

re 

rob 

fl 

r 

rob 

obc 

rob 

rob 

fie 

fl 

r 

fl 

rfl 

fl 

rob 

rob 

fl 

rob 

rob 

rob 

re 

re 

r 

rob 

r 

rob 

rob 

fl 

rob 

rob 

rob 

obc 

fl 

r 

rob 

fl 

rob 

r 

obc 

re 

r 

rob 

r 

r 

fl 

r 

re 

rob 

ob 

rob 


TS 

rs 
yru 

yr 
yr 

rs 

r 
yr 

yr 
ay 
yy 
gy 
y 
gy 

yr 

ry 

rs 

yr 

rs 

,yr 
1  y 

yr 
yr 
yr 
rs 

gy 

ry 

yr 

yr 

y 

yr 

y 

yru 

ay 
yr 
yr 
gy 
gy 
gy 
gy 
yr 
yr 
yr 

rs 

gy 
gy 

yr 
rs 

yr 
gy 
yr 
gy 

yr 
gr 

yr 
yr 

yru 

y 
yr 


G 

VG 

VG 

VG 

B 

G 

VG 

VG 

G 

VG 

G 

G 

G 

G 

VG 

G 

B 

VG 

VG\ 

VG\ 

G 

G 

G 

G 

G 

G 

G 

G 

G 

B 

G 

G 

G 

VG 

VG 

G 

VG 

VG 

VG 

G 

VG 

G 

VG 

G 

G 

VG 

G 

G 

G 

VG 

VG 

G 

G 

VG 

VG 

G 

VG 

VG 

VG 

G 


f 
f 
f 
b 
b 


f 

b 

m 

b 

m 

m 

m 

h 

b 

b 

f 

b 

m 

b 


b 

m 

f 

m 

m 

m 

m 

f 

k 

m 

f 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

f 

b 

f 

b 

m 

f 

6 

C 

6 

f 

b 

k 

6 

b 

b 

h 

b 

b 

b 

b 


a 
A 
a 
W 

S 

s 
w 
w 
w 

w 

A 

S 

W 

a 

W 

S 

A 

W 

a 

W 

S 

W 

a 

W 

W 

W 

w 

.1 
ir 

A 

w 

a 
a 
a 
A 

a 

S 

w 

a 
W 

w 
S 
W 

w 

w 

a 


1* 

3* 

"s* 

4* 

1* 

3* 

6* 

3* 

2* 

2* 

1* 

6* 

2* 

1* 

6* 

2* 

1* 

1* 

3* 

2* 

16* 

3* 

1* 

13* 

7* 

1* 

12* 

13* 

4* 

2* 

20* 

16* 

7* 

7* 

6* 

3* 

2* 

3* 

20* 

2* 

11* 

7* 

3* 
1* 

3* 

1* 

3* 
5* 

6* 

1* 



15* 

4* 


1° 

1* 

6* 

10* 

2* 
6* 

3* 

4* 

2* 

1* 

9* 

3* 

6* 

1* 

6* 

13* 

18* 

12* 

4* 

2* 
4* 

6* 

2* 

APPLES 
Varieties  of  Apples — Continued. 


431 


Names 


Size 


Form  Color 


Qual- 
ity   t 


Use 


Season    N. 
Div. 


C. 
Div. 


S. 
Div. 


Ingraham  (I.  Seedling).. 

Iowa  Blush 

Irish  Pippin 

Isham  (I.  Sweet) 

Jefferis 

Jefferson  County 

Jersey  Black 

Jersey  Sweet 

Jewett's  Red 

Jonathan 

Judson 

Julian 

Junaluskee 

Kent  Beauty 

Kentucky  Red  (6) 

Keswick  Codlin 

King  David 

Kinnarid 

Kingbridge  (White) 

Lady 

Lady's  Sweet 

Lankf  ord 

Lansingburg 

Late  Strawberry 

Lawver 

Lehigh  (L.  Greening) 

Lilly  (,L.  of  Kent) 

Limber  Twig 

Liveland  Raspberry 

Longfield 

Louise  (Princess  L.) 

Lome 

Loudon  Pippin 

Lowell  (10) 

Lyscom 

Magog  (M.  Red  Streak) . 

Mahomet 

Maiden's  Blush 

Major 

Mangum 

Mann 

Margaret  (Ea.  M.) 

Mary  Womac 

Mason's  Orange 

Mason's  Strange 

Mattamusket 

Maverack  Sweet 

Ma.\y 

McAfee  (11) 

Mcintosh  Red 

McLellau 

McMahau's  White 

Mellinger 

Melon 

Mexico 

Milam 

Milden  or  Milding 

Minister 

Minkler 

Missouri  Pippin 


M 


obc 


VG 


W 


M 

L 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

L 

M 

M 

L 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

S 

L 

L 

M 

M 

L 

M 

L 

M 

M 

M 

L 

L 

L 

L 

L 

L 

M 

M 

L 

M 

M 

M 

L 

VL 

M 

S 

M 

M 

L 

M 

M 

L 

M 

M 

M 

M 

L 

L 


r 

rob 

rob 

rob 

fi 

r 

rob 

re 

c 

flc 

rob 

re 

re 

re 

r 

fl 

ob 

fl 

r 

re 

rfl 

r 

rob 


re 

rob 

r 

re 

re 

rfl 

fl 

re 

r 

rob 

rob 

r 

rfl 

rob 

rob 

r 

rfl 

ob 

fl 

fl 

rob 

re 

rob 

rob 

rob 

rob 

re 

rob 

rob 

r 

fl 

ob 


TS 

r 

yr 

yr 

dr 

yr 

r 

yr 

grs 
wr 

9 
rs 

oy 
gy 

T 

yr 
gy 
yr 

yr 

gr 

yr 
yr 
yr 
y 

9 
yr 

ys 

yr 

vnr 

gr 

yr 

gy 

gy 

yrs 

yr 
gy 
gr 
yr 

yr 
rs 

yr 

y 

yr 

yr 

yr 

gr 

yr 

yr 

yr 

ywi 

rs 

ys 

rs 

rs 

yr 

rs 


rob 


yr 


VG 

G 

VG 

G 

G 

VG 

B 

VG 

G 

G 

VG 

G 

G 

G 

B 

G 

G 

VG 

VG 

G 

G 

VG 

VG 

G 

VG 

G 

G 

G 

G 

VG 

G 

VG 

G 

G 

VG 

G 

VG 

VG 

VG 

VG 

VG 

G 

VG 

G 

VG 

G 

VG 

VG 

VG 

G 

VG 

B 

VG 

G 

VG 

G 


G 


b 

k 

b 

b 

f 

b 

b 

b 

6 

k 

b 

b 

b 

6 

b 

b 

h 

b 

b 

m 

m 

b 

b 

b 

b 

m 

6 

k 

f 

b 

m 

b 

b 

b 

b 

6 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

m 

b 

b 

b 

b 

6 

b 

b 

b 

h 

h 

b 


W 

W 

a 

W 

W 

a 

W 

W 

a 

S 

w 

a 

A 

a 

W 

W 

a 

W 

W 

w 

W 

a 

W 

W 

w 

e 
A 
W 
W 

W 
a 
a 
W 


ir 

& 

w 
w 
w 
w 
w 
w 
w 
w 
w 

A 
W 

w 

A 

W 

W 


11* 


3* 
10* 

"i* 

3* 


14* 

'22* 


3* 
12* 


3* 
3* 

7* 
6* 


6* 

12* 

3* 


10* 


4* 
12* 


33* 
1* 
5* 

1* 


W 


2* 
12* 

"3* 

2* 
1* 

4* 


432 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 
Varieties  of  Apples — Continued. 


Names 


Size 


Form 


Color 


Qual- 
ity 


Use 


Season 


Monmouth  (12) 

Moore's  Sweet 

Mother 

Munson  Sweet  (13) 

Nansemond  (N.  Beauty) . 

Nero 

Newell  (M.  Winter) 

Newtown  Pippin 

Newtown  Spitzenburg  .  . 

Nickajack 

Nonpareil  Russet 

Northampton 

Northern  Spy 

Northwestern  Greening. . 

Oakland  (14) 

Oconee  Greening 

Ohio  Nonpareil 

Ohio  Pippin  (15) 

Oldenburg 

Orange  Pippin 

Orange  Winter 

Ortley  (10) 

Otoe  Red  (36) 

Peach  of  Montreal 

Peach  Pond  Sweet 

Peck's  Pleasant 

Peerless 

Perry  Russet 

Pewaukee 

Phillips'  Sweet 

Pickard 

Pilot 

Pittsburg  (Pippin) 

Pleasant  Valley  (Pippin) . 

Plumb's  Cider 

Pomme  Grise 

Porter 

Premium 

President 

Primate 

Progress 

Prother's  Winter 

Pryor  Red 

Pumpkin  Sweet  (17) 

Pyle's  Winter 

Rambo 

Ramsdell's  Sweet 

Rawle's  Genet  (18) 

Red  Astrachan 

Red  Canada  (19) 

Red  Cathead 

Red  Crab 

Red  Gilliflower 

Red  June 

Red  Ranee 

Red  Stripe 

RetkaMalenka 

Rhode's  Orange 

Ribston  (Pippin) 

Richard's  Graft 


L 

M 
M 
M 
M 
M 
M 
L 
M 
L 
M 
M 
L 
L 
M 
M 
L 
L 
M 
M 


fi 
rob 


yr 

T 


rc      I  yr 

fl      t  yg 

rob       rs 

r        1  r 

rob 

rob 

ob 

rob 


r 

H 

rc 

rc 

rob 

ob 

rob 

rob 

rob 

ob 


yrs 

gy 

yrs 
rs 

yg 

rs 
yr 

gy 

yr 

y 

yr 
yr 
yr 

y 


VG 

G 

B 

G 

VG 

G 

G 

VG 

VG 

G 

G 

VG 

B 

G 

VG 

G 

VG 

G 

G 

VG 


M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

L 

M 

M 

L 

L 

M 

M 

S 

L 

M 

L 

M 

M 

M 

L 

L 

L 

M 

M 

L 

L 

M 

L 

S 

L 


ob 
rob 

gy 

yr 

rc 
fl 

ys 
rs 

r 

r 

rc 

fi 

rob 

rob 

rob 

fl 

rob 

rc 

rob 

ob 

rc 

rob 

rc 

rob 

c 

rob 

rob 

rob 

fl 

ob 

rc 

r 

rob 

rc 

r 


gy 

s 

ru 

rs 

rs 

ry 

gy 
gy 
gy 
gyr 

yru 

gy 

y 

y 

gy 

y 

yr 

yr 

y 

rs 
yr 
yr 
yr 
yr 
yr 
yr 

T 

yr 


VG 

VG 

VG 

VG 

VG 

G 

G 

G 

VG 

G 

VG 

VG 

VG 

G 

B 

B 

VG 

G 

B 

G 

G 

VG 

G 

VG 

VG 

G 

VG 

G 

B 

G 


M 
M 
S 
M 
M 
M 


rob 

obc 

rc 

rob 

r 

rob 


rs 
yr 
rs 
yr 
yr 
rs 


VG 

G 

G 

G 

VG 

VG 


b 

k 

b 

b 

h 

m 

m 

b 

f 

b 

b 

f 

b 

m 

f 


m 
b 


b 

b 

b 

f 

b 

m 

b 

b 

b 

f 

b 

b 

b 

b 

f 

b 

b 

f 

f 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

h 

b 

b 

b 

C 

f 


b 
b 
k 
f 
b 
b 


W 

W 

A 

A 

W 

W 

w 

w 
w 

w 
w 
w 
w 

A 

W 

A 

W 

A 

a 

W 

W 

w 

w 
w 

a 
a 
W 

s 
w 

a 
a 
W 


W 

s 

A 

S 

w 

a 


16* 

16* 

2* 

1* 

1* 

10* 

13* 

1* 

1* 

7* 

6* 

2* 

2* 

6* 
3* 
2* 
25* 
7* 
1* 


19* 

7* 
25* 
26* 

8* 


10* 

2* 


5* 
14* 


APPLES 
Varieties  of  Apples — Continued. 


433 


Names 


Size 

Form 

Color 

Qual- 
ity 

Use 

Season 

N. 
Div. 

C. 
Div. 

S. 
Div. 

L 

re 

yru 

G 

m 

W 

1* 

4* 

1* 

L 

rob 

9y 

VG 

b 

W 

20* 

12* 

Al 

rob 

ay 

G 

b 

a 

2* 

2* 

1, 

G 

b 
m 

A 
W 

3* 

M 

c 

y 

1* 

M 

rob 

r 

re 

gy 

yrs 
yr 

VG 
VG 
VG 

f 
6 
b 

W 

A 

11" 

2* 

I, 

t) 

3* 

8* 

M 

r 

yru 

VG 

b 

W 

■•)* 

15* 

1* 

L 

r 

yr 

G 

m 

a 

1* 

16* 

1* 

M 

rob 

yru 

VG 

b 

\V 

15* 

11* 

r 

L 

fl 

yr 

VG 

m 

A 

12* 

5* 

M 

rob 

fi 

rob 

yrs 

rs 

yr 

VG 
VG 
G 

m 
b 

f 

W 

a 

A 

I. 

1* 
1* 

M 

1* 

2* 

M 

re 
re 
fl 

rs 
rs 
ry 

G 

G 
VG 

m 

f 

b 

W 

a 

W 

M 

M 

3* 

1* 

S 

re 

yr 

G 

b 

W 

11* 

13* 

M 

ob 
rob 

yr 
yr 

VG 
G 

"b  ■■ 

s 

1* 

L 

2* 

24* 

2* 

L 

rob 

yr 

G 

6 

H" 

1* 

12* 

2* 

M 

ti 
re 
r 

rs 
yru 

yr 

VG 
VG 
G 

f 
f 
b 

a 
a 

1* 
2* 
9* 

S 

M 

13* 

9* 

S 

iie 

yru 

VG 

f 

W 

1* 

1* 

M 

rob 

yr 

B 

b 

W 

9* 

8* 

1* 

M 

rob 
re 

</y 

yr 

G 
G 

f 

f 

W 

11" 

1* 

L 

3* 

4* 

1, 

obr 
rob 

ys 

y 

G 
G 

m 
f 

.■1 
W 

M 

6* 

14* 

S 

1* 
3* 

M 

re 

y 

G 

b 

A 

L 

rob 

rs 

VG 

b 

S 

2* 

S* 

2* 

M 

fl 

yr 

G 

b 

S 

2* 

1* 

L 

r 

gy 

VG 

f 

a 

2* 

2* 

M 

ob 

yr 

B 

f 

S 

5* 

17* 

7* 

M 

obe 

yr 

G 

b 

S 

6' 

6* 

2* 

L 

re 

yru 

G 

m 

a 

2* 

2* 

L 

re 

yr 

G 

b 

S 

4* 

14* 

4* 

S 

r 

yr 

B 

( 

i' 

5* 

20* 

3* 

M 

obc 

y 

va 

b 

iS 

1° 

M 

fl 

yr 

G 

f 

A 

r 

M 

rob 
rob 

rs 

gy 

VG 
B 

b 
b 

W 
W 

2* 
4* 

L 

8* 

S 

re 
rob 

yru 
yru 

VG 
VG 

f 
b 

w 

w 

M 

2* 

1* 

L 

ob 

gy 

VG 

b 

s 

14* 

15* 

6* 

M 

re 

y 

VG 

f 

A 

1* 

1* 

M 

fl 

rs 

VG 

m 

W 

1* 

3* 

M 

r 

gy 

VG 

6 

W 

19* 

13* 

L 

re 

yr 

G 

b 

A 

1* 

10* 

S 

re 
fle 

yr 

yr 

G 
G 

m 
k 

w 

s 

M 

9* 

5* 

1* 

M 

fl 
r 

yr 

yr 

VG 
VG 

f 
b 

w 
w 

3* 

12* 

L 

9* 

M 

rob 

rs 

G 

m 

s 

2* 

4* 

2* 

M 

r 

y 

G 

f 

s 

1* 

4* 

2* 

L 

r 

rs 

VG 

b 

a 

11* 

7* 

4* 

M 

rob 

rs 

G 

fk 

A 

2* 

Ridge  Pippin 

R.  1.  Greening 

Robertson's  White 

Robinson  (R.'s  Superb) 

Rock  (PippinJ  (20; 

Rockport  Sweet.  .  .  . 
Rolfe  (MacComber) 
Romanite  (South) 

Roman  Stem 

Rome  Beauty 

Ro.xbury  Russet 

Saint  Lawrence 

Salome 

Sarah 

Saxton  (21) 

Scott  Winter 

Sheppard's  Sweet 

Shiawassee  (Beauty) . . 

Shocklej' 

Simmon's  Red  (22) 

Smith's  Cider 

Smokehouse 

Somerset  (Maine). 

Somerset  (N.  Y.) 

Sopsof  Wine  (23). 

Spiee  Russet 

Spitzenburg  (24) 

Stansill 

Stark 

Starkey 

Stevenson's  Winter. 

Striped  Anis 

Summer  Belle  fleur 

Summer  Hagloe 

Summer  King : . . 

Summer  Paradise 

Summer  Pearmain 

Summer  Pippin  (25) . .  . . 
Summer  Pound  Rojal. . 

Summer  Queen 

Summer  Rose 

S.  Seek-no-further 

Susan's  Spiee 

Sutton  (Beauty) 

Swaar 

Swayzie 

Sweet  Bellet  et  Bonne. . 

Sweet  Bough 

Sweet  Pear 

Sweet  W'inesap 

Tolman  Sweet 

Taunton 

Terry  (T.  Winter) 

Tetof  sky 

Tinmouth 

Tompkins  King  (26) 

Townsend  (27; 

Trenton  Early 

Twenty  Ounce  (28) 

Utter 


434 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 
Tarieties  of  Apples — Continued. 


Names 


Size 


Form 

Color 

Qual- 
ity 

fl 

yr 

G 

re 

yrs 

G 

ob 

yru 

G 

re 

yrs 

VG 

fl 

gy 

G 

rob 

yr 

B 

fl 

y 

G 

rob 

gy 

G 

re 

yr 

VG 

re 

yr 

VG 

re 

rs 

G 

rob 

r 

VG 

r 

y 

G 

rob 

gy 

G 

rob 

rs 

VG 

re 

yr 

B 

re 

rs 

G 

rob 

gy 

G 

r 

gy 

G 

rfl 

yr 

G 

rob 

gy 

VG 

rob 

gy 

G 

re 

yr 

VG 

re 

yr 

G 

r 

yr 

VG 

re 

yr 

G 

r 

yr 

VG 

r 

yr 

VG 

rob 

gy 

VG 

rob 

r 

G 

fl 

rs 

VG 

fl 

yr 

G 

ob 

gy 

VG 

rob 

y 

G 

rob 

yg 

B 

rob 

y 

G 

re 

y 

G 

fl 

yr 

G 

fl 

rs 

VG 

.-    Use 


Sea- 
son 


N. 
Div. 


C. 
Div. 


S. 
Div. 


Vandevere 

Vanhoy 

Victuals  and  Drink 

Virginia  Beauty 

Virginia  Greening 

Wagener 

Warfield 

Washington  Royal 

Washington  (.Strawberry) 

Water 

Waugh's  Crab 

Wealthy 

Webb.." 

Wellford's  Yellow 

Western  Beauty  (29) 

Westfield  Seek-no-further 

Whinery  (W.  Winter) 

White  Doctor 

White  Juneating  (30) 

White  Paradise  (31) 

White  Pippin 

White  Ramo 

White  W.  Pearmain 

Williams  (Favorite) 

Willis  Sweet 

Willow  Twig  (32) 

Wine  (33) 

Winesap 

Winter  S.  Paradise 

Wolf  River 

Wythe 

Y'ates 

Yellow  Bellefleur 

Yellow  June  (34) 

Y'ellow  Newtown 

Yellow  Transp'nt 

Yopp  (Favorite) 

Y'ork  Imperial 

Zachary  (Pippin) 


M 

L 

L 

M 

L 

M 

L 

M 

L 

M 

S 

M 

M 

S 

L 

L 

M 

L 

S 

M 

L 

M 

M 

M 

L 

M 

L 

M 

L 

L 

M 

S 

L 

M 

M 

M 

L 

L 

L 


m 

b 

f 

b 

m 

f 

b 

m 

b 

f 

C 

b 

f 

m 

h 

b 

m 

6 

b 

m 

b 

m 

b 

m 

6 

6 

b 

b 

f 

b 

f 

b 

b 

f 

b 

b 

f 

b 

b 


W 

W 

VF 

W 

W 

W 

A 

W 

a 

W 

w 

a 

W 

W 

S 

W 

W 

a 

S 

w 
w 

a 

W 

S 

S 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

w 

s 

w 

s 

A 

w 
w 


13* 


1* 
15* 
I* 
3* 
3* 
6* 
3* 
1* 


12* 


2* 
II* 
I* 
1° 
2* 


2* 
7* 
3* 
8* 
2* 
11* 
10* 


16* 

12* 

33* 

10* 

3* 

2* 

1* 

15* 

2* 


3* 

"n* 


ID* 


11* 

4* 
8* 


5* 


Popular  Synoriyms  :  American  Golden  Russet^.  BacheIor%  Bradford's  Best',  Carthouse',  Cay- 
uga Red  Streak-',  Champlain  Nvak-\  Kail  Queen  of  Kentucky-,  Fall  Stripe^'.  Gilliflower  (Cable's)', 
Hay's  Wine^,  Hocking-'',  Hominy^,  James  River^^,  Kentucky  Red  Streak',  King  of  Tompkins 
County-",  Lady  Finger",  Large  Striped  Pearmain",  Lemon^",  Little  Romanite',  May^°,  McAfee's 
Nonsuch",  Nantahalee^*,  NeverfaiP',  Newtown  Spitzenburg=»,  Oakland  County  Seek-no-further", 
Old  Nonsuch",  Orange"",  Orange  Sweet",  Otoe  Red  Streak"»,  Pennsyhania  Red  Streak^,  Pimme 
Royale^',  Pound  Sweet",  Queen  Anne",  Rambo^,  Red  Cheek  Pippini^.  Red  Everlasting-,  Red 
Juneating*.  Richfield  Nonsuch'",  Shannon'^  Snow  Apple",  Steele's  Red  Winter".  Summer^".  Sweet 
June*.  Tallow  Pippin'",  Tulpehocken^,  Vandevere  of  New  York=»,  White  Bellflower'",  Woolman's 
Long'". 


VARIATION  EV  BEJf  DAVIS  GROUP 

The  tendency  of  fruits  to  vary  is  well 
illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  Ben  Davis 
group  of  apples.  Thanks  to  the  work  of 
Mr.  J.  K.  Shaw  of  the  Massachusetts 
Agricultural  College,*  this  variety  has 
been   thoroughly   studied  with  respect  to 


•  Massachusetts 
Annual    Report. 


Agricultural     College. 


its  variational  tendencies.  These  varia- 
tions may  be  grouped,  for  our  purpose, 
under  two  general  heads.  First,  those 
variations  from  the  parent  stock  which 
have  become  so  marked  as  to  give  rise  to 
new  varieties  to  which  distinct  names 
have  been  given,  and  second,  those  varia- 
tions within  an  established  variety  which 
are    due    to    climatic    or  other    environ- 


APPLES 


435 


Fig. 


1.      Typcal    Forms   of  the   Ben    Davis.      Nova    Scotia,    the  oblong  form.      Ontario,    the    round 
conic  form.     West  Virginia,  the  oblate  form.     Arltansas.  the  roundish  form. 


436 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


APPLES 


437 


mental  conditions  but  which  are  not 
marked  enough  to  give  rise  to  a  new 
variety.    See  Variation,  Causes  of. 

As  an  example  of  the  first  the  follow- 
ing list  of  varieties  which  have  origin- 
ated  from   common   parentage,   is  given: 


Arkansas   Beauty 

Arkansas  Belle 

Ben  Davis 

Ben  Hur 

Black  Ben  Davis 

Coffelt 

Cole  Davis 

Eicke 

Etris 

Extra 


Plat  Ben  Davis 

Gano 

Improved  Ben  Davis 

Nordhaussan 

Ostrakavis 

Paris 

Shackleford 

Shirley 

Sweet  Ben  Davis 

White  Ben  Davis 


"Many  of  these  are  of  minor  impor- 
tance, and  doubtless  some  are  not  propa- 
gated and  will  soon  disappear  from  cul- 
tivation. Almost  without  exception  they 
are  of  southern  origin  and  best  adapted 
to  growing  under  southern  conditions. 
When  grown  north  of  the  southern 
Missouri  and  Ohio  valleys  they  are  in- 
ferior in  quality,  though  fairly  hardy  and 
bearing  good  crops. 

"The  fruit  is  generally  roundish  conic 
in  form,  nearly  regular,  with  regular  cav- 
ity and  basin,  the  latter  generally  more 
or  less  abrupt.  In  color,  greenish  yellow, 
usually  overspread  with  bright  red,  more 
or  less  striped.  The  flesh  is  generally 
white  and  firm,  of  medium  or  coarse  tex- 
ture. They  are  of  only  moderately  good 
quality  but  long  keepers  and  good  ship- 
pers. With  one  exception  they  are  more 
or  less  acid  in  flavor,  generally  a  mild 
subacid.  A  notable  characteristic  com- 
mon to  all  varieties  examined  was  the 
presence  of  a  pistil  point  or  the  persist- 
ent base  of  the  pistil,  a  character  rarely 
found  in  apples  not  belonging  to  this 
group." 

In  addition  to  the  above  the  following 
are  believed  to  belong  to  the  Ben  Davis 
group,  but  evidence  is  wanting  to  make 
the  author  certain. 

Breckinridge  Hastings  Red 

Chicago  Highfill 

Collins  (Champion)  King  David 

Florence  Marion  Red 
Givins 

As  to  the  causes  which  give  rise  to 
changes  sufficient  to  warrant  the  name  of 


a  new  variety,  we  are  compelled  to  admit 
a  great  deal  of  ignorance.  About  the  best 
we  can  do  is  to  fall  back  upon  that  gen- 
eral fact  of  tendency  to  vary  which  seems 
to  characterize  the  whole  biological 
world. 

A  good  illustration  of  variations  due 
to  environmental  causes  as,  for  example, 
climate,  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
diagram  of  the  Ben  Davis  apple  as  grown 
from  Nova  Scotia  to  Arkansas. 

"Considering  the  'results  of  all  the 
measurements  taken'  we  find  that  in  the 
extreme  Northeast  the  Ben  Davis  is  much 
elongated,  and  as  we  go  South  and  West 
it  becomes  less  elongated  and  more  flat- 
tened, till  we  reach  West  Virginia  and 
Kentucky,  where  it  becomes  a  decidedly 
oblate  apple.  In  the  Ozarks  it  is  a  little 
longer  and  in  Southern  California  still 
longer,  and  in  British  Columbia  it  is  al- 
most as  much  elongated  as  in  Nova  Sco- 
tia and  neighboring  regions.  *  *  * 
Apples  from  districts  near  large  bodies 
of  water  were  noticeably  elongated.  The 
conclusion  seems  to  be  that  'beginning  in 
the  southern  Allegheny  mountains  and  in 
Southern  California  and  going  north  the 
apples  become  more  elongated  and  that 
the  elongation  is  much  more  pronounced 
in  the  vicinity  of  large  bodies  of  water, 
either  salt  or  fresh.'  " 

The  many  variations  in  apple  varieties 
arise  from  many  causes  which  may  be 
grouped  as  cultural,  using  the  word  in 
the  broad  sense:  soil  and  climatic.  Of 
climatic  influences,  temperature  is  the 
most  potent. 

The  methods  pursued  in  the  growing 
and  in  the  care  of  the  trees  have  great 
influence  in  the  character  of  the  fruit.  It 
is  aifected  in  every  way,  in  size,  form, 
color,  keeping  quality,  shipping  quality 
and  dessert  quality. 

As  to  the  effect  of  soil  types  on  the 
variation  of  apples,  not  enough  is  known 
regarding  this  question  to  make  any  def- 
inite generalizations  on  the  subject. 

Variation  in  the  form  of  the  Ben  Davis, 
and  probably  in  other  sorts  as  well,  is  due 
principally  to  the  temperature  during  a 
period  of  about  two  weeks  following  blos- 
soming.    The  lower  the  temperature  the 


438 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


more  elongated  the  apple.  This  elonga- 
tion is  seen  in  apples  grown  near  large 
bodies  of  water,  which  lower  the  temper- 
ature at  this  season  of  the  year,  and  in 
seasons  when  the  temperature  is  low, 
owing  to  seasonal  fluctuations.  This  In- 
fluence is  also  seen  in  the  form  of  apples 
on  different  parts  of  the  tree.  Those  in 
the  lower  north  portion  are  more  elon- 
gated than  those  from  the  warmer,  upper 
south  portion. 

The  attainment  of  the  highest  quality, 
appearance  and  keeping  quality  is  very 
largely  dependent  on  the  warmth  and 
length  of  the  growing  season.  This  may 
be  measured  with  a  fair  degree  of  satis- 
faction for  the  apple-growing  regions  of 
North  America  by  an  average  of  the  mean 
temperatures  for  the  months  of  March  to 
September  inclusive.  This  is  called  the 
mean  summer  temperature,  and  gives 
temperatures  ranging  from  52  to  72  de- 
grees. Factors  determining  the  mean 
summer  temperature  in  a  given  orchard 
are  latitude,  elevation,  site  and  aspect, 
soil,  culture,  prevailing  winds  and  sun- 
shine. 

A  summer  mean  too  low  for  a  variety 
will  result  in  greater  acidity,  increased 
insoluble  solids,  greater  astringency,  less 
coloration,  decreased  size,  scalding  in 
storage. 

A  summer  mean  too  high  for  a  variety 
results  in  uneven  ripening,  premature 
dropping,  rotting  on  the  trees,  poor  keep- 
ing quality,  lack  of  flavor,  mealiness,  less 
intense  color,  decreased  size. 

The  accompanying  map  (p.  436)  shows 
the  distribution  of  the  Ben  Davis  with  the 
northern  limit  of  hardiness. 

APPLE  DISEASES 

Alternaria  Decay 

A  decay  of  apples  caused  by  a  species  of 
Alternaria  was  first  described  from  Colo- 
rado by  Longyear.  This  fungus  entered 
the  apple  at  the  blossom  end  and  pro- 
duced a  cob-webby  growth  of  mycelium 
around  the  seeds.  An  Alternaria  has 
been  found  a  number  of  times  associated 
with  apple  decays.  This  fungus  usually 
occurs  on  injured  places  such  as  the  blos- 


som end  injured  by  insects  or  broken 
places  in  the  skin.  Associated  with  other 
fungi  this  Alternaria  forms  a  rather 
thick,  dry  covering  of  mycelium  over  the 
injured  place.  The  fungus  does  not  usual- 
ly penetrate  very  deeply  in  such  cases 
but  when  ripe  apples  are  inoculated  from 
pure  cultures,  it  is  found  to  be  capable 
of  causing  a  complete  decay.  This  fungus 
alone  has  been  reisolated  a  number  of 
times  from  decaying  apples  which  had 
been  inoculated,  thus  proving  that  it 
caused  the  decay.  The  apple  decay  Al- 
ternaria differs  sufficiently  from  a  species 
of  the  same  genus  which  has  been  found 
repeatedly  on  dead  spots  in  apple  leaves 
and  on  dead  parts  of  other  plants  so  that 
the  two  fungi  can  be  distinguished  readi- 
ly in  culture.  The  Alternaria  from  apple 
leaves  has  not  been  found  to  cause  de- 
cay of  the  fruit  upon  inoculation. 

W.  J.  Morse 

Apple  Tree  Anthracnose 

Neofabraea  malicorticis    (Cordley) 
Jackson 

H.     S.     J.\CKS0N 

The  apple  tree  anthracnose  is,  with 
the  possible  exception  of  the  apple  scab, 
the  most  serious  fungus  disease  with 
which  apple  growers  in  the  Northwest 
have  to  deal.  In  general,  the  disease  is 
characterized  by  the  formation  of  dark 
colored  sunken  cankers  in  the  bark  of 
the  younger  branches.  These  are  most 
abundant  on  branches  under  two  or  three 
inches  in  diameter,  but  are  not  uncom- 
monly found  on  branches  of  larger  size. 

When  they  occur  on  older  branches  hav- 
ing a  thick  bark,  the  cankers  may  not 
always  penetrate  entirely  to  the  wood. 
Usually,  however,  the  bark  in  the  mature 
cankers  is  found  to  be  entirely  dead,  the 
cambium  destroyed  and  the  sap  wood  dis- 
colored to  a  limited  extent. 

Deyelopmeut  of  tlie  Cankers 

By  close  observation  one  may  find  the 
young  cankers  beginning  to  develop 
commonly  early  in  November.  It  is 
possible  that  in  seasons  of  early  fall  rain 
they  may  begin  to  appear  much  earlier. 

They  begin  their  development  as  small 
reddish  brown  spots  in  the  bark.     These 


APPLE  DISEASES 


439 


when  first  observed  are  circular  and 
about  one-half  inch  in  diameter  and  are 
not  sunken.  If  one  cuts  into  the  bark  be- 
neath one  of  these  spots  the  tissues  are 
found  to  be  discolored  and  to  present  a 
water  soaked  appearance.  The  discolored 
area  is  found  soon  to  extend  to  the  cam- 
bium, where  it  spreads  out  and  may  in 
some  stages  of  the  development  of  the 
cankers  be  more  extensive  in  that  region 
than  the  discolored  area  on  the  surface 
would  indicate.  The  spots  develop  very 
slowly,  if  at  all,  during  the  winter  months, 
but  spread  quite  rapidly  during  March 
and  April.  As  they  enlarge  they  gradu- 
ally become  elliptical  in  outline,  the  sur- 
face becomes  flat,  then  slowly  sinks. 

Sometimes  the  bark  of  developing  cank- 
ers shows  bands  of  slightly  varying  color, 
giving  the  appearance  of  concentric  zones. 
This     is     doubtless     due     to     alternating 


periods  of  rapid  and  slow  growth  induced 
by  variations  in  the  weather  conditions. 
In  early  stages  of  rapidly  growing  cank- 
ers an  irregular  crack  may  appear  in  the 
bark  and  drops  of  fermenting  sap  may 
exude. 

In  the  early  spring,  when  the  warm 
weather  induces  renewed  activity  in  the 
tree,  the  cankers  develop  rapidly.  The 
bark  soon  dries  and  sinks  and  this  con- 
dition together  with  the  normal  growth  in 
the  surrounding  healthy  bark  produces 
a  tension  which  results  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  crack  in  the  bark  at  the  edge 
of  the  canker.  The  spread  of  the  fungus 
ceases  as  soon  as  the  cambium  becomes 
active  in  the  spring. 

After  the  cankers  reach  the  full  size, 
which  occurs  in  early  May,  further  ac- 
tivity is  confined  to  changes  which  take 
place  in  the  dead  bark  within  the  cank- 


Fig.   1.     a,  Canker  of  Anthracuuse  (in   Apple  Branch.      Note  pustule   of  fungus  in  bark  of 
canker,     b.  Canker  Two  Years  Old  Showing  Fruiting  Bodies  of  tlie  Perfect  Stage. 


440 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


er.  If  a  mature  canker  is  examined 
in  midsummer,  little  elevations  in  tlie 
bark  are  easily  observed.  They  are  at 
first  more  or  less  conical  in  shape  and 
finally  burst  the  outer  layer  of  the  bark 
exposing  a  cream  colored  mass  of  fung- 
ous tissue.  These  are  the  fruiting  struc- 
tures of  the  fungus  and  the  spores  are 
produced  in  them  in  great  abundance. 

In  late  summer  or  early  fall  the  ma- 
ture cankers  are  found  and  may  be  from 
one-half  inch  in  diameter  up  to  eight 
to  10  inches  long  by  three  to  four  broad. 
Frequently  large  cankered  areas  may  be 
formed  by  several  smaller  ones  becoming 
confluent.  Mature  cankers  have  a  definite 
limiting  crack  separating  them  from  the 
healthy  tissue;  there  is  usually  a  definite 
ridge  surrounding  the  canker  caused  by 
the  slight  formation  of  callus  tissue  at 
the  edge  under  the  diseased  bark.  The 
bark  is  sunken,  dry  and  dead,  and  darker 
in  color  than  healthy  bark.  Thickly 
scattered  over  the  surface  one  finds  the 
little  cracks  described  above  which  are 
formed  when  the  fungus  bursts  forth. 
These  cracks  are  transverse  or  triangular, 
seldom  if  ever,  vertical.  (Fig.  1-A  shows 
a  typical  canker.)  In  old  cankers  the 
fungus  tissue  exposed  by  the  cracks  turns 
black  and  the  bark  gradually  becomes 
loose  at  the  edges  and  drops  out,  leav- 
ing ugly  wounds.  Bark  may  cling  in  the 
cankers,  however,  for  at  least  three 
winters.  The  wounds,  if  not  too  large, 
slowly  heal  over  by  the  formation  of  cal- 
lus. 

Injury  f'aused  by  the  Disease 

On  account  of  the  nature  of  the  disease 
it  is  diflicult  to  estimate  the  amount  of 
the  injury  resulting  from  its  ravages. 
XTnder  ordinary  conditions  few  to  many 
cankers  may  be  found  on  the  branches  of 
the  trees  in  infected  orchards.  Some- 
times twigs  are  girdled  by  the  formation 
of  a  small  canker,  which  extends  around 
the  stem  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Not  in- 
fi'equently  larger  branches  are  girdled 
where  several  cankers  grow  together. 
Sometimes  trunks  of  young  trees  are 
girdled  in  this  wa.v. 

It  is  evident  that  the  disease  in  any  de- 
gree of  severity  interferes  with  the  nor- 


Fis.    J.      Apple   Twia    iJirdled   h.v    Small    Canker 
of  Antlii-jicuose. 

mal  function  of  the  bark  and  so  hinders 
the  proper  distribution  of  elaborated  food 
in  the  tree.  Branches  are  weakened  by 
the  presence  of  the  cankers  and  frequent- 
ly break  when  heavily  set  with  fruit.  The 
woolly  aphis  not  uncommonly  works  un- 
der the  bark  at  the  edge  of  cankers  and 
further  saps  the  vitality  of  the  tree  and 
interferes  with  the  normal  healing  over 
of  cankers.  Large  cankers  heal  slowly 
and  the  wood  may  be  exposed  for  con- 
siderable periods,  thus  affording  oppor- 
tunity for  the  entrance  of  fungi  which 
cause  heart  rot. 

Distribution 

As  a  serious  orcliard  disease  the  apple 
tree  anthracnose  is  peculiar  to  the  Pa- 
cific Northwest.  It  is  known  to  occur  in 
British    Columbia.     Washington,    Oregon, 


APPLE   DISEASES 


441 


and  has  been  reported  doubtfully  from 
Idaho.  It  has  not  been  recorded  in  Cali- 
fornia to  our  knowledge,  though  it  is  not 
improbable  that  it  occurs  in  the  northern 
counties,  since  it  is  common  in  Jackson 
and  Josephine  counties  in  Oregon.  It  is 
most  serious  in  those  sections  having 
considerable  rainfall  west  of  the  Cascade 
mountains.  It  is  rarely  a  serious  disease 
In  the  fruit  sections  east  of  the  Cas- 
cade mountains.  It  has  been  reported 
once  from  Nebraska. 

Life  History  Studies 

The  apple  tree  anthracnose  has  prob- 
ably occurred  in  the  Northwest  for  many 
years.  It  began  to  attract  attention  as 
an  orchard  trouble  during  the  period 
from  1891  to  1893.  The  serious  nature  of 
the  disease  was  realized  at  that  time  and 
through  the  efforts  of  the  Boards  of  Horti- 
culture of  Oregon  and  Washington,  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
sent  Professor  M.  B.  Pierce  to  investigate 
this  trouble.  He  made  considerable  study 
of  this  disease  in  both  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington but  made  no  official  report.  The 
records  of  his  work  are  contained  in  ex- 
tracts of  letters  published  in  the  Second 
Biennial  Report  of  the  Washington  State 
Board  of  Horticulture  and  in  the  Fifth 
Biennial  Report  of  the  State  Horticul- 
tural Board  of  Oregon.  It  is  evident  from 
these  reports  that  Pierce  recognized  the 
true  nature  of  the  disease  and  probably 
isolated  the  causal  fungus  and  studied  it 
in  culture  and  produced  the  disease 
by    inoculation. 

The  first  published  work  regarding  this 
disease  was  made  by  Professor  A.  B.  Cord- 
ley  (1900)  of  the  Oregon  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, who  published  a  full  statement  of 
the  life  history  of  the  disease  and  a  de- 
scription of  the  organism  causing  it,  to- 
gether with  the  results  of  inoculation 
work.  He  named  the  fungus  Gloeosporium 
malicorticis.  At  about  the  same  time  Dr. 
C.  H.  Peck  described  the  same  fungus  un- 
der the  name  of  Macrophoma  curvispora. 
The  writer  has  used  the  former  name 
upon  the  grounds  that  Cordley  places  the 
fungus  more  nearly  in  the  proper  genus, 
•  and   since   the   name   which   he   proposed 


has  of  late  come  into  more  general  use. 
The  disease  was  studied  in  Washington 
by  Lawrence  (1904)  who  verified  all  of 
Cordley's  work  and  also  records  many 
interesting  and  important  biological 
phases  of  the  disease.  He  was  the  first 
to  publish  an  account  of  the  disease  as 
a  cause  of  a  rot  of  stored  fruit. 

In  1906.  on  account  of  the  fact  that 
many  points  regarding  the  life  history  of 
the  disease  had  not  been  thoroughly  work- 
ed out,  the  Oregon  Experiment  Station  un- 
dertook a  detailed  investigation  of  the  life 
history  and  control  of  this  disease. 

Mr.  C.  C.  Cate.  a  graduate  student,  made 
a  thorough  orchard  survey  of  the  disease 
in  various  parts  of  that  state  in  an  effort 
to  determine  whether  any  information 
could  be  obtained  regarding  the  suscep- 
tibility of  varieties,  and  whether  the  con- 
ditions of  the  soil  had  anything  to  do 
with  the  degree  of  susceptibility.  He 
found  very  little  evidence  to  indicate  that 
soil  conditions  had  any  influence  upon 
the  abundance  of  the  trouble.  The  fol- 
lowing quotation  (Cate,  1908)  indicates 
the  results  of  the  investigations  regarding 
the  susceptibility  of  varieties: 

"From  investigations  made  during  the 
past  summer,  it  was  found  that  Anthrac- 
nose attacks  practically  all  varieties  of 
apples,  although  some  are  more  sus- 
ceptible than  others.  Those  most  sus- 
ceptible are  Baldwins,  Spitz  and  Jona- 
thans; next  are  Newtowns,  Greening, 
Gravenstein  and  most  of  the  summer  vari- 
eties, while  those  attacked  only  slightly 
are  the  Ben  Davis,  Northern  Spy,  Wine- 
sap  and  Blacktwig.  No  varieties  seem 
to  be  entirely  immune  and  occasionally 
some  of  the  least  susceptible  varieties  are 
nearly  or  entirely  ruined  by  the  disease. 
In  the  varieties  like  Baldwin  and  Spitz, 
the  cankers  are  of  all  sizes  and  most  of 
them  extend  very  deep  and  hence  greater 
damage  is  done,  while  on  the  Ben  Davis 
cankers  or  wounds  are  smaller  and  more 
superficial,  hence  very  little  damage  is 
done  to  trees  of  this  nature." 

The  writer  began  the  study  of  this 
disease  in  the  summer  of  1909,  which  has 
been  continued  as  time  would  permit, 
since   that   date.     In   the   course   of   this 


442 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICl'LTURE 


study  many  of  the  results  of  previous 
workers  have  been  confirmed  and  some 
important  points  added  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  life  history  of  the  causal  fungus. 

Early  in  the  work  a  search  was  made 
for  a  possible  ascogenous  stage  in  the 
life  history  of  the  fungus.     In  November, 

1909,  while  studying  the  characters  of 
"two  year  old"  cankers,  that  is,  cankers 
resulting  from  infection  in  the  fall  of 
1907,  the  apothecia  of  a  discomycete  be- 
longing to  the  family  Mollisiaceae 
were  found  occupying  the  position  of  the 
acervulus  of  the  previous  season  (1908). 
(See  Fig.  1-B.)  Careful  search  revealed 
the  fact  that  the  apothecia  of  this  fun- 
gus were  nearly  always  found  in  the 
dead  bark  of  cankers  one  year  after  the 
development  of  the  conidial  stage.  The 
writer  has  had  this  fungus  under  ob- 
servation now  for  four  seasons  and  has 
never  failed  to  find  it  in  the  bark  of 
cankers  two  years  after  infection  in  any 
orchard  in  which  he  has  searched  at  the 
proper  season.  No  other  ascomycete  has 
been  found  at  all  constantly  associated 
with  the  cankers.  We  have  also  ob- 
served the  same  discomycete  in  the  old 
bark  of  cankers  on  pear  trees. 

Cultures  obtained  by  most  careful 
methods  from  the  germinating  ascos- 
pores  were  used  to  inoculate  healthy 
Spitzenburg  apple  trees.  In  all  cases 
cankers  resulted  which  were  character- 
istic of  apple  tree  anthracnose.  The  in- 
oculations  were    made   on    December    12, 

1910,  and  in  September.  1911,  nine 
months  after  the  inoculation,  cankers 
resulting  from  the  inoculation  were  ex- 
amined and  found  to  bear  the  typical  con- 
idia  of  this  disease.  In  this  way  it  was 
proven  that  the  fungus  found  in  the  old 
cankers  was  the  perfect  or  ascogenous 
stage  of  the  imperfect  or  conidial  fungus. 
Gloeosporium.  malicnrticis.  This  ascomy- 
cete was  found  to  be  undescribed  and  the 
name  Neofabraea  malicorticis  (Cordley) 
was  given  to  it  by  the  writer  (1913). 
The  economic  importance  of  the  discov- 
ery of  this  perfect  stage  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  proves  that  the  old  cankers  are  a 
source  of  infection,  as  well  as  the  new 
cankers.      It    has    also    been    shown    that 


occasionally  conidiospores  are  also  de- 
veloped on  these  same  cankers,  around 
the  edges  of  the  apothecia  of  the  perfect 
stage.  We  have  also  determined  that 
conidia  may  be  developed  in  the  bark  of 
cankers  three  years  after  infection. 

Kinds  of  Trees  Affected 

The  disease  was  first  recorded  on  the 
apple,  and  for  some  time  the  fact  of  its 
occurrence  on  other  hosts  was  not  ob- 
served, or  at  least  did  not  attract  atten- 
tion. Lawrence  (1904)  was  the  first  to 
record  the  occurrence  of  the  disease  on 
the  pear.  He  also  produced  the  disease 
by  inoculation  on  this  host.  Cate  (1908) 
was  first  to  record  the  disease  upon  the 


Fig.   3.      Cankers  on   Pear  Branches. 

quince.  It  has  since  been  found  to  de- 
velop abundantly  upon  the  quince,  though 
recent  developments  indicate  that  the 
fungus  on  that  host  may  be  due  to  a  dif- 
ferent species.  It  has  been  found  not  un- 
common on  the  pear,  particularly  on  the 
Winter  Nelis.  though  it  is  not  to  be  con- 
sidered a  common  or  serious  pear  disease. 
On  account  of  the  fact  that  the  disease 
under  discussion  is  confined  almost  en- 
tirely to  the  Pacific  Northwest,  it  has  been 
assumed  by  a  number  of  investigators  that 
there  was  a  native  host  on  which  the 
fungus  occurred  previous  to  the  intro- 
duction of  cultivated  fruit,  and  that  when 
the  apple  was  introduced  into  the  North- 


APPLE  DISEASES 


443 


west  this  fungus  found  it  a  favorable  host 
on  which  to  develop.  Up  to  the  present 
time  no  one  has  yet  determined  what 
this  native  host  is,  or  at  least  no  pub- 
lished record  has  been  made. 

Disease  on  Fniit 

The  apple  tree  anthracnose  is  not  un- 
common as  a  rot  of  the  fruit  as  shown 
in  Fig.  4.  This  may  be  developed  in  the 
orchard,  especially  if  the  fruit  is  allowed 
to  hang  late  on  the  trees,  or  may  be  de- 
veloped as  a  storage  rot  on  fruit  which  is 
perfectly  sound  when  stored. 

Lawrence  (1904)  seems  to  be  the  first 
to  have  recorded  this  disease  as  a  rot  on 
the  fruit. 

Gate  (1908)  also  found  the  disease 
common  upon  apple  fruit  and  produced 
the  rot  by  Inoculation.  In  the  season  of 
1911  this  disease  developed  abundantly 
and  seriously  as  a  rot  on  stored  fruit 
both  under  ordinary  storage  conditions 
and  in  cold  storage.  The  writer  has  seen 
boxes  of  Spitzenburg  apples  kept  in  stor- 
age until  May  in  which  90  per  cent  of  the 
fruit  was  affected  with  this  disease.  The 
disease  seems  to  be  more  abundant  on 
the  fruit,  as  would  be  expected,  in  seasons 
of  early  fall  rain  or  when,  on  account  of 
weather  conditions,  picking  is  delayed. 

The  most  obvious  line  of  attack  for  the 
control  of  this  trouble  on  the  fruit  is  to 
control  the  disease  in  the  orchard  by 
proper    spraying    methods.      The    disease 


has  developed,  however,  is  some  cases,  in 
considerable  percentage  in  orchards  in 
which  anthracnose  was  not  present  or 
present  only  in  very  slight  amount,  not 
sufficiently  to  account  for  any  large  per- 
centage of  infected  fruit.  This  has  been 
observed  both  in  Hood  River  and  the 
Willamette  valleys.  This  fact  suggests 
that  a  further  study  of  the  disease  should 
be  made  under  these  conditions  in  an 
effort  to  determine  the  source  of  infec- 
tion and  whether  or  not  the  fungus  may 
occur  under  conditions  not  at  present 
well  understood. 

Methods  of  Treatment 

As  soon  as  the  nature  of  the  disease 
and  the  nature  of  the  life  history  of  the 
fungus  causing  it  came  to  be  understood 
a  method  of  treatment  at  once  suggested 
itself.  Since  the  infection  by  the  fungus 
takes  place  in  the  fall  and  early  winter, 
after  the  fall  rains  begin,  it  is  evident 
that  spraying  in  the  summer  and  fall  is 
a  logical  method  of  attack,  and  this  gen- 
eral method  has  been  recommended  since 
1S95.  by  Pierce,  Cordley,  Lawrence,  and 
those  who  have  made  a  specialty  of  this 
disease.  Both  lime-sulphur  and  Bordeaux 
mixture  have  been  used  in  the  winter 
strength  for  this  purpose,  though  the  evi- 
dence is  at  the  present  time  that  Bor- 
deaux mixture  has  given  much  more 
uniform  and  satisfactory  results.  The 
time    of    spraying    has    been    difficult  to 


Fig.  4.     Anthracnose  Rot  on  -\pples. 


444 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


determine.  The  ideal  time  would  be  to 
spray  before  the  first  fall  rains.  In  prac- 
tically all  sections  of  the  Northwest 
where  this  disease  occurs  this  would  be 
before  the  fruit  is  picked,  and  it  is  found 
somewhat  objectionable  to  use  Bordeaux 
mixture  before  the  fruit  is  picked  because 
of  the  slight  deposit  on  the  fruit. 

In  many  of  the  older  orchards  where 
the  trees  are  close  and  it  is  found  neces- 
sary to  use  props  in  case  of  a  heavy 
crop,  it  is  often  impossible  to  get 
through  the  orchard  with  a  spray  ma- 
chine before  the  crop  is  picked  without 
knocking  off  considerable  fruit.  On  the 
other  hand  many  growers  complain  that, 
on  account  of  unfavorable  weather  con- 
ditions which  frequently  prevail  follow- 
ing picking,  they  are  often  unable  to 
spray  in  the  fall  as  recommended — until 
it  is  too  late  to  be  of  any  value — if  the 
spraying  is  delayed  until  after  picking 
is  done.  Others  complain  that  on  ac- 
count of  the  press  of  work  incident  to 
picking  and  packing  a  large  crop  even 
in  seasons  of  favorable  weather  condi- 
tions, they  have  not  time  to  spray  until 
the  proper  season  is  past.  On  the  other 
hand  it  is  evident  that  trees  must  be 
protected  with  a  fungicide  during  the 
fall  of  the  year  in  order  to  prevent  in- 
fection. 

Experiments  which  have  been  conduct- 
ed to  date  indicate  that  good  results  are 
obtained  by  spraying  once  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture  4-4-50  before  the  first  fall 
rains,  or  about  the  middle  of  September, 
following  by  another  application,  using 
Bordeaux  mixture  G-6-50,  after  the  fruit 
is   picked. 

It  is  possible  that  where  growers  give 
a  late  spray  for  codling  moth  that  a 
combination  spray  could  be  applied,  using 
Bordeaux  mixture  4-4-50  and  arsenate  of 
lead,  two  pounds  to  50  gallons,  in  the 
latter  part  of  August.  This  would  be 
used  to  take  the  place  of  the  spraying 
suggested  in  the  middle  of  September. 
It  has  not  been  fully  demonstrated 
whether  this  suggestion  will  prove  satis- 
factory in  general  practice.  It  is  worthy 
of  trial,  however,  by  interested  growers, 
and    may    prove    to    be    the    most    satis- 


factory solution  of  the  problem  for  the 
grower  who  wishes  to  keep  a  compara- 
tively clean  orchard  protected  from  in- 
fection  by   this   disease. 

In  orchards  where  the  disease  has  ob- 
tained a  foothold,  however,  the  recom- 
mendations as  given  under  the  sum- 
mary should  be  followed.  For  other 
supplementary  methods  of  control  see 
Summary   of   Recommendations. 

SUMMARY 

Life  History  Investigations 

1.  A  disease  known  throughout  the 
Northwest  as  Apple  Tree  Anthracnose 
or  Black  Spot  Canker  is  caused  by  a 
fungus  which,  in  the  conidial  stage,  is 
a  parasite  causing  cankers  on  the 
branches  of  apple   and   pear  trees. 

2.  The  cankers  caused  by  this  fungus 
cause  the  death  of  the  tissue  of  the  bark 
in  which  it  develops  and  of  the  cam- 
bium, and  spreads  to  some  extent  to  the 
sapwood  beneath. 

3.  Infection  occurs  in  the  fall  and 
early  winter  and  the  cankers  develop 
slowly  during  the  early  part  of  the 
dormant  season  and  spread  rapidly  in 
the  early  siiring.  reaching  their  full  size 
when  the  cambium  resumes  activity  in 
the   spring. 

4.  The  fungus  matures  slowly  during 
the  summer  in  the  dead  bark  of  the 
cankei's  thus  formed.  Spores  are  pro- 
duced in  acervuli  characteristic  of  the 
genera  Oloeosporium  or  Myxosporiiim  of 
the  Fungi  Imperfecti. 

5.  This  conidial  form  has  been  named 
by   Cordley,   Oloeosporium  maUcorticis. 

6.  The  fungus  continues  to  develop 
in  the  dead  bark  of  old  cankers  as  a 
saprophyte  and  produces  in  the  late 
summer  or  fall,  one  year  after  the  ma- 
turity of  the  conidial  stage,  an  ascosporic 
form  having  the  characteristics  of  the 
family  Mollisiaceae  of  the  Discomycetes. 

7.  The  connection  of  this  Ascomycete 
with  the  conidial  stage  has  been  proved 
by  inoculation  experiments. 

S.  This  has  been  made  the  type  of  a 
suggested  new  genus  called  Neofahraea. 
The     proper     scientific     name     for     the 


APPLE  DISEASES 


445 


fungus   should   now  be  Xeofabraea  mali- 
corticis   (Cordley). 

9.  The  conidial  stage  has  been  found 
commonly  causing  a  rot  of  the  fruit  of 
the  apple  and  the  quince,  both  in  the 
orchard  and   in  storage. 

10.  Both  the  conidial  and  ascosporic 
stages  have  been  found  in  nature  on  the 
pear.  Cankers  have  been  produced  on 
this  host  by  inoculation  with  the  coni- 
dial stage  of  the  fungus  isolated  from 
the  apple. 

11.  Cankers  have  also  been  produced 
by   Inoculation   with   the  fungus   isolated 

_  from  the  apple,  on  peach,  prune  and 
cherry  branches,  but  no  spores  have 
been  observed  to  be  matured  in  these 
cankers.  The  occurrence  of  such  cankers 
in    nature    has    not    been    proved. 

12.  No  evidence  has  been  secured 
that  new  cankers  are  formed  by  the 
spread  of  the  fungus  in  the  tissues  from 
old  cankers.  The  fungus  has,  however, 
been  isolated  from  the  heart  wood  be- 
neath cankers  on  branches  of  the  apple, 
two  years  after  the  maturation  of  the 
conidial  stage.  The  extent  and  impor- 
ance  of  the  fungus  as  a  heart  rot  has, 
however,  not  been  investigated  thor- 
oughly. 

Reeommeudntions 

1.  Where  orchards  are  only  slightly 
affected  with  anthracnose,  or  where  it 
is  considered  advisable  to  spray  as  a 
matter  of  general  orchard  practice,  grow- 
ers are  advised  to  spray  once  each  year 
in  the  fall  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
fruit  is  picked,  using  Bordeaux  mixture 
6-6-50,  or  try  in  a  part  of  the  orchard 
the  use  of  the  combination  spray  of 
Bordeaux  mixture  4-4-50  and  arsenate  of 
lead,  two  pounds  to  50  gallons,  in  the 
last  codling  moth  spray  as  suggested 
above. 

2.  In  orchards  where  the  disease  is 
on  the  increase  and  it  is  desired  to 
make  a  special  effort  to  prevent  any 
further  spread,  growers  should  spray 
twice  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  6-6-50, 
after  the  fruit  is  picked.  The  two 
applications  should  be  about  two  or 
three  weeks  apart.  If  desired  one  appli 
cation  may  be  made  before  the  fruit   is 


picked,  using  Bordeaux  4-4-50  and  the 
other  after  the  fruit  is  picked,  using 
Bordeaux   6-6-50. 

3.  Where  the  disease  is  abundant  and 
is  seriously  interfering  with  the  growth 
and  productiveness  of  the  orchard  and 
it  Is  desired  to  clean  up  the  disease  in 
the  shortest  time  possible,  then  it  is  ad- 
vised to  spray  at  least  once  before  the 
fruit  is  picked  with  Bordeaux  mixture, 
4-4-50.  This  application  should  be  made 
about  the  middle  of  September  or  before 
the  first  fall  rains.  If  desired  the  com- 
bination spray  suggested  under  (1) 
above  may  be  used  instead  of  the  appli- 
cation in  the  middle  of  September.  In 
addition,  such  an  orchard  should  be 
sprayed  twice  with  Bordeaux  after  the 
fruit  is  picked,  using  the  6-6-50  formula, 
as   recommended    in    (2)    above. 

4.  Growers  who  desire  to  spray  be- 
fore the  fruit  is  picked  but  who  object 
to  the  Bordeaux  at  that  time  should  try 
the  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  car- 
bonate, or  some  other  copper  compound 
which  does  not  leave  a  deposit  upon 
the  fruit.  It  should  be  pointed  out.  how- 
ever, that  the  efficiency  of  these  sprays, 
as  a  control  of  apple  tree  anthracnose 
has    not   been    thoroughly    demonstrated. 

5.  It  is  advisable,  where  possible,  to 
prune  out  all  the  more  seriously  infected 
branches  before  the  spraying  is  done. 
The  spraying  is  more  important,  how- 
ever, and  should  be  given  the  prefer- 
ence. The  pruning  may  follow  the  spray- 
ing, especially  if  the  work  is  done  as 
soon  as  possible  afterwards.  All  affected 
branches  which  are  cut  out  should  be 
immediately  removed  from  the  orchard 
and  burned,  since  they  would  be  a  source 
of  infection  if  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
ground. 

6.  In  so  far  as  it  is  practical  it 
would  be  advisable  whenever  cankers 
are  formed,  to  clean  out  the  dead  bark, 
and  where  the  wounds  are  large  to  pro- 
tect the  exposed  wood  with  grafting  wax 
or  paint.  It  has  been  shown  that  bark 
in  cankers  may  be  a  source  of  infection 
for  at  least  three  years.  The  removal 
of  the  dead  bark  is  further  advisable, 
since,  if  allowed  to  remain,  it  offers  pro- 


446 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


tection  for  various  insects,  especially  the 
woolly  apliis. 

7.  If  for  any  reason  cankers  are 
formed  and  are  detected  in  the  winter 
when  very  small,  the  development  of  the 
canker  may  be,  in  many  cases,  prevented 
by  shaving  off  the  thin  outer  layer  of 
the  bark.  This  will  allow  the  cankers  to 
dry  out  and  will  prevent,  to  a  large 
extent  at  least,  the  formation  of  spores 
in  the  fall.  This  method  would  prob- 
ably be  practical  only  on  young  trees, 
and,  in  any  case,  should  be  considered 
only   supplementary   to   spraying. 

See  Black  Spot  Canker  of  Apple. 

Bibliography 

1893-4.     Washington    State    Board    Horti- 
cultural   Report,    1893-4,   page    69. 
1900.     Cordley,    Oregon    Experiment    Sta- 
tion,   Bulletin    No.    GO. 
1900.     Cordley,     Botanical     Gazette,     30. 

page  48-f. 
1900.     Peck,   Torry   Botanical    Club.    Bul- 
letin  No.    57.   page    21. 
1904.     Lawrence  Washington   Experiment 

Station,   Bulletin   No.   66. 
1906.     Cordley,     Better    Fruit,    1    and    5, 

November. 
1908.     Cate,     Oregon   Countryman,  1   and 

2,   1   and   3. 
1912.     Jackson.  Phytopathology,  2  and   2, 

page   95. 
1912.     Jackson,  Oregon    Experiment    Sta- 
tion,  Crop   Pest  Report,   1911-12. 
Bacteriai,    Pome    Blight.     See    Blight 
under  Pear. 

Bitter  Eott 
Glomerella  rufomaculans 
The  apple  bitter  or  ripe  rot  is  the 
cause  of  some  of  the  most  extensive 
losses  experienced  by  apple  growers.  It 
is  due  to  a  fungus  which  has  been  given 
a  number  of  scientific  names,  the  one 
by  which  it  is  now  known  being  Glom- 
erella rufomaciilans.  The  disease  occurs 
throughout  nearly  all  the  country  east 
of  Kansas  and  Texas,  and  is  especially 
destructive  in  a  broad  belt  from  Vir- 
ginia to  Oklahoma.  It  Is  somewhat  spas- 
modic in  its  occurrence  and  at  times 
occasions  almost  total  loss.  It  is  stated 
that  in  four  counties  in  Illinois  in  1900 
the  loss,  due  to  this  cause  alone,  amount- 


ed to  $1,500,000,  and  the  estimated  loss 
to  the  apple  crop  for  the  United  States 
during  the  same  year  was  $10,000,000, 

The  fungus  lives  on  many  different 
plants,  causing  a  ripe  rot  of  their  fruits, 
but  is  best  known  as  causing  the  bitter 
rot  of  apples  and  the  ripe  rot  of  grapes. 
The  first  signs  of  the  bitter  rot  on  the 
apple  are  to  be  seen  in  a  slight  light- 
brown  discoloration  under  the  skin  of 
the  fruit.  The  spots  increase  rapidly 
in  size,  maintaining  a  more  or  less  cir- 
cular outline,  and  become  darker  brown 
in  color.  Soon  the  tissues  underneath 
the  spots  soften  and  the  area  seems 
sunken.  When  the  spots  have  attained 
a  diameter  of  about  half  an  inch,  small 
black  spots  appear  beneath  the  upper 
surface,  through  which  they  finally 
break,  discharging  pink  masses  of  spores 
which  are  very  sticky  when  moist.  These 
black  pustules  are  usually  formed  in 
rings,  and  as  the  spots  increase  in  size 
a  number  of  concentric  rings  may  be 
seen.  The  brown  coloration  of  the  spots 
is  an  indication  of  the  decayed  condition 
of  the  tissues  underneath,  and  there  is 
usually  a  sharp  dividing  line  between 
the  sound  and  the  diseased  tissues.  The 
fruit  is  seldom  entirely  destroyed  al- 
though it  is  rendered  almost  worthless. 
The  tissues  are  at  first  hard,  followed  by 
the  breaking  down  of  the  cells,  and  the 
partially  decayed  portions  usually  have 
a  pronounced  bitter  flavor,  from  which 
is  derived  the  name  bitter  rot.  The 
fruits  never  become  excessively  soft  and 
mushy,  but  often  dry  into  what  are 
called   "mummy"   fruits. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  the  fungus 
passes  the  winter  in  these  fruits,  spread- 
ing the  infection  the  next  season.  While 
the  spread  of  the  fungus  may  be  favored 
by  the  presence  of  the  mummy  fruits, 
yet  a  more  important  method  has  been 
found  in  the  presence  of  cankers  on  the 
limbs  of  the  trees.  These  are  due  to 
the  same  fungus  as  that  occurring  on 
the  fruits,  and  their  relation  to  the  dis- 
ease has  been  well  established  by  Bur- 
rill  and  Blair,  of  the  Illinois  Station, 
and  Von  Schrenk  and  Spaulding.  of  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 


APPLE  DISEASES 


447 


From  these  cankers  the  spores 
are  washed  by  the  rains  over  the  young 
fruits,  causing  their  infection.  The 
spread  of  the  disease  may  often  be 
traced  to  its  source  by  the  conelil^e  in- 
fected area,  with  the  canker  at  the  apex. 
Alwood,  of  the  Virginia  Station,  claims 
that  infection  sometimes  takes  place 
without  the  presence  of  cankers,  and  he 
thinks  that  mummy  fruits  are  the  prin- 
cipal source  of  primary  infection.  In 
the  publications,  both  of  the  Illinois  Sta- 
tion and  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
the  authors  recommend  cutting  out  the 
cankers  and  thorough  spraying  of  the 
trees  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  but  Al- 
wood advises  caution  in  pruning,  unless 
it  can  be  done  without  material  injury 
to  the  tree. 

Marked  differences  in  susceptibility  of 
varieties  to  bitter  rot  have  been  noted. 
While  no  list  can  be  given  that  will 
apply  to  all  regions,  yet  in  general  the 
Yellow  Newtown  or  Albemarle  Pippin, 
Rhode  Island.  Willow,  Huntsman.  North- 
ern Spy,  Ben  Davis,  York  Imperial, 
Grimes,  and  Winesap  are  subject  to  the 
disease  almost  in  the  order  of  enumera- 
tion, the  Yellow  Newtown  seeming  to  be 
most  liable  to  serious  loss. 

Certain  conditions  of  weather  influ- 
ence the  spread  of  the  disease.  It  is 
favored  by  a  hot,  moist  temperature,  the 
fungus  being  very  dependent  upon  the 
combination  of  high  temperature  .ind 
moisture  for  its  development.  During 
cool,  dry  summers  little  of  the  disease 
may  be  expected,  and  an  outbreak  may 
be  checked  If  the  mean  temperature  falls 
to  and  remains  at  or  below  70  degrees 
Fahrenheit    for    a    few    days. 

W.  M.  Scott,  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry.  *  gives  an  account  of  spraying 
experiments  for  the  control  of  the  bitter 
rot  on  apples.  These  experiments  were 
carried  on  in  1905  on  an  orchard  of 
Yellow  Newtown  or  Albemarle  Pippin 
trees  in  Virginia,  and  the  conditions 
that  season  were  so  favorable  for  the 
development  of  bitter  rot,  as  was  shown 
by   the   large   number   of   decayed    fruits 

*U.    S.    Department    of   Agriculture.    Bureau    of 
Plant    Industr.v    Bulletin   93. 


on  unsprayed  trees,  that  the  conclusions 
are  believed  to  be  of  general  applica- 
tion. The  Bordeaux  mixture  used  in 
the  experiments  was  composed  of  five 
pounds  of  copper  sulphate,  five  pounds 
of  lime,  and  50  gallons  of  water.  It  is 
shown  that  bitter  rot  can  be  controlled 
by  four  applications  of  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture if  applied  at  the  proper  times  and 
in  a  thorough  manner.  The  first  appli- 
cation should  be  made  about  five  or  six 
weeks  after  the  trees  bloom,  followed  by 
others  at  intervals  of  about  two  weeks. 
By  this  method  the  experimenter  was 
able  to  save  from  93  to  98  per  cent  of 
sound  fruit  on  the  trees,  while  on  ad- 
joining trees  that  were  not  sprayed  the 
fruit  was  a  total  loss.  In  dry,  cool  sea- 
sons the  intervals  between  the  later 
sprayings  may  be  increased,  while  in 
hot,  moist  summers  the  intervals  should 
be  shortened  and  the  number  of  appli- 
cations increased.  If  for  any  reason  the 
spraying  is  not  begun  until  after  the 
bitter  rot  has  made  its  appearance  on 
the  young  fruit,  the  trees  should  be 
given  at  intervals  of  only  a  few  days 
two  thorough  sprayings,  to  be  followed 
by  applications  as  described  above. 

By  beginning  the  spraying  with  the 
swelling  of  the  buds  and  following  at 
intervals  of  about  two  weeks  until  about 
eight  applications  have  been  given  the 
trees,  attacks  of  apple  scab,  leaf  blotch, 
and   sooty   mold   may   also   be   prevented. 


tCompiled  from  Illinois  Station  Bulletin  77. 
Circulars  58.  67 :  Virginia  Station  Bulletin 
142:  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry  Bulletins  44,  93  and  B^rm 
Bulletin  LMiT. 

Black  Heart 

The  cause  of  this  disease  of  the  trunk 
is  obscure.  It  may  be  due  to  too  low  a 
winter  temperature,  and  again  it  may 
be  the  effect  of  the  earliest  invasion  of 
fungal  filaments.  Possibly  it  is  the  re- 
sult of  some  other  general  causes. 

Black  Rot,  Canker,  and  Leaf  Spot 

Sphaeropsis  Malorum  Berk. 

The    three    diseases    given    above   have 

been  found  to  be  due  to  a  single  fungus, 

"Sphaeropsis   Malorum."     The    black   rot 

of    the    apple    is    very    common    in    New 


448 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Hampshire.  It  is  dark  brown  or  black 
in  color  and  the  affected  tissue  com- 
paratively firm.  It  is  thus  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  soft  rots.  It  may 
start  on  any  part  of  the  fruit,  but  often 
begins  at  the  blossom  and  frequently 
follows  insect  stings.  The  disease  is 
primarily  a  rot  of  ripe  fruit,  but  it  may 
often  be  found  as  dark  brown  spots  one- 
eighth  to  one-half  inch  in  diameter  sev- 
eral weeks  before  the  apples  are  mature. 
These  spots  may  develop  very  slowly 
until  about  picking  time,  but  after  that 
spread  rapidly,  involving  the  whole 
apple.  As  the  rot  develops,  numerous 
minute,  black  elevations  may  be  seen  on 
the  apple  (Fig.  1).  These  are  spore 
producing  bodies   of  the  fungus   and   are 


known  as  pycnidia.  The  rot  does  con- 
siderable damage  in  cellar  storage,  but 
is  especially  common  on  the  fruit  left 
on  the  trees  or  ground.  This  worthless 
fruit  becomes  a  source  of  infection  the 
following  spring. 

Canker  is  a  term  applied  to  rough, 
imsightly  wounds  that  are  known  to  be 
due  to  the  action  of  fungi.  The  most 
common  variety  of  this  trouble  is  the 
"black  rot  canker,"  also  known  as  the 
"New  York  apple  tree  canker."*  Both 
large  and   small  limbs  are   attacked  and 


*  Paddock.  Wendell.  The  New  York  Apple 
Tree  Cankei'.  New  York  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment  Station   Bulletin   1G3. 

Paddock.  Wendell.  Ibid  (Second  Report).  New 
York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bul- 
letin   18.5. 


Fig.  1.  Black  Rot  o£  Apple  Due  to  Spharropsis  malorum,  Showing  Black  Rot  on  Fruit, 
Black  Rot  Canker  on  Limb,  Early  Stage  of  Leaf  Spot  (upper  figure)  and  Late  Stage 
of  Leaf  Spot   (lower  figure). 

— New  Hampshire  Experiment  Station. 


APPLE  DISEASES 


449 


sometimes  the  trunk.  In  some  cases  it 
seems  to  cause  merely  a  greater  rougli- 
ening  of  the  bark,  but  where  a  broken 
twig  or  other  Injury  furnishes  an  en- 
trance to  the  actively  growing  tissue  of 
the  host  the  effects  are  often  much  more 
pronounced.  In  serious  cases  the  bark 
may  be  killed  over  considerable  area 
and  become  conspicuously  cracked  and 
roughened  (Fig.  1).  It  is  set  off  from 
the  living  bark  by  a  very  definite  bound- 
ary. Limbs  are  often  so  nearly  girdled 
that  the  parts  beyond  die.  Pycnida 
similar  to  those  on  the  fruit  are  found 
on  the  canker. 

Like  the  other  diseases  attributed  to 
Sphaeropsis  Malorum,  the  leaf  spot  is  of 
general  occurrence.  The  disease  makes 
its  appearance  on  the  leaves  shortly 
after  they  unfold  from  the  bud.  Infec- 
tion continues  throughout  the  spring, 
but  notes  taken  the  past  two  years  In- 
dicate that  it  Is  uncommon  after  the 
middle  of  June.  At  first  the  spots  are 
small,  purple  areas,  but  as  growth  pro- 
gresses they  become  yellowish-brown  In 
color  and  attain  a  diameter  of  from  one- 
eighth  to  one-half  inch  (Fig.  1).  They 
are  quite  uniformly  circular  in  outline. 
The  margins  are  somewhat  elevated,  giv- 
ing to  the  spot  a  sunken  appearance.  As 
the  spots  become  older  a  secondary 
growth  may  spread  from  the  central 
affected  area,  producing  a  somewhat  ir- 
regular blotch  in  which  the  outline  of 
the  original  spot  can  always  be  recog- 
nized. (See  Fig.  1.)  It  often  happens 
that  several  of  these  areas  become  con- 
fluent, and  thus  the  greater  part  of  the 
leaf  may  become  affected.  Spotted  leaves 
fall  from  the  trees  early  in  the  fall  and 
their  working  efficiency  is  always  greatly 
reduced  by  the  middle  of  the  summer. 
Trees  thus  robbed  of  their  foliage  from 
year  to  year  must  eventually  become 
greatly  impaired  in  their  vigor. 

The  cause  of  the  leaf  spot  has  occa- 
sioned no  little  difficulty.  A  number  of 
fungi  have  been  found  to  be  present  in 
the  spots,  but  inoculation  experiments 
have  indicated  that  Sphaeropsis  Malorum 
is  probably  the  only  one  that  is  of   Im- 


portance   in    the    production    of    the    dis- 
ease. 

Treatment 

The  fact  that  one  fungus  is  responsible 
for  three  different  forms  of  disease 
makes  its  destruction  a  matter  of  special 
importance  and  rather  unusual  difficulty. 
Spraying  has  been  quite  effective  in  con- 
trolling the  leaf  spot.  In  the  summer 
of  1908  the  per  cent  of  leaves  spotted 
in  the  orchards  referred  to  under  apple 
scab  was  reduced  from  97  to  26  by  the 
use  of  Bordeaux  and  to  21  by  the  use 
of  lime-sulphur  solution.  Five  sprayings 
were  made,  but  it  is  probable  that  only 
the  first  three  were  effective  for  leaf 
spot.  Sprayings  made  at  various  times 
in  the  summer  have  had  little  or  no 
effect  upon  the  number  of  spots  of  rot 
on  the  fruit  at  picking  time.  The  de- 
struction of  the  affected  fruit  seems  to 
be  the  most  efficient  treatment  for  this 
form  of  disease.  All  cankered  limbs 
should  be  cut  out  and  burned.  Large 
wounds  should  be  protected  by  a  cover- 
ing of  paint.  Thorough  spraying  is  of 
value  in  protecting  the  limbs.  Heavy 
applications  made  when  the  trees  are  in 
a  dormant  condition  are  probably  espe- 
cially efficacious. 

Charles    Brooks, 

Durham,    N.    H. 

Blackspot   Canker   or   Apple   Tree 
Anthracnose 

yeofabraea  Malicorticis   (Cordley) 
Jackson 
Bt  W.  H.  Lawkence 
Plant  Pathologist  and  Horticulturist  for 
Hood   River  Apple   Growers,   Hood 
River,    Oregon 
More   than   a   decade   has   passed   since 
Blackspot   Canker   or   Anthracnose   made 
its  appearance  in  apple  orchards  through- 
out the  Pacific  Northwest  and  became  so 
destructive    that    Information    concerning 
its    control    was    sought.      Although    the 
cause  and  control  of  the  disease  has  been 
determined    and    fully    demonstrated    the 
disease  has  been  allowed  to  continue  year 
after   year   in    some   of   the   orchards   of 
each  of  the  apple-growing  sections.     Con- 
tinuous and     scattering     observations  as 


450 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


well  as  some  more  or  less  connected  ex- 
perimental work  done  by  several  persons 
in  different  localities  and  widely  differ- 
ing conditions  show  that  the  control  of 
this  disease  is  by  far  more  important  than 
suspected  at  an  earlier  date.  It  is  now 
definitely  Icnown  that  the  fungus  has  two 
stages,  one  of  which  may  be  termed  the 
conidial  and  the  other  the  ascigerous. 
Also  that  the  fungus  attacks  the  prune, 
plum  and  pear  causing  shallow  cankers 
in  the  outer  bark  of  the  trunks  and  larger 
branches;  will  induce  Gummosis  of  the 
cherry  and  in  addition  to  the  destruction 
wrought  upon  the  apple  tree,  also  causes 
the  most  serious  loss  of  apples  in  both 
common  and  cold  storage  due  to  a  fungus, 
as  well  as  causing  a  similar  decay  of  the 
fruit  of  the  quince. 

The  recognition  and  control  of  the  dis- 
ease caused  by  this  fungus  which  is  now 
known  under  the  scientific  name  of  Xe- 
ofdbraea  Malicorticis  (Cordley),  Jackson, 
is  of  greatest  importance  as  a  disease  of 
the  apple  since  the  fungus  attacks  the 
body  of  the  tree  directly  threatening  the 
life  of  the  plant  and  later  produces 
spores  which  lodge  upon  the  fruit  causing 
serious  losses  of  the  fruit  after  it  has 
been  placed  in  common  or  cold  storage. 

The  discovery  that  there  are  two  spore 
forms  developed  in  a  canker  and  that  the 
conidia  mature  the  first  year  while  the 
bark  is  dying  or  a  little  later  and  that 
the  second  year  another  crop  of  spores 
(ascospores)  are  thrown  out.  should  make 
the  orchardist  doubly  cautious  in  attempt- 
ing to  eradicate  the  disease  since  the  dis- 
tribution of  spores  continues  for  so  long 
a  period. 

Thorough  applications  of  fungicides 
during  the  autumn  applied  previous  to 
the  early  rains  of  winter  do  control  the 
disease.  Owing  to  the  late  date  apple 
harvesting  continues,  it  is  sometimes  true 
that  the  autumn  rains  are  heavy  enough 
to  make  the  soil  so  muddy  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  spray  following  the  gathering 
of  the  fruit.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  tests 
with  lime-sulphur  and  Bordeaux  mixture 
made  on  mature  fruit  shortly  be- 
fore picking  time  have  at  least 
indicated  that  the  fruit  may  be  sprayed 
without  the  slightest  injury,  it  seems  ad- 


visable to  spray  the  fruit  before  gathering 
it.  Such  applications  should  control  the 
spread  of  the  fungus  for  a  short  period  at 
least  and  kill  all  the  spores  of  the  fungus 
(anthracnose)  adhering  to  the  fruit  as 
well  as  in  part  preventing  the  late  infec- 
tion of  apple  scab  which  sometimes  takes 
place  upon  the  fruit  after  the  same  has 
been  wrapped,  packed  and  placed  in  stor- 
age. 

A  thorough  spraying  with  double 
strength  Bordeaux  mixture,  applied  in 
spring  before  the  buds  began  to  open,  has 
also  given  the  desired  results.  At  this 
time  the  entire  tree  is  exposed  to  the 
direct  drive  of  the  spray  and  the  trees 
may  be  so  thoroughly  coated  that  the 
amount  of  spray  that  will  adhere  to  the 
bark  during  the  entire  season  is  sufficient 
to  give  as  good  results  as  have  been  ob- 
tained through  applications  during  au- 
tumn. This  spring  spraying  admits  of 
thoroughly  soaking  all  the  cankers  which 
if  in  a  dry  condition  have  been  observed 
to  become  a  deep  blue  color,  due  to  the 
dead  bark  absorbing  large  quantities  of 
the  spray. 

In  cleaning  up  a  badly  infested  orchard 
the  dead  bark  should  be  torn  from  all 
the  cankers  and  as  many  of  the  new  cank- 
ers scraped  as  practicable,  after  which 
one  or  more  thorough  sprayings,  prefer- 
ably with  Bordeaux,  should  be  made. 

Black  Spot  Fungus  or  Scab 

Fusicladium  detidriticum 
During  recent  years  the  apple  scab 
fungus  has  been  very  troublesome  in 
Canada,  often  injuring  the  fruit  so  badly 
that  it  is  quite  unsaleable.  The  disease 
attacks  the  tree  in  early  spring  and  is 
first  noticeable  as  light  green  patches 
on  the  young  leaves.  The  fruit  may  be 
affected  as  soon  as  formed  and  if  badly 
diseased  will  drop  off.  As  the  fruit  in- 
creases in  size  the  diseased  patches  en- 
large and  nearly  all  the  surface  is  often 
covered  with  the  black  spots  before  the 
fruit  is  picked.  In  addition  to  the  dis- 
figured appearance  of  the  fruit,  caused 
by  this  disease,  the  apples  do  not  reach 
their  full  size.  The  apple  spot  develops 
most  rapidly  in  moist  weather.  This 
disease  may  be  almost  entirely  prevented 


APPLE  DISEASES 


451 


by  the  proper  use  of  Bordeaux  mixture, 
the  remedy  recommended  at  the  end  of 
this  paragraph.  While  a  certain  number 
of  applications  are  recommended,  more 
will  have  to  be  given  if  the  season  is 
wet.  The  object  should  be  to  keep  the 
trees  covered  with  the  mixture  from 
the  first  until  the  last  spraying.  If  the 
mixture  is  washed  off  the  tree  the  dis- 
ease will  have  an  opportunity  of  devel- 
oping and  it  is  difficult  to  check  it,  if 
it  begins  to  spread. 

Kpniedy 

■  Spray  with  copper  sulphate  solution 
(one  pound  copper  sulphate  to  25  gal- 
lons water)  or  with  Bordeaux  mixture 
before  the  buds  start,  or  when  they  be- 
gin to  break;  and  with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture, just  before  blossoms  open;  soon 
after  blossoms  fall  and  two  or  three 
times  after  at  intervals  of  from  10  to  15 
days.     The  first  three  sprayings  are  the 

most  important.  „,    „    ht 

W.  T.   M.^cotx, 

Ottawa.    Canada- 
Blight 
BaciUus   amylovorus    (Burrill)    De   Toni. 
FiKE     Blight,      Peab      Blight.      Twig 
Blight.    See  under  Pear. 

Blister  Canker 

Xum7nularia  discreta  Tul. 
The  disease  is  sometimes  known  as 
"Illinois  Canker."  since  it  was  first  ob- 
served as  particularly  destructive  in  that 
state.  It  seems  to  be  less  destructive 
in  New  England  than  the  black  rot 
and  European  cankers.  It  has  a  char- 
acteristic appearance  that  readily  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  either  of  these  dis- 
eases. (See  Fig.  1.)  It  is  usually  found 
on  the  larger  limbs,  and  sometimes  at- 
tacks the  trunk.  Old  cankers  are  often 
a  foot  or  more  in  length.  The  fungus 
attacks  the  wood  as  well  as  the  bark. 
In  the  early  stages  of  the  disease  the 
bark  is  brown  and  slightly  sunken  and 
usually  set  off  from  the  healthy  bark  by 
a  distinct  boundary.  As  the  season  ad- 
vances circular  fungous  masses  known 
as  stromata  develop  on  the  diseased  area. 
They  are  formed  beneath  the  bark,  but 
soon  break  through  to  the  surface,  fur- 
nishing   the    most    characteristic    feature 


Fig.  1.  Blister  Canker  of  Apple,  The  liai-k  has 
been  removed  from  the  upper  portion  show- 
ing the  circular  markings  produced  in  the 
wood. 

of  the  disease.  The  stromata  are  firmly 
fastened  to  the  wood  by  means  of  a  hard 
ring  of  fungous  tissue,  so  that  they  re- 
main attached  to  it  even  after  the  bark 
has  fallen  away.  Summer  spores  are 
produced  on  the  surface  of  the  stroma. 
Later  in  the  season,  numerous  flask- 
shaped  perithecia  are  formed  within  the 
stroma,  but  opening  on  its  surface.  These 
produce  many  club-shaped  asci,  each  con- 
taining  eight   spherical,   brown   spores. 

Treatment 

The  fungus  seems  to  be  dependent 
upon  wounds  for  entrance  to  the  host 
tissue.  The  best  method  of  treatment 
is  found  in  avoiding  unnecessary  in- 
juries to  the  tree  and  in  the  proper  care 
of  all  wounds.  All  cankered  limbs  should 
be  destroyed.  Ch.\rles  Brooks, 

Durham,  X.  H. 

Blos.som  Blight.  See  Blight  under 
Pear. 

Blotch 
PhyUosticta  soUtaria   E.   &   E. 

The  blotch  is  caused  by  a  fungus 
which  lives  parasitically  upon  the  fruit, 
twigs  and  leaves  of  the  apple. 


452 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


The  apple  blotch  frequently  causes 
over  90  per  cent  of  injury  to  susceptible 
varieties  in  the  Central  West.  It  has 
been  successfully  controlled  on  the  fruit, 
the  first  season  sprayed,  by  the  applica- 
tion   of    Bordeaux    mixture. 

By  the  continued  use  of  Bordeaux  dur- 
ing successive  seasons  the  disease  can  be 
almost  completely  eradicated  from  the 
orchard  in  from  four  to  six  years.  The 
3-4-50  Bordeaux  can  be  safely  used,  if 
made  and  applied  only  as  recommended. 

It  is  especially  necessary  in  the  con- 
trol of  this  disease  that  the  spraying  be 
done  with  absolute  thoroughness,  and 
at  the  time  indicated   in   the  schedule. 

Lime-sulphur  solution  is  less  effective 
than  Bordeaux  mixture,  for  blotch  con- 
trol, but  should  always  be  used  during 
wet  weather,  on  account  of  the  tendency 
of  Bordeaux  to  cause  injury  at  such  a 
time. 

The  work  of  eradicating  the  blotch 
fungus  can  be  hastened,  the  chance  for 
injury  lessened,  and  the  commercial 
value  of  the  fruit  increased,  by  carefully 
cutting  back   the   affected   trees. 

This  cutting-back  process  strengthens 
the  framework  of  the  tree,  and  throws 
it  into  vigorous  growth.  Advantage  may 
be  taken  of  this  growth  to  increase  and 
lower  the  bearing  surface  of  the  tree. 

Recommendations 

The  apple  blotch  fungus  can  be  con- 
trolled. In  the  most  susceptible  vari- 
eties, showing  an  enormous  amount  of 
cankers,  the  disease  has  been  reduced  to 
less  than  five  per  cent  of  injury  by  the 
application  of  Bordeaux  mixture.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  disease  on  the  fruit 
can  be  controlled  the  first  season  by 
spray  applications,  and  that  by  follow- 
ing the  same  treatment  during  succes- 
sive seasons  it  can  be  almost  entirely 
eradicated  from  the  orchard.  This  pro- 
cess can  be  hastened  and  the  injury 
materially  lessened  by  removing  the 
worst  cankered  and  useless  limbs  from 
the  infested  trees. 

Bordeaux  mixture  frequently  causes 
serious  burning,  and  an  investigation  of 
the  methods  generally  used  in  preparing 


this  mixture  has  led  the  author  to  the 
conclusion  that  three  factors  are  largely 
responsible  tor  this  injury:  First,  a 
stronger  mixture  than  necessary  to  con- 
trol the  fungi  is  ordinarily  used:  sec- 
ond, unsatisfactory  methods  are  fre- 
quently employed  in  mixing;  third,  a 
poor  grade  of  lime,  or  air-slaked  lime, 
is  commonly  used.  Investigations  both 
in  the  laboratory  and  in  the  orchard 
have  shown  that  three  pounds  of  copper 
sulphate  and  four  pounds  of  well-slaked 
stone  lime  for  each  50  gallons  of  water 
make  a  Bordeaux  which,  for  all  summer 
orchard  work,  is  effective  and  less  liable 
to  injure  tender  fruit  and  foliage  than 
that  made  according  to  the  stronger 
formultP. 

Tlie  Correct  Method  of  Making  Bordeaux 

In  order  to  make  an  effective  Bor- 
deaux, and  one  that  is  the  least  liable 
to  cause  burning,  the  copper  sulphate 
and  lime  should  be  added  each  to  one- 
half  the  total  required  water,  and  these 
two  dilute  solutions  allowed  to  run  to- 
gether, in  equal  quantities,  into  a  third 
tank.  There  is  nothing  new  about  this 
method,  as  it  has  been  in  use  for  years, 
but  ordinarily  the  beginner  tries  to  les- 
sen the  time  and  labor  involved  in  this 
process,  with  the  result  that  serious  in- 
jury follows.  The  manner  in  which  these 
two  solutions  are  mixed  may  be  varied 
according  to  convenience,  just  so  the  two 
are  mixed  in  equal  dilute  quantities. 
Very  frequently,  when  small  amounts  of 
Bordeaux  are  required,  the  two  dilute 
solutions  are  poured  together  into  the 
spraying  tank  by  hand.  When  large 
quantities  are  to  be  made,  however,  two 
tanks,  each  large  enough  to  hold  a  little 
more  than  one-half  the  volume  of  the 
spray  tank,  should  be  placed  upon  an 
elevated  platform  at  such  a  height  that 
they  will  drain  into  the  top  of  the 
spray  tank.  The  two  dilute  solutions 
are  then  made  in  these  tanks  and  allowed 
to  run  together  through  equal-sized 
openings  into  the  spraying  tank. 

Much  care  should  be  taken  in  slaking 
the  lime  used  in  Bordeaux  mixture.  It 
should     not     be     entirely     covered     with 


APPLE  DISEASES 


453 


water,  but  only  enough  water  added  to 
carry  on  the  process  without  burning. 
After  the,  slaliing  process  is  over,  the 
lime  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with 
water  until  a  milky  fluid  is  obtained, 
when  it  is  ready  to  add  to  the  required 
amount  of  water  to  bring  the  total  vol- 
ume up  to  one-half  the  water  named  in 
the   formula. 

The  copper-sulphate  solution  is  best 
dissolved  by  placing  a  known  weight  of 
the  material  in  a  burlap  sack  and  sus- 
pending it  in  the  top  of  a  barrel  or 
tank  of  water.  If  100  pounds  are  dis- 
solved in  50  gallons  of  water,  IVo  gal- 
lons of  the  stock  solution  will  be  re- 
quired for  making  50  gallons  of  Bor- 
deaux by  the   3-4-50   formula. 

The  4-4-50  or  5-5-50  formulae  are  not 
to  be  advised  for  summer  spraying,  as 
serious  burning  is  liable  to  follow  their 
use. 

Spray  Scliedule 

First  Application.  —  Apply  Bordeaux, 
3-4-50,  as  a  mist  three  weeks  after  the 
falling  of  the  petals.  In  case  of  wet 
weather  substitute  lime-sulphur  for  Bor- 
deaux. Apply  Bordeaux  as  soon  as  the 
weather   will    permit. 

Second  Application. — From  two  to  four 
weeks  after  the  first  application  apply 
Bordeaux,  3-4-50,  again  as  a  mist.  Use 
lime-sulphur  if  the  weather  is  wet.  Ap- 
ply Bordeaux  as  soon  as  the  weather 
will    permit. 

Third  Application. — Apply  Bordeaux  as 
in  the  previous  applications,  10  weeks 
after  the  petals  fall. 

By  adding  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate 
of  two  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  the  fungi- 
cide, any  of  the  above  materials  may  be 
made  to  assist  in  the  control  of  insects. 
Such  a  combination  adheres  to  the  fruit 
and  foliage  better  than  the  fungicide 
alone.  During  an  extremely  hot,  bright 
spell  of  weather  the  lime-sulphur-lead 
combination  frequently  causes  burning, 
but  during  such  weather  it  is  advisable 
to  use  Bordeaux  rather  than  lime-sul- 
phur. 

References 

Ellis     &     Everhart.       Proceedings     of 


Academy     of     Natural     Sciences,     Phila- 
delphia, 1895. 

Clinton.  Illinois  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  Bulletin  No.   69. 

Scott  &  Qualntance.  U.  S.  Department 
Agriculture,   Farmers'   Bulletin  No.   283. 

Scott  &  Rorer.  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
dustry, Bulletin  No.  144. 

Sheldon.  Science  N.  S.  26,  No.  658; 
August  9,  1907. 

D.  E.   Lewis, 
Manhattan,  Kan. 

Blue  Mold  Decay 

This  is  the  rot  of  apples  which  is 
caused  by  the  common  blue  mold  which 
is  familiar  to  everyone  on  preserved 
fruits,  jellies,  etc.  Blue  mold  grows  as 
a  saprophyte  on  a  large  number  of  dead 
organic  substances  and  produces  large 
numbers  of  spores  so  that  the  spores 
are  practically  everywhere  present  and 
may  start  a  new  growth  of  the  mold 
whenever  they  fall  upon  a  substance 
which  furnishes  a  suitable  food  supply 
provided  that  the  temperature  is  favor- 
able for  growth. 

This  decay  of  apples  is  probably 
caused  by  more  than  one  species  of  this 
genus.  In  some  cases  other  fungi  aid 
in  the  decay  but  since  Penicillium 
breaks  out  and  shows  more  prominently 
on  the  surface  of  the  apple,  it  is  often 
held  responsible  for  more  of  the  decay 
than  it  causes.  There  can  be  no  doubt, 
however,  that  one  or  more  species  of 
Penicillium  cause  a  large  amount  of  the 
soft  rot  of  stored  apples.  This  is  pri- 
marily a  rot  of  ripe  apples  and  does  not 
cause  decay  of  green  fruit.  The  threads 
of  the  fungus  cannot  penetrate  the  un- 
injured epidermis  of  the  apple  but  must 
gain  entrance  through  injured  places 
such  as  bruises,  cuts,  cracks,  worm  holes, 
spray  injured  places  or  scab  spots.  It 
spreads  rapidly  in  ripe  apples  and  com- 
plete decay  takes  place  In  one  or  two 
weeks.  The  tissues  become  soft  and  are 
light  brown  in  color.  Little  tufts  of 
mycelium  which  bear  the  spores  break 
out  on  the  surface  of  the  decayed  region. 
These  tufts  soon  become  light  blue  or 
blue-green,   later   gray-green   to   brownish 


454 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


in  color.  Apples  rotted  by  this  fungus 
take  on  a  characteristic  moldy  odor  and 
taste. 

Since  the  fungus  enters  the  apple 
through  wounds,  any  means  of  control 
of  the  rot  must  look  to  the  prevention 
of  injuries  to  the  epidermis.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  produce  good,  sound  apples 
and  then  these  should  be  picked  and 
handled  in  such  a  way  as  to  avoid  cuts 
and  bruises.  The  apples  should  be  stored 
where  the  temperatures  are  as  low  as 
can  be  maintained  with  safety  from 
freezing.  ^    j    ^^^^^^ 

Orono,    Maine. 
Body  Blight.     See  Blight  under  Pear. 

Botrytis  Decay 

A  species  of  Botrytis  causes  a  part  of 
the  decay  of  apples  in  Maine.  It  .has 
been  found  causing  a  rot  of  early  apples 
on  the  tree  and  inoculations  have  shown 
that  it  not  only  attacks  ripe  fruit  but 
that  it  is  capable  of  causing  a  rot  of 
green  apples.  The  fungus  spread  rather 
rapidly  in  the  tissues  of  winter  apples 
which  were  inoculated  early  in  August, 
so  that  in  two  weeks  one-half  of  each 
apple  was  decayed.  It  causes  a  rapid 
and  complete  decay  of  ripe  apples. 
W.  J.  Morse, 
Orono,  Maine. 

Brown  Bot 

SpUaeropsis  malorum 
See  Black  Rot. 

Brown  Bot 

Sclerotinia  fructigina 
Soft  rot.  Ripe  rot.  Same  as  brown 
rot  of  plum.  This  fungus  is  every- 
where present.  The  least  break  in  the 
skin  gives  it  easy  entrance  into  the 
fruit.  Loss  of  fruit  In  storage  from  this 
disease  follows  when  the  skin  is  cut  by 
finger  nails  or  punctured  by  fruit  stems 
or  broken   in   any  way. 

Pick  the  fruit  with  stems  on.  In 
wrapping  and  packing,  do  the  work  in 
such  a  way  that  there  will  be  no  punc- 
turing by  stems.  Protect  from  injury 
by  insects  and  diseases  by  spraying,  as 
for  scab. 

Rainy  weather  late  in  the  season  after 
prolonged     drought    may     cause    growth 


cracks  in  the  fruit  through  which  this 
fungus  may  gain  entrance  to  the  flesh. 
To  avoid  this,  maintain  uniform  rate  of 
growth  by  thorough  tile  drainage  and 
by  early  and  frequent  cultivation  to 
conserve  the  soil  moisture  and  keep  the 
skin  of  the  fruit  in  active  growing  con- 
dition. 

S.  A.  Beach, 

Ames,   la. 

Brown  Spot  or  Dry  Bot  of  Baldwin 

Very  frequent  complaint  is  made  of 
small  sunken  spots  in  fine  specimens  of 
Baldwin  and  some  other  varieties.  In- 
ternally these  sunken  spots  are  dry  and 
somewhat  bitter,  leading  to  general 
breakdown  of  the  apple.  These  spots 
have  been  referred  to  a  particular 
fungus  (Phyllachora  pomigena  [Schw.] 
Sacc),  but  the  case  is  not  proved.  This 
internal  brown  spotting  also  occurs  in 
Northern  Spy  and  in  Fameuse.  The 
causes  of  the  internal  spotting  are  prob- 
ably the  same  in  all  cases  and  must  in 
part  be  regarded  as  physiological  break- 
down. New  Hampshire  Experiment  Sta- 
tion (Bulletin  45)  succeeded  in  controll- 
ing the  form  of  this  dry  rot  on  Baldwin 
by  the  use  of  Bordeaux  mixture.  Some 
irregularity  in  results  from  spraying  for 
it    have    been    recorded    elsewhere. 

A.  D.  Selby. 
Calix  Injury 

Sometimes  thought  to  be  occasioned 
by  sprays  applied  under  unfavorable 
conditions. 

Canker  and  Twig  Blight 

The  term  canker  has  become  such  a 
general  one  as  not  to  admit  of  easy 
definition.  It  is  commonly  used  to  de- 
scribe the  Condition  of  branches  of  trees 
in  which  an  area  of  bark  has  been  killed 
and  has  broken  away  so  that  a  portion 
of  the  wood  is  laid  bare  or  is  covered 
only  by  cracked  and  roughened  bark 
which  does  not  protect  the  wood.  In 
the  writer's  opinion  the  term  "canker" 
as  applied  to  diseased  areas  on  trees 
should  be  restricted  to  those  character- 
istic lesions  on  the  trunk  and  limbs 
which  are  the  result  of  alternate  at- 
tempts   to    heal,    with    the    formation    of 


APPLE  DISEASES 


455 


new  wood,  followed  by  further  killing 
of  the  living  tissue.  In  early  stages  of 
development,  cankers  show  a  region  of 
sunken  discolored  bark  and  it  is  only  in 
later  stages  that  the  bark  breaks  away. 
Cankers  have  been  described  as  caused 
by  frost,  sun  scald,  fungi,  and  bacteria. 
A  considerable  number  of  different  fungi 
have  been  reported  as  causing  canker  of 
apple  trees  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States.  These  vary  greatly  in 
the  amount  of  damage  which  they  do  in 
different  regions.  In  some  cases,  a 
fungus  which  causes  a  great  amount  of 
injury  to  the  trees  of  one  region  occurs 
rarely  or  not  at  all  in  another  region. 

Frost  Canker 

Much  of  the  disease  of  apple  trees 
which  orchardists  have  been  calling 
canker  has  its  origin  in  severe  winters. 
Some  injuries  so  resulting  might  be 
properly  classified  under  the  term  "frost 
canker."  On  the  other  hand,  when  whole 
trees  are  so  badly  injured  that  they  die 
either  that  year  or  the  year  following, 
the  injury  is  too  widespread  and  acts 
too  quickly  to  be  regarded  as  canker. 
There  are  a  number  of  forms  of  winter 
injury  and  the  frost  canker  is  only  one 
of  them.  The  frost  canker  is  a  local 
Injury  which  tends  to  heal  over  under 
favorable  conditions  for  growth  unless 
the  new  growth  is  killed  by  another 
period  of  low  temperature  before  it  has 
become  hardened.  In  this  way  the  frost 
canker  may  spread,  or  in  other  cases 
the  injured  bark  may  serve  as  a  place 
for  the  entrance  of  a  parasite  which  may 
then  spread  in  the  bark  and  outer  layers 
of  wood  and  kill  a  rather  large  area  in 
a  single  year. 

So  far  as  they  have  been  investigated 
it  has  been  found  that  the  organisms 
which  cause  canker  of  fruit  trees  are, 
in  a  large  measure,  wound  parasites. 
They  are  unable,  as  a  rule,  to  penetrate 
the  uninjured  bark  but  must  enter 
through  wounds.  In  this  sense,  the 
places  injured  by  freezing  serve  the 
same  end  as  wounds  of  any  other  kind. 
However,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that 
cankers   caused   by   fungi    do   not   spread 


so  rapidly  as  to  kill  trees  in  the  short 
time  which  has  been  observed  In  the 
case  of  winter-killed  trees.  In  the  case 
of  young  trees  the  fungus  may  in  some 
cases  girdle  the  tree  in  a  few  weeks  and 
thereby  cause  its  death.  The  same  holds 
true  of  small  branches  of  old  trees,  but 
in  the  case  of  large  branches  the  fungus 
usually  spreads  but  a  few  inches  each 
year  forming  true  cankers,  and  the 
rough,  blackened  areas  that  are  fre- 
quently seen  on  large  branches  often 
represent  a  development  of  several  years. 
The  living  tissues  attempt  to  heal  over 
the  wound  by  the  formation  of  callus 
and  in  some  cases  with  considerable 
success.  Often  the  parasite  ceases  to 
spread  in  the  bark  when  the  dry  season 
of  summer  comes  on  and  a  crack  forms 
between  the  healthy  and  diseased  bark. 
The  following  year  the  diseased  area 
may  continue  to  spread  or  the  callus 
may  check  it  considerably.  Often  other 
fungi,  some  of  them  saprophytes,  grow 
upon  the   dead  bark. 

There  are  many  other  wounds  than 
those  caused  by  freezing  through  which 
parasitic  fungi  may  enter.  By  this  it  is 
not  meant  that  every  wound  that  is 
made  in  the  bark  will  necessarily  be- 
come infected  and  develop  into  a  dis- 
eased area.  In  many  cases,  however, 
the  spores  of  parasitic  fungi  are  carried 
to  wounds.  This  is  especially  liable  to 
be  the  case  when  diseased  branches  are 
allowed  to  remain  on  the  trees,  or  old 
neglected  trees  in  the  neighborhood  pro- 
duce abundant  crops  of  fungus  spores 
from  year  to  year.  Some  of  the  ways 
in  which  wounds  are  made  are:  Bark- 
ing of  trunk  and  branches  by  machinery 
in  cultivating  and  caring  for  the  or- 
chard: injuries  by  ladders  and  by  men 
in  picking  fruit;  branches  are  some- 
times injured  by  props  used  to  support 
a  heavy  load  of  fruit  especially  when 
they  are  carelessly  placed  in  position;  in 
some  cases  hailstones  split  the  bark  of 
small  branches.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  avoid  any  injury  which  is  within  the 
control  of  the  orchardist.  Wounds  are 
sometimes  kept  from  healing  over  by 
the   woolly  aphis  which   forms  little  cot- 


456 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


tony  patches  in  wounds  and,  by  delaying 
the  healing  over  process,  makes  a  favor- 
able place  for  the  entrance  of  a  parasitic 
fungus. 

Amongst  the  fungi  which  are  re- 
sponsible for  cankers  in  various  parts  of 
the  country  are:  Bitter  Rot  fungus 
(Sphaeropsis  malorum  Pk.),  Myxosporium 
corticolum,  Edg.,  Coryneum  foliicolum, 
Fckl.,  Phoma  viali,  Schulz  and  Sacc, 
Cytospora  Sp.,  European  Apple  Canker 
(Nectria  ditissima.  Tul.)  and  Nummu- 
laria   discreta   Tul. 

Closely  associated  with  canker  caused 
by  fungi  is  the  killing  back  of  small 
branches  and  twigs  caused  by  the  same 
organisms.  In  searching  orchards  for 
cankers  we  have  found  this  dying  back 
of  the  branches  and  water-sprouts  much 
the  more  common  of  the  two.  The 
fruiting  bodies  of  the  same  fungi  have 
been  found  on  both,  and  cankers  on 
larger  limbs  have  been  found  repeatedly 
which  apparently  started  from  the  dis- 
ease following  back  on  a  smaller  branch 
or  twig.  Inoculations  with  canker  pro- 
ducing fungi  early  in  the  spring  show 
that  they  are  capable  of  killing  the 
young  twigs  very  rapidly  and  run  back 
a  considerable  distance  in  a  single  sea- 
son. A  twig  blight  may  be  caused  by 
the  pear  blight  bacillus. 

In  many  ways  the  dying  back  of  small 
branches  is  like  the  development  of 
canker.  The  fungus  may  spread  back 
only  a  short  distance  each  year  for  a 
number  of  years  or  the  spread  is  rapid 
and  the  branch  is  killed  back  a  consid- 
erable distance  in  a  single  year.  It  is 
probable  that  in  many  instances  the 
young  wood  is  injured  by  freezing  and 
the  fungi  gain  entrance  in  this  way.  We 
have  observed  the  same  thing  where 
young  nursery  stock  has  become  in- 
fected through  wounds  made  in  cutting 
back  when  set.  Twigs  and  limbs  affected 
in  this  way  should  be  cut  off  well  below 
the  diseased  portion  and  the  wounds 
protected  from  further  infection. 

Sphaeropsis   Canker 

The  canker  caused  by  the  black  rot 
fungus,     Sphaeropsis     malorum     Pk.,     is 


widely  distributed.  This  disease  is 
known  as  the  "New  York  Apple  Tree 
Canker,"  because  it  was  first  described 
from  New  York.  This  fungus  causes 
the  black  rot  of  the  fruit  and  a  leaf 
spot  as  well  as  the  disease  of  the  wood. 

See   Black   Rot. 

The  fungus  attacks  either  young  or 
old  branches  and  the  amount  of  damage 
depends  on  the  amount  of  bark  and 
adjoining  surface  portions  of  the  wood 
which  is  destroyed.  In  some  cases  a 
branch  may  be  girdled  in  a  short  time 
and  death  of  that  branch  results,  but  in 
other  cases  the  canker  spreads  for  years 
on  one  side  of  the  branch  before  it  is 
completely  girdled.  The  other  side  of 
the  branch  in  such  a  case  may  become 
somewhat    enlarged. 

To  control  this  canker,  the  orchardist 
should  remove  all  dead  branches,  and 
all  old  neglected  trees  such  as  one  fre- 
quently sees  along  the  roads,  and  burn 
them.  Branches  which  show  bad  cankers 
should  be  cut  off  back  of  the  canker  and 
burned.  In  the  case  of  young  cankers, 
the  branch  can  frequently  be  saved  by 
cutting  away  the  diseased  tissue  down 
to  healthy  wood,  disinfecting  with  a 
solution  of  copper  sulphate,  one  ounce 
to  one  gallon  of  water,  or  corrosive  sub- 
limate, one  part  to  1,000  of  water,  and 
then  painting  over  with  pure  white  lead 
in  boiled  linseed  oil  or  coating  with  a 
good  quality  of  grafting  wax.  The  trees 
should  be  gone  over  carefully  a  number 
of  times  each  year  and  developing 
cankers  and  wounds  should  receive  at- 
tention. Spraying  for  apple  scab  will 
help  to  control  the  cankers  by  reducing 
the  amount  of  material  for  infection  and 
by  covering  wounds  with  the  fungicide. 
All  decayed  fruit  should  be  destroyed, 
since  the  black  rot  of  the  fruit  and  this 
canker  are  caused  by  the  same  fungus. 
The  treatment  outlined  should  go  far 
toward  controlling  cankers  caused  by 
other  fungi. 

Bitter  Rot  Canker 

This    canker    is   caused    by    the    fungus 

which   causes  bitter  rot  of  the  fruit.  On 

the  dead  bark  the  fungus  produces  little 

black    pustules    from    which,    when    they 


APPLE  DISEASES 


457 


are  mature,  pinkish  masses  of  spores 
exude.  The  spores  from  canlvers  cause 
much  of  the  early  infection  of  fruit  on 
the  tree  each  year. 

Myxosporiiini  Canker 
The  fungus  causing  this  disease  has 
been  much  confused  in  the  past  with 
Spliaeropsis  maJorum.  The  two  are  en- 
tirely distinct.  So  far  as  observed  the 
damage  which  it  does  is  confined  to  kill- 
ing outer  portions  of  the  hark  on  old 
limbs  and  the  killing  back  of  the  bark 
on  younger  limbs  and  twigs  rather  than 
to  the  production  of  true  cankers.  On 
such  branches  the  fruiting  pustules  are 
found  on  the  part  which  was  first  killed. 
The  dead  bark  is  separated  from  the 
healthy  bark  by  a  sharp  line  and  is 
sunken.  The  appearance  of  these  branches 
is  very  characteristic  and  they  can  be 
recognized  by  one  who  has  become  some- 
what familiar  with  the  various  cankers 
and  twig  blights,  without  microscopic 
examination  of  the  fungus.  There  is 
some  reason  to  believe  that  the  fungus 
is  not  a  very  active  parasite  and  it  may 
be  possible  that  such  diseased  branches 
have  been  injuriously  affected  by  some 
other  agency  before  the  attack  of  this 
fungus. 

Corynenni  and  Plioma  Cankers 

In  the  examination  of  apple  cankers 
the  spores  of  Coryneum  foliicolum  and 
Phoma  mali  have  been  found  of  quite 
frequent  occurrence.  Inoculation  experi- 
ments have  proved  that  both  of  these 
fungi  were  capable  of  causing  disease  of 
healthy  bark  of  apple  branches.  For  a 
detailed  account  of  the  study  of  these 
fungi  the  reader  is  referred  to  Bulletin 
170    of   the   Maine    Station. 

Cytospora  Canker 

A  species  of  Cytospora  has  frequently 
been  found  on  small  branches  which 
have  been  killed  back  but  no  true 
cankers  have  been  seen.  Those  lesions 
observed  have  much  the  same  appear- 
ance as  has  been  described  for  branches 
on  which  Myxosporium  is  found.  After 
a  little  experience  one  can  distinguish 
the  two  fungi  on  the  bark  without  the 
aid  of  the  microscope. 


Pear  Blight   Canker 

The  canker  of  apple  trees  caused  by 
the  pear  blight  organism.  Bacillus  amyl- 
ovonis  (Burril)  DeToni.,  has  been  re- 
ported as  causing  a  great  amount  of 
damage  in  apple  orchards  in  various 
states. 

See  Pear  Blight  under  Pear. 

W.    J.   MOBSE, 

Orono,    Maine. 
Club  Tip.     See  Rosette. 

Collar  Bliarht 

A  form  of  pear  blight  attacking  the 
apple  at  the  thickened  portion  of  the 
tree  just  above  and  below  the  ground 
line. 

See  Pear  Blight  under  Pear. 

Some  forms  of  collar  disease  are  the 
result  of  winter  injuries  followed  by  the 
entrance    of    fungus    disease. 

Collar  Rot  Phase.  See  Blight  under 
Pear. 

Core  Decay  of  Baldwin 

A  core  decay  of  stored  apples  was  in- 
vestigated by  H.  J.  Eustace,  of  the  New 
York  Experiment  Station,  in  1903.  This 
decay  occurred  quite  generally  in  Bald- 
wins but  was  not  confined  to  that  va- 
riety. 

The  apple  shows  decayed  tissue  about 
the  core,  which  is  brown,  dry-rotten  and 
tasteless,  but  surrounded  by  healthy 
tissue. 

The  trouble  was  not  traced  to  any 
fungus  or  bacterium.  It  appeared  under 
a  variety  of  soil  conditions.  The  Bald- 
wins that  year  overbore  and  storage 
conditions  may  have  been  responsible 
for  a  part  of  the  trouble,  as  only  com- 
mon storage  apples  seemed  to  be  affected. 

Crown  Gall 

Bacterium  tumefaciens 
H.  P.  Barss 
Crown  gall  is  a  very  common  and 
widespread  disease  known  under  a  vari- 
ety of  other  names  such  as  "galls." 
"tumors,"  "root  knot."  "crown  knot," 
"woolly  knot,"  "hairy  root,"  etc.  It  has 
been  reported  from  every  state  in  the 
Union  and  from  Canada.  Europe,  Africa 
and  Australia  as  well.  It  attacks  the 
apple,    prune,    peach,    cherry,    raspberry 


458 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


and  many  other  cultivated  and  wild 
plants,  herbaceous  as  well  as  woody.  It 
is  very  common  on  members  of  the  rose 
family  (Rosaceae)  to  which  all  of  our 
ordinary  tree  fruits  and  many  of  our 
small  fruits  belong.  Besides  the  plants 
above  mentioned,  it  is  reported  as  at- 
tacking the  grape,  walnut,  chestnut,  pop- 
lar, willow  and  alder.  In  the  North- 
west it  is  known  on  practically  all  of 
our  tree  fruits,  is  found  on  blackberries, 
raspberries,  loganberries  and  grapes,  and 
also  on  the  hop.  The  usual  effect  upon 
these  different  hosts  is  the  production 
of  tumors  or  galls,  which  are  in  general 


Fig.  1.  A,  Crown  Gall  on  the  Canes  of  Grape. 
B.  Crown  Galls  on  the  I'each  Root  of  a 
Prune  Tree.  C,  Crown  Gall  on  a  Loganberry 
Root. 

somewhat  similar  in  form  and  appear- 
ance. The  galls,  as  a  rule,  have  an  an- 
nual development,  that  is,  they  begin  to 
form  in  the  spring  as  the  tree  starts 
active  growth  and  cease  development  in 
the  fall.  At  first  they  are  small,  nearly 
spherical  masses  of  more  or  less  suc- 
culent tissue,  whitish  or  translucent  in 
appearance  but  rapidly  becoming  darker 
and  uneven,  till  at  maturity  they  are 
dark  brown  and  warted.  When  occur- 
ring on  small  roots  they  may  be  only 
about  one-quarter  inch  in  diameter,  while 


on  nursery  stock,  raspberries,  etc.,  they 
may  be  about  the  size  of  a  walnut.  On 
large  trees  in  the  orchard  they  may 
reach  a  much  greater  diameter.  The 
galls  usually  occur  at  the  base  of  the 
trunk  or  on  the  roots,  though  in  some 
plants  they  are  found  on  the  stems  or 
branches  above  ground.  The  most  com- 
mon point  of  attack,  howeyer  is  just 
beneath  the  ground  at  the  crown  of  the 
plant.  A  peculiar  form  of  the  disease 
known  as  hairy  root  occurs  commonly 
on  the  apple. 

The  effects  of  an  attack  of  this  dis- 
ease are  much  more  serious  on  certain 
kinds  of  plants  than  upon  others  and 
even  among  individuals  of  the  same  kind 
there  are  wide  variations  in  the  result- 
ing amount  of  damage.  In  some  cases 
trees  may  be  affected  without  giving  any 
signs  of  harmful  effect  upon  growth  or 
production  of  fruit.  In  other  cases,  trees 
or  smaller  plants  are  often  stunted  and 
unprofitable  and  not  infrequently  die  as 
a  result  of  the  presence  of  the  galls. 
There  are  also  many  well-authenticated 
instances  where  trees  known  to  be  bad- 
ly affected  with  crown  gall  have  exper- 
ienced apparently  complete  riecovery. 
Furthermore,  some  of  the  serious  ill  ef- 
fects attributed  to  this  disease  must  of- 
ten, on  careful  investigation,  be  charged 
to  other  troubles  which  have  had  entrance 
through  the  unprotected  or  decayed  gall. 
The  fire  blight  bacteria,  mushroom  root 
rot.  wound  parasites  and  heart  rot  fungi 
of  various  sorts  as  well  as  certain  insects 
have  easy  access  to  a  tree  through  galls 
where  a  healthy  bark  would  have  pre- 
vented any  attack,  and  in  most  cases 
these  secondary  intruders  are  liable  to 
have  more  serious  consequences  for  the 
tree  than  the  mere  presence  of  the  gall. 
It  is  supposed  also  that  the  disease  may 
appear  in  severe  or  in  light  form,  depend- 
ing upon  the  virulence  of  the  strain  of 
organism  producing  the  infection. 

The  detrimental  effect  of  the  crown  gall 
itself  may  arise  in  several  ways.  The 
tumors  rob  the  plant  of  some  nutriment. 
Excessive  evaporation  of  moisture  may 
occur  from  the  unprotected  gall  surfaces, 
especially   where  aerial   galls  are   abund- 


APPLE  DISEASES 


459 


ant  on  slender  stems.  The  galls  may 
also  interfere  with  sapflow  and  the  decay 
of  soft  galls  usually  involves  adjacent 
healthy  tissues  producing  serious  wounds 
or  in  some  cases  girdling  the  stem  with 
death  of  the  plant  as  a  result.  One  of  the 
worst  effects  of  the  disease  is  the  frequent 
prevention  of  normal  root  development 
resulting  in  the  failure  of  a  young  tree  to 
establish  itself  or  in  the  retarding  of 
its  growth. 

Cause 

Crown  gall  has  been  known  and  recog- 
nized as  a  serious  disease  for  many  years. 
Until  comparatively  recently,  however, 
the  cause  was  unknown.  The  careful 
experiments  begun  in  1904  by  Smith, 
Brown  and  Townsend.  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  have 
proved  conclusively  that  the  disease  is 
caused  by  a  bacterium,  under  the  name 
Bacterium   tiimefaciens. 

The  bacterium  causing  crown  gall  is 
an  organism  which  can  exist  in  the  soil. 
It  seems  to  be  widely  scattered  in  many 
soils,  but  appears  especially  abundant 
in  nurseries  and  in  land  where  plants  af- 
fected with  crown  gall  have  previously 
been  grown.  Plants  in  a  young,  tender 
and  rapidly  growing  condition,  are  most 
subject  to  infection,  whereas  older  and 
more  mature  plants  are  not  so  frequently 
attacked.  The  wounds  made  in  root- 
grafting  and  budding  offer  a  favorable 
point  of  entrance  for  the  germs,  and  in- 
juries to  the  underground  parts  of  plants 
by  cultivation,  attacks  of  borers,  etc., 
render  them  susceptible  to  infection.  In 
fact,  the  organism  may  be  considered  a 
wound  parasite. 

The  Effect  of  tlie  Organism 

In  order  to  cause  infection  the  bacteria 
must  enter  into  some  part  of  the  plant 
where  new  cells  are  in  the  process  of 
formation.  They  make  their  way  into  the 
living  cells  and  stimulate  them  to  abnor- 
mal and  very  rapid  multiplication.  Cells 
near  those  containing  bacteria  may  per- 
haps be  stimulated  in  the  same  way.  The 
number  of  bacteria  in  any  one  cell  is  not 
large.  They  multiply  slowly  and  do  not 
appear  to  injure  the  cell  to  any  great  ex- 
tent,  but  merely   to   stimulate    rapid    di- 


vision. When  a  cell  containing  bacteria 
divides  into  two,  each  of  the  daughter 
cells  contains  some  of  the  bacteria  and 
hence  will  be  stimulated  to  rapid  multi- 
plication. Thus,  as  a  result  of  the  pres- 
ence of  the  bacteria,  there  is  formed  an 
abnormal  mass  of  rapidly  growing  tissue 
in  which  the  elements  become  distorted 
and  twisted.  It  is  an  unnatural,  wasting 
growth,  in  no  way  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  plant.  Such  galls  or  tumors  vary 
greatly  in  form,  size  and  consistency,  de- 
pending apparently  upon  the  virulence  of 
the  particular  germ  causing  the  infection, 
the  kind  of  plant  or  variety  which  has 
been  attacked,  the  particular  tissues 
which  were  first  Infected,  etc.  Even  in- 
dividual plants  of  the  same  variety  show 
great  differences  in  susceptibility  to  this 
disease. 

The  Soft  Gall 
One  of  the  commonest  forms  of  crown 
gall  especially  on  herbaceous  plants  and 
cane  fruits,  is  the  fleshy  form  in  which 
the  outgrowth  is  somewhat  soft.  These 
grow  rapidly  and  are  not  protected  by  a 
bark  or  corky  layer.  Growth  usually 
commences  in  the  spring  (sometimes 
earlier).  After  a  few  months  of  develop- 
ment the  outer  layers  of  the  gall  begin 
to  die  and  are  attacked  by  various  bac- 
teria and  fungi.  This  generally  ends  in 
the  decay  and  sloughing  off  of  nearly 
the  whole  tumor  by  the  end  of  the  sea- 
son. The  margin  of  the  gall,  however, 
usually  remains  alive  and  during  the 
next  season  the  tumors  grow  out  again, 
followed  as  before  by  decay.  When  the 
gall  dies  some  of  the  healthy  substance 
of  the  plant  is  usually  killed  and  a 
wound  is  formed  which  renders  the  en- 
trance of  other  diseases  easy.  Galls  are 
known  to  die  off  completely  in  some  cases 
at  the  end  of  the  first  or  second  season, 
while  the  plant  recovers;  but  commonly 
the  tmnors  reappear  from  year  to  year. 

The  Hard  Gall 

Not  all  galls  are  of  this  soft  type,  but 
many  are  very  hard  and  woody,  in  which 
case  the  growth  is  apt  to  be  slower  and 
the  gall  persists  longer — often  for  many 
years.  The  exterior  may  develop  a  bark- 
like covering  and  instead  of  a  rapid  decay 


460 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


at  the  end  of  the  season,  there  is  often 
little  or  no  disintegration  and  the  gall  in- 
creases in  size  as  new  growth  is  added 
each  season.  In  time,  however,  the  sur- 
face of  the  hard  gall  usually  suffers  dis- 
integration to  some  extent.  Between  the 
softest  and  the  hardest  galls  there  are 
many  transitional  forms  and  soft  galls  of- 
ten develop  a  woody  structure  and  become 
persistent. 

Hairy  Boot 
In  the  apple,  and  in  some  other  plants, 
there  is  a  very  common  trouble  known  as 
hairy  root.  This  is  produced  by  the  same 
organism  that  causes  other  forms  of  crown 
gall.  In  typical  hairy  root  there  is  no 
large  gall  formation,  but  there  appear  on 
the  main  roots  or  on  the  crown  clusters  of 
numerous,  succulent,  abnormally  fleshy 
rootlets  which  generally  project  nearly  at 
right  angles.  When  dry  these  rootlets 
shrink  and  become  hairy  in  appearance. 
Bacteria  are  not  found  in  the  abnormal 
rootlets  but  in  the  flattened  and  often  in- 
conspicuous tumor  from  which  they  arise. 
Hairy  root  is  not  found  to  be  entirely  dis- 
tinct from  other  types  of  crown  gall.  The 
tumors  on  certain  plants  frequently  pro- 
duce abnormal  rootlets  and  the  aerial 
hard  gall  of  the  apple  will  often  develop 
roots  when  subjected  to  moist  conditions. 
Furthermore,  the  organism  isolated  from 
hairy  root  is  capable  of  inducing  the  for- 
mation of  typical  galls  as  well  as  hairy 
root  when  inoculated  into  different  plants. 

Tumor  Strands  and  Secondary  Galls 

The  interesting  discovery  has  recently 
been  made  that  in  certain  plants  strands 
of  tumor  cells  may  push  out  from  the 
primary  galls,  and  working  through  cer- 
tain easily  penetrated  tissues,  may  reach 
distant  parts  where  by  rapid  multiplica- 
tion of  the  tumor  cells  new  galls  are 
formed  which  burst  out  from  the  parts 
of  the  plant  thus  invaded.  Much  of  the 
severe  breaking  out  of  galls  along  the 
canes  of  some  of  our  small  fruits  and  of 
grapes  may  eventually  prove  to  be  second- 
ary growths  of  this  nature. 

Modes  of  Infection 

It  seems  probable  that  the  disintegra- 
tion which  the  crown  galls  usually  under- 


go sets  free  the  disease-producing  bac- 
teria contained  in  them,  and  as  a  result 
the  soil  becomes  infected.  It  is  com- 
mon experience  that  soil  infection  is 
responsible  for  large  nursery  losses  every 
year.  Nursery  conditions  are  particular- 
ly favorable  to  the  transmission  of  the 
disease.  Trees  are  planted  close  together. 
They  are  in  the  earliest  stages  of  rapid 
growth  and  hence  in  the  most  tender  and 
susceptible  condition  possible.  The  dis- 
ease develops  principally  during  the  first 
year  or  two  and  is  said  to  gain  entrance 
almost  entirely  through  wounds  or  as 
a  result  of  root-grafting  or  budding. 
Budded  trees  are  not  so  liable  to  infec- 
tion as  grafted  trees,  while  root-grafts 
made  in  a  careful  manner*  result  in  less 
gall  formation  than  grafts  carelessly 
made.  Ground  infected  by  the  presence 
of  diseased  trees  will  prove  capable  of 
transmitting  the  disease  to  young  trees 
set  later  in  the  same  ground  and  cultiva- 
tion, spreads  the  trouble  along  the  rows, 
while  careless  cultivation  causes  wounds 
which  afford  opportunity  for  the  entrance 
of  the  bacteria.  A  large  amount  of  infec- 
tion is  also  possible  where  trees  are  heel- 
ed into  soil  that  has  previously  covered 
galled  nursery  stock. 

Trees  may  also  become  infected  from 
the  soil  after  being  set  out  into  the  or- 
chard. This  frequently  occurs  with  the 
stone  fruits  but  not  very  commonly  in 
the  case  of  the  apple.  Most  of  the  crown 
gall  in  our  orchards,  however,  is  due  to 
the  infection  of  the  trees  while  in  the 
nursery.  There  seems  to  be  little  evi- 
dence that  infections  spread  from  one 
tree  to  another  in  most  apple  orchards. 
Where  berries,  however,  are  set  close  to- 
gether, serious  spreading  of  the  disease 
from  plant  to  plant,  has  sometimes  been 
recorded. 

Cross  Infection 

While  at  present  the  limits  of  cross  in-' 
fection  with  different  strains  of  the  crown 
gall  organism  are  not  definitely  known, 
yet  we  do  know  that  crown  gall  bacteria 


*  For  suggestions  regarding  methods  of  graft- 
ing and  nursery  practice  refer  to  Dr.  O.  G- 
lledgcnelt's  recommendations  in  the  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  l.SC,  U.  S.  Department 
of   Agriculture,   Washington,  D.   C. 


APPLE  DISEASES 


461 


isolated  from  several  kinds  of  plants  have 
proved  easily  cross-inoculable  artificially 
to  numerous  other  species  in  different 
plant  families.  More  than  one  orchardist 
has  also  had  practical  proof  of  cross  in- 
fection through  contaminated  soil.  Con- 
sequently wise  growers  will  hesitate  to 
risk  the  chance  of  transmitting  crown 
gall  from  one  kind  of  cultivated  crop  to 
another  by  planting  susceptible  varieties 
in  ground  from  which  plants  diseased 
with  crown  gall  have  recently  been  rooted 
out. 

In  the  following  paragraphs  we  give 
some  information  regarding  the  character 
and  seriousness  of  crown  gall  as  it  ap- 
pears on  some  of  the  more  important 
cultivated   fruits: 

The  Apple 

Upon  seedlings  and  root-grafted  trees 
in  the  nursery  we  find  principally  the 
hairy  root  condition  or  galls  of  a  some- 
what fleshy  nature.  (See  Fig.  2,  A  and 
B. )  On  older  trees  the  persistent  peren- 
nial hard  galls  are  more  frequent  and  in 
the  orchard  there  appears  also  upon  the 


trunks  and  branches  an  aerial  form  of 
the  disease.  Aerial  tumors  are  rarer  than 
the  root  or  crown  form  in  most  localities. 
They  are  characterized  by  the  growth 
of  smooth,  woody,  persistent  swellings, 
which  later  become  warty  from  the  ap- 
pearance of  numerous  stubby  roots  which 
break  out  just  to  the  surface.  It  is  not 
possible  for  us  to  state  at  present  exactly 
how  these  aerial  tumors  originate,  but 
the  causal  organism  is  similar  to  that  pro- 
ducing other  forms  of  crown  gall. 

Crown  gall  and  hairy  root  are  very 
prevalent  in  the  nurseries,  and  because 
of  laws  forbidding  the  sale  of  trees  affect- 
ed with  this  contagious  disease,  the  an- 
nual loss  to  nursery  men  is  very  large. 
Unscrupulous  dealers  sometimes  cut  off 
the  galls  and  sell  the  trees,  but  tumors 
may  reappear  on  such  trees.  Certain  pre- 
cautions may  be  adopted,  however,  in  the 
care  of  young  trees  and  in  the  methods 
of  grafting  which  will  reduce  greatly  the 
amount  of  disease  in  the  nursery. t 


:  See    Bulletin    1G8.    Bureau   of   Plant    Industry, 
U.   S.    Department  Agriculture. 


Fig.  2.     A,     Cionn  Gall  on  Young  Apple  Tree.     B,  Hairy  Koot  on  Young  Apple  Tree. 


462 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


There  have  been  great  differences  ot 
opinion  regarding  the  amount  of  damage 
resulting  in  the  orchard  from  planting 
diseased  trees.  Some  writers  have  claim- 
ed that  affected  trees  never  become  profit- 
able and  that  great  losses  occur  among 
them.  Undoubtedly  the  effects  of  more 
serious  maladies  such  as  root  rot  which 
may  affect  galled  trees,  have  often  been 
confused  with  crown  gall  injury.  Care- 
ful investigation  shows  that  the  effects 
of  the  disease  in  orchards  are  not  as  seri- 
ous as  some  have  supposed.  Loss  does 
frequently  occur,  however,  since  galled 
trees  are  more  liable  to  die  the  first  year 
or  two  in  the  orchard  than  are  unaffected 
trees.  Many  trees,  on  the  other  hand, 
seem  to  recover  completely  and  grow  into 
vigorous  and  profitable  maturity.  The 
writer  has  seen  cases,  however,  where 
trees  of  bearing  age  were  evidently  stunt- 
ed and  unprofitable  because  of  the  growth 
of  hairy  root  or  crown  gall  on  the  roots. 
The  orchardist  is  urged,  therefore,  to  set 
the  healthiest  trees  obtainable.  If  for 
any  reason  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  set 
out  diseased  trees,  galls  and  hairy  root 
should  not  be  cut  out  as  the  effect  of  the 
crown  gall  is  likely  to  be  less  injurious 
than  the  results  of  such  wounds  made 
when  the  tree  is  young.  If  an  old  tree 
affected  with  crown  gall  appears  healthy 
and  is  profitable,  it  is  not  recommended  to 
remove  the  tree  or  to  cut  off  the  galls, 
since  there  is  little  danger  of  the  disease 
spreading  seriously  in  an  orchard  and 
cutting  out  frequently  results  in  greater 


damage  to  the  tree  than  the  presence  of 
the  tumor.  If,  however,  a  tree  is  rendered 
unprofitable,  it  had  better  be  removed, 
although  the  grower  might  try  thorough 
cutting  out  of  the  galls  and  disinfecting 
and  painting  over  of  the  wounds,  a  meth- 
od which  is  rarely  a  complete  success  as 
it  is  ordinarily  practiced.  In  districts 
where  fire  blight  is  prevalent,  it  has  been 
found  that  crown  galls  afford  peculiarly 
favorable  points  of  entrance  for  the  bac- 
teria causing  the  blight,  much  damage 
having  frequently  resulted  in  this  way. 
In  such  districts,  therefore,  it  is  recom- 
mended to  remove  a  strip  of  bark  an  inch 
wide  around  the  base  of  the  gall  and  then 
cut  out  the  entire  gall,  being  sure  to  re- 
move every  portion  of  it.  The  exposed 
surface  should  then  be  washed  with  a 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate. 

Stone  Fruits 

Ot  the  stone  fruits  the  peach  is  most 
frequently  mentioned  as  seriously  affected 
by  crown  gall.  It  would  appear  that 
crown  gall  has  usually  a  very  much  more 
disastrous  effect  on  peach  trees  than 
upon  apples.  The  root  system  is  often  so 
affected  that  the  diseased  tree  cannot  es- 
tablish itself  in  the  orchard,  or,  suc- 
ceeding in  that,  fails  to  become  vigorous 
and  profitable.  Never  plant  a  galled  tree. 
Prunes  are  known  to  be  affected  with 
the  disease,  but  most  of  the  cases  on  trees 
grafted  on  peach  roots.  Cherries  and 
other  stone  fruits  are  also  subject  to  at- 
tack.    Cases  of  recovery  from  crown  gall 


Fig.  3.     Crown  Galls  on  a  Loganberi-.v  Stalk. 


APPLE  DISEASES 


463 


are  known  to  occur  among  stone  fruits  as 
well  as  among  apples. 

Small  Fruits 

Raspberries,  blackberries,  loganberries 
(Figs.  lCand3)  are  often  affected  with 
crown  gall  and  probably  other  small  fruits 
are  also  attacked.  The  disease  not  only 
causes  galls  on  the  roots,  but  on  the 
blackberry,  at  least  tumors  often  break 
forth  in  long  lines  from  the  interior  of 
the  canes.  A  case  of  what  appeared  to 
be  hairy  root  on  blackberry  was  sent  to 
the  Department  of  Plant  Pathology  dur- 
ing the  summer  of  1912.  Considerable 
damage  seems  to  result  from  the  effects 
of  the  disease  on  these  fruits  and  it 
is  probable  that  soil  infection  and  the 
spreading  of  the  bacteria  through  the 
ground  to  healthy  plants  is  much  more 
serious  than  among  orchard  trees.  Fruit 
trees  should  never  be  set  immediately 
upon  ground  from  which  galled  berry 
bushes  have  been  grubbed  out. 

Grapes 

Most  of  the  European  varieties  of 
grapes  are  quite  susceptible  to  crown  gall, 
while  only  a  few  of  the  American  varieties 
are  considered  susceptible.  On  the  grape 
the  disease  is  found  in  two  forms,  as  a 
root  gall  and  as  a  cane  gall.  On  cuttings 
and  young  plants  the  root  form  is  most 
commonly  found.  These  root  galls  are 
usually  formed  at  a  wound  and  conse- 
quently occur  frequently  at  the  graft 
union  on  grafted  vines.  On  older  plants 
the  disease  usually  also  attacks  the  stem 
extending  from  the  crown  upwards.  On 
the  canes  the  galls  are  usually  confluent 
and  occur  in  lines  running  lengthwise  of 
the  stem.  The  effect  of  the  galls  is  to 
stunt  the  vines.  The  leaves  are  frequent- 
ly smaller  and  show  poor  color.  The  un- 
derground galls  decay  each  year  and 
other  rot-producing  organisms  may  gain 
entrance  and  aid  in  finally  bringing  about 
the  death  of  the  vine.  The  cane  galls 
are  reported  commonly  to  start  from  in- 
fection in  frost  cracks.  They  may  also 
start  in  wounds  made  by  pruning  or  in 
any  other  way.  The  disease  is  spread  in 
the  vineyard  in  various  ways,  such  as  by 


the  water  of  irrigation,  use  of  diseased 
cuttings   and   by  insects. 

No  cure  is  known  for  plants  that  are 
already  diseased  and  no  definite  recom- 
mendations can  be  made  for  the  grower 
of  European  grapes.  It  is  suggested,  how- 
ever, that  where  the  disease  is  preva- 
lent, it  would  be  worth  while  to  try  out 
experimentally  some  of  the  stocks  recom- 
mended as  resistant  under  more  southern 
conditions  in  the  United  States  with  a 
view  to  using  such  as  may  prove  hardy. 
In  New  Mexico,  where  crown  gall  has 
been  very  serious,  the  Rupestris  St. 
George,  Sweetwater,  Seedless  Sultana, 
Matosa  and  some  others  are  found  re- 
sistant and  succeed  on  their  own  roots. 
Benefit  has  also  resulted  in  the  south 
from  grafting  the  susceptible  varieties 
on  such  resistant  stock  as  the  Rupestris 
St.  George  and  Lenoir.  Among  the  most 
susceptible  varieties  are  the  Mission, 
Muscat  of  Alexandria,  Flame  Tokay,  Mal- 
aga and  Rose  of  Peru. 

The  following  precautions  should  be 
taken  whenever  susceptible  grapes  are 
grown:  Secure  cuttings  where  possible 
from  vineyards  free  from  disease.  Where 
frost  is  troublesome  and  infection  occurs 
in  the  resulting  frost  cracks,  plant  deep  or 
protect  with  some  covering.  It  is  best 
for  the  grower  by  propagating  his  own 
stock  to  avoid  the  possibilit.v  of  introduc- 
ing crown  gall  through  grafts  or  cuttings 
from  infected  districts. 

Hops 

Crown  gall  is  reported  as  serious  on  the 
hop  in  some  sections.  Affected  plants 
should  be  removed  and  burned. 

SUMMARY 
The  Disease 

1.  Crown  gall  in  its  various  forms, 
which  occur  on  a  great  variety  of  plants 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  is  caused  by 
parasitic  bacteria  which  enter  the  living 
cells  of  the  host  and  stimulate  them  in 
some  way  to  multiply  excessively,  thus 
producing  tumors,  the  presence  of  which 
is  usually  detrimental  to  the  welfare  of 
the  plant. 

2.  The  greatest  losses  resulting  from 
crown  gall  occur  in  the  nurseries  where 


464 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the  soil  becomes  contaminated  and  the 
trees  in  their  young  and  tender  condition 
are  particularly  susceptible  to  infection 
through  wounds  and  at  the  union  of  stock 
and   scion   in  root-grafts. 

3.  In  the  orchard  the  effects  of  the  di- 
sease are  sometimes  severe  and  some- 
times slight,  depending  on  many  condi- 
tions. Apples  do  not  suffer  so  much 
damage  as  do  peaches,  berries  and  other 
fruits.  An  attack  of  crown  gall  is  usually 
detrimental,  often  serious,  and  some- 
times fatal.  A  good  many  affected  trees, 
however,  recover  or  become  resistant  to 
the  disease.  There  seems  to  be  little 
spreading  of  crown  gall  in  most  orchards. 

The  Control 

4.  In  order  to  keep  crown  gall  under 
control  in  the  nursery,  trees  or  small 
fruits  should  never  be  grown  in  land 
previously  infected  with  the  disease.  Such 
plants  as  become  infected  should  not  be 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  soil  until  the 
galls  decay,  but  should  be  removed  and 
burned.  Neither  root  nor  scion  used  in 
root-grafting  should  come  from  stock  hav- 
ing galls,  or  hairy  root,  and  the  graft- 
ing and  wrapping  should  be  carefully 
done. 

5.  All  nursery  stock  should  be  careful- 
ly inspected  and  all  trees  showing  evi- 
dence of  crown  gall  and  hairy  root  or 
previous  cutting-off  of  galls  should  be  dis- 
carded. Fruit  inspectors  should  use  care 
in  inspecting  stock  and  make  sure  that 
every  tree  condemned  is  really  affected 
with  crown  gall  or  hairy  root.  All  warty 
appearances  are  not  necessarily  crown 
gall  nor  are  all  fibrous  roots  necessarily 
hairy  roots.  A  whole  shipment  should 
never  be  condemned  because  a  few  trees 
are  infected,  since  investigation  has 
shown  that  there  is  little  or  no  danger 
of  infection  spreading  from  diseased  trees 
to  healthy  stock  in  the  same  shipment. 

6.  Growers  should  never  plant  a 
diseased  tree.  It  is  better  to  discard  an 
affected  tree  than  to  run  the  risk  that 
it  will  never  pay  interest  on  the  spot  of 
ground   it  occupies. 

7.  Trees  which  are  found  affected  with 
crown  gall   in   the  orchard   should   be  al- 


lowed to  remain  if  still  profitable,  but  if 
unprofitable  should  be  removed.  Recov- 
ery sometimes  results  from  the  complete 
removal  of  galls  with  sterilization  of  the 
wounds.  Cutting  out  is  recommended, 
especially  in  fire  blight  districts,  since 
galls  afford  favorable  points  for  blight  in- 
fection. 

8.  On  account  of  the  great  difference 
in  susceptibility  of  different  varieties,  a 
good  opportunity  is  presented  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  selection  and  breeding  of 
resistant  or  immune  varieties  among 
fruits  like  the  raspberry  and  grape,  and 
possibly  also  among  some  of  the  tree 
fruits. 

Biljlioerraphy 

1905.     U.  S.  Department  Agriculture,  Bu- 
reau  Plant   Industry,  Bulletin   90,  part 

1910.  U.  S.  Department  Agriculture,  Bu- 
reau of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  183. 

1911.  U.  S.  Department  Agriculture,  Bu- 
reau of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  213. 

1912.  U.  S.  Department  Agriculture,  Bu- 
reau of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  255. 

1912.  California  Experiment  Station,  Bul- 
letin  235. 

1913.  New    Mexico    Experiment    Station, 
Bulletin  85. 

Crown  Gall  and  Legume  Inocnlation 

The  crown  gall  organism  has  been 
found  in  tumors  somewhat  resembling 
the  normal  nitrogen-fixing  nodules  upon 
the  roots  of  alfalfa,  crimson  clover,  and 
alsike  clover.  For  this  reason  great  care 
should  be  taken  in  using  soil  or  cultures 
for  inoculating  legumes  in  regions  which 
may  sometime  be  used  for  sugar  beets  or 
for  orchards. 

It  is  usually  possible  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  two  forms  of  nodules  by  their 
external  appearance.  The  nitrogen-fixing 
nodules  appear  to  be  an  outgrowth  of  the 
root  itself  and  has  no  more  affect  upon 
the  root  than  any  natural  outgrowth.  The 
interior  of  the  nodule  contains  flesh  color- 
ed cells  full  of  bacteria.  On  the  other 
hand  the  crown  gall  tumor  causes  much 
distortion  of  the  root,  frequently  forcing 
it  to  branch  in  many  small  rootlets  which 


APPLE  DISEASES 


465 


project  from  the  tumor  itself.  The  in- 
terior of  the  tumor  is  white. 

It  is  not  linown  what  other  leguminous 
crops  are  susceptible  to  crown  gall.  It 
is  believed,  however,  that  there  is  reason 
to  suspect  all  of  the  clovers. 

(See  Circular  TIJ,  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
dustry.) 

*C}iiiidrosporioiini  Fruit  Spot 

CyUndrosporium  pomi.    Brooks 
Occurrence  and   Symptoms 

The  disease  is  of  common  occurrence  in 
New  England  and  is  found  in  New  York. 
Michigan,  Ontario,  and  probably  in  other 
sections  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
The  Baldwin  is  especially  susceptible,  but 
nearly  every  New  England  variety  is 
more  or  less  affected. 

The  disease  appears  about  the  middle 
of  August  as  minute  spots  or  specks  on 
the  surface  of  the  apple.  At  first  these 
are  indicated  merely  by  a  deeper  red 
color  of  the  skin,  if  situated  upon  the 
colored  part  of  the  fruit,  or  by  a  green 
color,  if  situated  upon  the  lighter  portion. 
As  the  apple  ripens  the  spots  enlarge  and 
many  of  them  become  brown  and  simk- 
en.  giving  the  fruit  an  unsightly  api)ear- 
ance  which  often  greatly  depreciates  its 
market  value.  The  tissue  beneath  the 
spots  is  dry  and  brown. 

The  Funerus 

The  first  studies  upon  this  disease  seem- 
ed to  indicate  that  it  was  not  produced 
by  a  fungus,  but  recent  studies  have  dem- 
onstrated the  causal  relation  of  a  fungus 
which  seems  to  be  properly  a  species  of 
Cylindrosporium,   as   the   title  suggests. 

Infection  probably  takes  place  in  July 
or  August  when  the  stomata  are  being 
torn  open  and  the  protecting  layers  of  the 
lenticles  are  not  yet  formed,  a  season 
when  the  metabolism  of  the  apple  is  ex- 
tremely great  and  the  transpiration 
stream  necessarily  large. 

Control 

The  disease  is  readily  controlled  by 
spraying  with  Bordeaux,  and  weaker  fun- 
gicides are  often  very  effective.    Sprayings 


made  as  late  as  July  have  been  found  to 
entirely   prevent  the   disease. 

Charles  Brooks 
C()Li..\R  Rot.     See  Sun  Scald. 

f'oryneum  or  Orange  Leaf  Spot 

Coryneiim   foUicolum 

Has  a  central,  erumpent  pustule  with  an 
immediate  border  of  orange  yellow;  this 
yellow  area  shades  off  into  dark  color 
toward  the  green  tissue.  Hartley  has  re- 
ported, upon  investigations  of  the  fungus 
in  this  case,  that  it  is  not  actively 
parasitic.  Possibly  we  have  this  fungus 
following  something  else,  after  the  man- 
ner that  another  fungus  follows  the  black- 
rot   leaf  spot. 

See  R^ist  of  Apple. 


Die  Back.     See  Rosette. 


A.  D.  Selbv. 
Wooster.   Oliio. 


•  See    Duggar,    Fungus    Diseases    of    riants,    p. 
341. 


Dropping  of  Apple  Leaves 

Many  leaves  drop  from  apple  trees  in 
summer  and  cause  anxiety  to  fruit  grow- 
ers. Probably  the  three  most  important 
reasons  why  the  leaves  drop  are:  First, 
that  the  tree  may  regain  a  proper  balance 
between  top  and  root.  There  is  often  a 
great  leaf  development,  owing  to  moist 
conditions,  and  when  drier  weather  comes, 
there  are  too  many  leaves  for  the  tree  to 
support,  hence  some  of  them  drop  off. 
Second,  that  under  certain  conditions, 
especially  when  there  has  been  a  wet  sea- 
son, leaves  will  scald  and  drop  off.  Spray- 
ing sometimes  causes  this  scalding.  Third, 
that  the  leaves  are  affected  with  a  leaf 
spot  disease.  The  development  of  this 
disease  may,  however,  come  after  they 
become  weak  from  lack  of  moisture  to 
support  them,  or  when  the  leaf  is  weak- 
ened by  sun  scald.  As  a  rule,  under  good 
cultivation,  there  are  quite  sufficient 
leaves  left  to  develop  the  fruit  properly. 

Dry   Rot 

This  is  a  disease  which  affects  the 
fruit  and  is  indicated  on  the  exterior  of 
the  apple  by  small  circular  depressions. 
When  the  skin  is  removed,  dryish,  brown 
tissue  is  found  at  the  diseased  spots,  and 
when  the  fruit  is  badly  affected,  this 
brown  and  pithy  condition  may  be  seen 
extending  through  much  of  the  fruit.    The 


466 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


diseased  flesh  is  not  bitter,  but  is  dry, 
tough  and  without  flavor.  When  the  ap- 
ple is  badly  affected,  its  commercial  value 
is  almost  destroyed.  Various  causes  have 
been  assigned  for  this  disease,  namely, 
want  of  vigor  of  tree,  lack  of  moisture  in 
the  soil,  want  of  potash  and  lime  in  the 
soil.  By  those  who  have  given  most  study 
to  the  rot  it  is  ascribed  to  the  concentra- 
tion of  sap  caused  by  the  transpiration  of 
moisture,  which  causes  the  death  of  the 
cells.  There  is  not  yet  any  known  remedy 
for  this  disease,  but  it  will  probably  not 
be  as  troublesome  if  there  is  plenty  of 
moisture  in  the  soil,  and  it  the  trees  are 
encouraged  to  make  good,  healthy  growth. 
W.  T.  Macoux 

Edema 

An  Edema  or  swelling  of  apple  twigs 
has  been  described  by  Atkinson  from  New 
York  (Cornell  Station,  Bulletin  61).  This 
on  closely  trimmed  trees  on  over  fertile 
soil. 

European  Apple  ("anker 
Nectria  Ditissima  Tul. 

This  disease  is  reported  as  serious  in 
the  orchards  of  Europe,  and  is  apparently 
becoming  distributed  in  America.  It  is 
not  of  so  common  occurrence  in  New 
Hampshire  as  the  black  rot  canker,  but 
is  more  destructive  where  found.  The 
fungus  seems  to  be  dependent  upon 
wounds  for  entrance  to  the  host  tissue.  It 
attacks  the  inner  bark  and  the  cambium, 
and  to  some  extent  the  young  wood.  The 
mycelium  is  perennial  In  the  host.  As 
the  new  growth  develops  around  the 
wound  it  is  attacked  and  killed  by  the  fun- 
gus; thus  a  series  of  ridges  may  be  de- 
veloped, giving  a  characteristic  appear- 
ance to  the  disease. 

Two  kinds  of  summer  spores  are  pro- 
duced, the  first  small  and  unicellular,  the 
second  sickle-shaped  and  having  three  or 
more  cells.  The  latter  is  probably  largely 
responsible  for  the  spread  of  the  disease 
during  the  summer.  In  the  spring  com- 
pact clusters  of  red  lemon-shaped  perithe- 
cia  may  be  found  near  the  edge  of  the 
canker.  These  may  be  seen  with  the  un- 
aided eye.  They  contain  numerous  two- 
celled  spores  in  sacs. 


Treatment 

All  cankered  limlis  should  be  destroyed. 
Wounds  should  be  thoroughly  coated 
with  paint.  Spraying  may  serve  to  disin- 
fect the  smaller  wounds  produced  by  in- 
sects, hailstorms,  etc. 

Charles  Brooks 

Fire  Bli«ht.     See  Blight  under  Pear. 

Fly  Speck.     See  Sooty  Black. 

Frog  Eye.     See  Leaf  Spot. 

Fruit  Pit 

H.  S.  Jackson 
This  disease,  otherwise  locally  spoken 
of  as  the  "brown  rot,"  "bitter  rot,"  "bitter 
pit,"  "Baldwin  fruit  spot,"  etc.,  is  in  some 
respects  one  of  the  most  serious  troubles 
of  the  apple  in  the  Northwest.     It  is  pres- 


Fig.  1.  Aj)i)le  Showiiii;  T.vpii-al  Appeai-aiu-c  of 
Fruit  Pit.  1  New  Hampshire  K.xpei-initnit  Sta- 
tion.) 
ent  in  more  or  less  severity  in  all  sections 
where  apples  are  grown.  A  common 
disease,  also,  in  most  sections  of  the 
United  States,  it  is  serious  in  Germany 
and  other  sections  of  Europe  as  well, 
where  it  is  generally  referred  to  as  "Stip- 
pin."  It  is  also  common  in  Canada,  Mexi- 
co,   Australia,    New    Zealand    and    South 


APPLE   DISEASES 


467 


Africa.  The  disease  is  too  coniiiion  to 
need  a  detailed  description.  It  seems  to 
be  very  variable  in  appearance.  The  most 
common  condition  is  the  occurrence  of 
sunken  areas  one-eighth  to  one-half  inch 
in  diameter,  which  have  somewhat  the 
appearance  of  bruises  on  the  surface  of 
the  apple.  (See  Pig.  1.)  In  the  early 
stages  the  skin  is  perfectly  normal  in 
color,  though  often  retaining  the  green 
tint  longer  than  the  surrounding  tissue. 
In  red  apples  the  spots  may  be  deeper  in 
color  for  a  time  than  the  surrounding  tis- 
sue. Later  they  gradually  turn  brown. 
The  skin  is  usually  unbroken  in  both 
early  and  late  stages. 

In  cutting  an  affected  apple  one  finds 
a  browning  of  the  tissue  just  underneath 
the  sunken  areas  on  the  surface  and  simi- 
lar discolorations  are  also  frequently 
found  scattered  through  the  substance  of 
the  fruit.  A  close  examination  shows 
these  discolorations  are  not  entirely  sep- 
arated but  are  associated  with  the  vas- 
cular system  of  the  fruit,  and  connected 
with  each  other  by  very  fine  brown 
strands  of  diseased  tissue.  These  internal 
spots  are  usually  more  abundant  near 
the  surface  of  the  apple  and  in  most  vari- 
eties are  found  more  numerous  toward 
the  blossom  end.  A  larger  amount  of 
starch  is  usually  found  in  the  diseased 
cells  than  in  the  surrounding  tissue. 

Cause 

Unlike  most  other  diseases  the  fruit  pit 
is  presumably  not  caused  by  any  organ- 
ism; at  least,  no  fungi  or  bacteria  have 
been  found  associated  with  these  spots. 
It  evidently  belongs  to  a  class  of  so-called 
physiological  diseases.  Various  explana- 
tions have  been  offered  by  investigators 
as  to  the  reasons  for  the  formation  of 
the  spots  of  diseased  tissue.  Among  these 
explanations  given  by  various  authorities 
are  the  following:  Acidity  of  cell  sap  fol- 
lowing excessive  transpiration;  prema- 
ture ripening;  abundant  moisture  and 
high  temperature;  influence  of  stock  on 
scion;  dry  weather  before  maturity; 
complete  fertilizers:  bursting  of  cells 
from  pressure  due  to  lack  of  balance  be- 
tween moisture  supply  and  transpiration. 


In  the  Northwest  the  disease  is  found 
on  soils  so  diverse  both  as  regards  char- 
acter and  richness,  and  varies  so  greatly 
in  abundance  and  severity  between  differ- 
ent seasons,  that  the  writer  is  led  to  the 
conclusion,  on  present  evidence,  that  the 
most  important  factors  influencing  its 
presence  from  season  to  season,  are  cer- 
tain varying  factors  of  climate  which  in- 
duce the  disease  by  acting  through  their 
effect  upon  the  balance  existing  between 
the  moisture  content  of  the  soil,  the  rate 
of  absorption  by  the  roots  and  the  amount 
of  evaporation  from  foliage  and  fruit. 

A  trouble  of  the  apple  also  very  com- 
mon in  the  Northwest  usually  referred  to 
as  core  rot  is  characterized  by  a  prema- 
ture breaking  down  of  the  tissues,  start- 
ing at  the  core.  This  is  believed  by  the 
writer  to  be  closely  related  in  cause  to  the 
fruit  pit  and  the  factors  influencing  its 
presence  are  considered  similar.  It  must 
be  recognized  that  among  the  different 
varieties  of  apples  the  inherent  differ- 
ences in  adaptability  to  certain  types  of 
environment  and  the  natural  differences 
in  the  texture  of  the  fruit  gives  rise  to 
great  differences  in  susceptibility  to  such 
troubles. 

Growers  should  be  cautioned  against 
mistaking  the  fruit  pit  for  the  'fruit 
spot,"  prevalent  in  the  Eastern  United 
States  and  particularly  in  New  England, 
which  has  long  been  confused  with  the 
former.  This  fruit  spot  is  caused  by  a 
fungus  known  as  Cylindrosporium  pomi, 
and  can  be  prevented  by  spraying,  a 
method  which  is  useless  in  controlling 
the  fruit  pit.  So  far  as  we  know,  the 
fruit  spot  does  not  occur  in  Oregon. 

Fruit  Rot 

Coniotliyriose 
The  rotten  spot  is  circular  in  uniform 
tissue,  brownish,  about  the  color  of  the 
common  soft  rot,  and  due  to  loss  from 
evaporation,  the  tissue  shrinks  as  the 
spot  ages,  leaving  the  surface  much 
wrinkled.  Distributed  somewhat  sparsely 
and  irregularly  over  the  spot  are  the 
fruiting  cavities  of  the  fungus.  In  rotten 
spots,  produced  by  inoculation,  these 
cavities    frequently    assume    a    somewhat 


468 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


concentric  arrangement.  Proceeding  from 
the  innermost  cavities  toward  the  edge 
of  the  spot  the  cavities  become  smaller, 
none  at  all  being  found  near  the  edge  of 
the  diseased  tissue. 

Upon  sectioning  through  a  diseased 
spot  the  flesh  of  the  fruit  is  seen  to  be 
rotten,  brownish  and  soft,  not  black  or 
dry,  as  is  the  case  with  the  volutella  rot. 

Microscopic  examination  shows  the  dis- 
eased tissue  to  be  thoroughly  invaded 
with  a  thin  branching  mycelium. 

When  this  disease  is  upon  twigs,  the 
terminal  portions  of  recent  growth  die, 
the  bark  shrinks  and  shrivels,  turns  black 
and  at  the  line  of  demarkation  between 
diseased  and  healthy  tissue  cracks.  The 
general  appearance  of  such  a  twig  is 
much  like  that  caused  by  the  fire  blight, 
but  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  pres- 
ence of  very  numerous,  minute,  pimple- 
like pustules,  fruiting  cavities  distri- 
buted over  the  dead  part. 

The  significance  of  this  fungus  upon 
twigs  is  twofold:  (1)  As  a  cause  of  the 
twig  blight;  (2)  as  a  source  of  infective 
material,  spores,  to  transmit  the  rot  to 
the   fruit. 

Treatment 

Spraying  coupled  with  careful  pruning 
out  and  burning  of  diseased  twigs  and 
branches  will  doubtless  serve  as  a  means 
of  control  of  this  rot,  both  of  branches 
and  fruit. 

F.   L.    Stevens, 
West  RaleiRh,  N.  C. 

Fruit  Spot 

Phoma  pomi  Passer 
This  disease  is  of  very  common  occur- 
rence in  New  Hampshire  and  is  found  as 
far  south  as  Maryland  and  Virginia  and 
as  far  west  as  Michigan.  It  is  not  so 
destructive  as  the  scab,  but  often  causes 
otherwise  perfect  fruit  to  go  as  seconds. 
It  is  found  on  almost  every  variety  of 
apple,  but  Baldwins  and  Tolman  Sweets 
are  especially  susceptible.  The  disease 
appears  about  the  middle  of  August.  At 
this  time  it  may  be  seen  as  spots  of  a 
deeper  red  on  the  colored  surface  of  the 
apple  and  of  a  darker  green  on  the  lighter 
portion.      As    the    season    advances,    the 


spots  become  more  prominent.  They  be- 
come slightly  sunken  and  more  highly 
colored.  Numerous  black  specks  appear, 
sometimes  causing  the  center  of  the  spot 
to  have  an  almost  uniformly  black  ap- 
pearance. The  tissue  beneath  the  spot 
is  rendered  brown  and  corky  to  a  depth 
of  several  cells.  Cold  storage  seems  to 
check  the  development  of  the  spots,  but 
in  cellar  storage  they  often  become  more 


Fig.   1.      Fruit   Spot. 
(New  Hampslaire  Experiment  Station). 

sunken  and  spread  deeper  into  the  tissue 
of  the  apple.  They  become  brown  and  are 
much  enlarged,  sometimes  attaining  a 
diameter  of  one-half  inch. 

Recent  experiments*  have  shown  that 
the  fungus  causing  the  fruit  spot  of 
apples  is  also  responsible  for  a  similar 
spot  on  quinces  known  as  "quince 
blotch."  The  disease  may  spread  from 
one  host  to  the  other. 

Treatment 

The  fungus  does  not  attack  the  apples 
until  they  are  nearly  grown.  Conse- 
quently, sprayings  made  in  late  June  or 
early  July  are  usually  as  effective  if  not 
more  so  than  those  made  earlier  in  the 
year.  However,  orchards  that  have  re- 
ceived three  and  four  sprayings  for  scab 
will  not  usually  require  later  spraying 
for  fruit  spot.  Both  Bordeaux  and  lime- 
sulphur  have  given  satisfactory  results. 
Charles   Brooks 


•  Brooks.    Cliarles.    and    Blacli.    Caroline    A. 
Apple    Fruit    Spot    and    Quince    Blotch.      Phyto- 

pathoioKv    II.   o:!-T:i.   \;n-2. 


APPLE  DISEASES 


469 


Hail  lii.iiiry 

There  is  nothing  which  can  he  done  to 
prevent  this  injury,  but  frequently  it  is 
not  noticed  at  the  time  and  is  later  attri- 
buted to  fungi,  insects  or  other  causes. 
The  fruits  may  be  badly  deformed  and 
scarred  resembling  somewhat  curculio 
injury  but  the  characteristic  crescent- 
shaped  scars  of  the  latter  are  not  present. 
Quite  frequently  hail  injury  is  followed 
by  fungous  decays  of  the  fruit  I'esulting 
from  infections  of  the  wounds. 

Hollow  Trunks 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a  valuable 
shade  or  orchard  tree  becomes  injured  in 
such  a  way  as  to  cause  a  cavity.  This 
may  have  resulted  from  the  breaking  of 
a  branch  in  a  storm  or  from  improper 
pruning.  Whatever  the  cause  the  treat- 
ment is  practically  the  same.  All  decayed 
or  decaying  matter  should  be  removed 
from  the  cavity  and  with  a  sharp  gouge 
or  chisel  all  diseased  wood  cut  away  un- 
til sound  heartwood  is  exposed.  Then, 
before  moisture  or  other  injurious  influ- 
ences can  act  upon  the  newly  exposed 
parts,  the  whole  cavity  should  be  filled 
with  a  thin  mortar,  made  by  mixing  one 
part  of  Portland  cement  with  three  parts 
of  clean,  sharp  sand.  After  the  mortar 
has  had  time  to  become  stiff,  but  not 
hard,  a  surface  coat  made  of  one  part  of 
sand  and  one  part  of  cement  should  be 
added  and  the  surface  so  faced  as  to  ex- 
clude all  moisture  from  the  opening  of 
the  cavity.  An  additional  safeguard 
would  be  had  in  treating  the  inside  of 
the  cavity  with  a  copper-sulphate  solu- 
tion (one  pound  to  five  or  six  gallons  of 
water)  after  the  diseased  wood  has  been 
removed  with  a  gouge  or  chisel  and  be- 
fore the  cement  mortar  is  poured  into  the 
cavity. 

L.    C.    CoRBETT, 
WasUington.   D.    C. 

Hypoenus 

Common  to  the  mountain  sections  of 
the  Southeast.  This  disease  affects  the 
apple,  pear  and  quince.  Trees  affected 
have  the  appearance  of  fire  blight.  How- 
ever, the  leaves  only  die.     They  droop  in 


dense  matted  masses,  and  in  the  later 
stages  of  the  disease  fall  awas'.  During 
damp  weather  the  fungus  grows  with 
great  rapidity  between  the  matted  leaves. 
It  spreads  from  joint  to  joint  by  means 
of  ribbon-like  structures.  Unless  outside 
aid  is  brought  the  branch  becomes  com- 
pletely covered  by  mid-summer  and  the 
tree  remains  Infected  continuously. 

Treatment 

The  fungus  winters  upon  the  twigs  and 
rarely  goes  into  the  spore  stage,  hence, 
is  easily  controlled  by  the  usual  dormant 
sprays. 

Tlic  .loiiatlian  Fruit  .Spot 
\ature   and   Importance   of   the   Disease 

The  spots,  though  seldom  more  than 
skin  deep,  detract  greatly  from  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  apple  and  afford  a  place 
of  entrance  for  decay  fungi.  They  are 
dark  brown  in  color,  more  or  less  circular 
in  outline,  at  first  scarcely  depressed, 
later  becoming  considerably  sunken,  and 
vary  from  one-eighth  to  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  They  resemble  very 
young  bitter-rot  spots  and  are  not  easily 
distinguished  from  the  advanced  stage  of 
the  New  Hampshire  fruit  spot  (Cylin- 
drosporUim.  pomi  Brooks).  As  many  as 
25  spots  often  occur  on  one  apple,  and  a 
lenticel  usually  forms' the  center  of  each 
spot.  Since  the  spots  are  entirely  super- 
ficial, the  intrinsic  value  of  the  fruit  is 
not  seriously  affected,  but  its  market 
value  is  greatly  reduced. 

The  disease  occurs  only  on  fully  ma- 
tured fruit  and  usually  develops  after  the 
crop  is  picked.  If  left  on  the  trees  long 
after  maturing,  the  fruit  of  susceptible 
varieties  may  become  affected  before  be- 
ing picked.  This  was  observed  on  the 
.lonathan  variety  in  Virginia  and  West 
Virginia  during  the  fall  of  1911.  Accord- 
ing to  numerous  observations  made  by 
the  writers,  fruit  picked  at  the  proper 
time,  or  rather  early,  and  rushed  into 
cold  storage  with  only  two  or  three  days' 
delay,  and  consumed  within  a  few  days 
after  removal  from  storage,  will  not  de- 
velop the  disease  to  any  serious  extent. 
Fruit    of    susceptible    varieties    kept    in 


470 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


common  storage  or  delayed  in  reaching 
cold  storage  usually  becomes  affected.  The 
disease  has  been  particularly  annoying  to 
fruit  growers  who  have  attempted  to  keep 
prize  specimens  of  the  Jonathan  in  cellar 
storage  for  exhibition  purposes.  The 
growers  of  Esopus  ( Spitzenhurg )  in  Ore- 
gon and  Washington  have  perhaps  suf- 
fered most  from  this  trouble,  the  spots 
often  developing  on  the  fruit  en  route  to 
the  Eastern  markets. 

The  Jonathan  is  the  most  susceptible 
variety  grown  in  the  East,  and  its  com- 
mercial standing  is  greatly  impaired  on 
account  of  this  weakness.  The  disease  is 
now  rather  commonly  known  among 
apple  growers  as  the  "Jonathan  spot," 
and  for  that  reason  the  writers  have 
adopted  the  name  "Jonathan  fruit  spot." 
The  Esopus  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  as 
susceptible  to  the  disease  as  the  Jona- 
than, and  the  Yellow  Newtown  apparently 
ranks  third  in  degree  of  susceptibility.  It 
has  also  been  observed  to  a  very  slight 
extent  on  the  Grimes.  Arkansas  Black, 
and  a  few  other  varieties  of  less  impor- 
tance. 

Dry  weather  during  the  summer  is  ap- 
parently favorable  to  the  development  of 
the  Jonathan  fruit  spot.  It  was  very  bad 
in  1910  and  1911,  both  of  which  were  dry 
seasons,  while  in  1912,  a  comparatively 
wet  season,  it  was  not  common  on  East- 
ern-grown fruit.  In  the  fall  of  1911  the 
spotting  was  particularly  serious  on  the 
Jonathan,  specimens  having  been  re- 
ceived from  practically  every  section  of 
the  country  where  that  variety  is  grown. 

ISiiminary  of  f'oncliisioiis 

The  investigations  conducted  by  the 
writers  seem  to  warrant  the  following 
conclusions: 

(1)  The  Jonathan  fruit  spot  of  the 
apple  is  due  neither  to  spraying  with 
arsenate  of  lead  nor  to  a  specific  organ- 
ism. 

(2)  It  is  probably  a  physiological 
trouble,  falling  in  the  same  category  as 
the  bitter  pit  or  Baldwin  spot. 

(3)  Early  picking,  prompt  cold  stor- 
age,  and   immediate   consumption   of  the 


fruit    after    removal    from    storage,    will 
largely  obviate  losses  from  the  disease. 
W.  M.  Scott, 

Formerly  Pathologist,  and 
John  W.  Roberts, 
Assistant   Pathologist, 
Fruit-Disease  Investigations. 

Leaf  Bliisrht 

Sphaeropsis  vialorum 

See  Black  Hot. 

Leaf  Spot 

Sphaei'opsis  malorum 

See  Black  Rot. 

Leaf  Spot  or  Fro^  Eye 
There  is  a  common  leaf  spot  disease  of 
apple  trees  in  which  the  dead  spots  show 
the  presence  of  pycnidia.  This  trouble 
is  really  due  to  the  black  rot  fungus 
(Sphaeropsis  malorum  Pk.)  but  at  times 
another  fungus  (Coniothyriim  pirini 
Sacc),  comes  in  afterwards.  In  the  later 
season  the  second  type  develops  in  con- 
centric areas  to  which  the  common  name 
of  "Frog  Eye"  has  been  given.  Yet  other 
forms  of  leaf  spot  due  to  spray  injuries 
also  occur,  but  are  easily  distinguishable 
from  the  two  first  named.  It  has  been 
shown  that  control  of  the  black  rot  fun- 
gus keeps  the  leaf  spot  in  hand,  but  early 
treatments  should  be  made. 

A.  D.  Selby. 
Lichens 
Not  infrequently  complaints  are  re- 
ceived, particularly  from  Atlantic  coast 
towns,  with  regard  to  fruit  trees  being 
over-run  by  lichens,  sometimes  improp- 
erly called  "mosses"  by  orchardists.  While 
mosses  are  not  uncommon  on  old,  neg- 
lected fruit  trees,  lichens  are  much  more 
frequent.  The  latter  are  foliacious 
growths  of  various  colors,  the  more  com- 
mon being  grayish  and  found  Indiscrimi- 
nately upon  trunks  of  trees,  rocks,  old 
fence  boards,  etc.  Quite  frequently  these 
lichens  are  found  in  large  numbers  upon 
orchard  trees — apples,  pears  and  plums — 
particularly  so  in  the  states  farther  south. 
In  temperate  climates  lichens  occurring 
on  tree  trunks  are  not  considered  to  be 
parasitic.  In  the  tropics  there  is  evi- 
dence that  one  or  more   kinds  are  prob- 


APPLE  DISEASES 


471 


ably  parasitic.  However,  all  are  agreed 
that  lichens  are  decidedly  objectionable 
on  fruit  trees.  They  harbor  insects  and 
fungi,  tend  to  keep  the  branches  moist 
and  more  likely  to  decay,  besides  being 
untidy  and  unsightly.  While  they  may 
not  secure  any  nourishment  from  the 
trees  they  certainly  must  interfere  seri- 
ously with  the  functions  of  the  bark  on 
the  younger  limbs. 

Two  or  three  pounds  of  copper  sulphate 
to  50  gallons  of  water  or  a  o-5-50  Bor- 
deaux sprayed  on  the  trees  before  the 
buds  swell  in  the  spring  will  generally 
destroy  the  lichens.  A  wash  such  as  is 
used  for  borers,  consisting  of  one  pound 
of  potash  or  concentrated  lye  to  five  gal- 
lons of  water,  put  on  with  a  brush,  is 
said  to  be  effective.  Sone  of  these  mate- 
rials should  be  sprayed  on  the  trees  when 
in  leaf  on  account  of  injuring  the  foliage. 
Thorough  spraying  with  3-3-50  Bordeaux 
in  the  spring  and  early  summer,  as  rec- 
ommended for  apple  scab  and  other  fun- 
gous diseases,  would  doubtless  do  much 
to  hold  the  lichens  in  check,  if  not  de- 
stroy them  altogether.  Hence,  if  the  or- 
chard is  well  cared  for  and  sprayed  it 
will  not  be  infested  with  lichens. 

W.  J.  Morse. 

Little  Leaf.     See  Rosette. 


Mushroom  Root  Kot 

Armillaria  mellea 
H.  P.  B.\Rss 
In  various  sections  of  the  Northwest, 
fruit  trees  are  attacked  by  the  disease 
known  as  mushroom  root  rot  or  crown 
rot.  Starting  from  isolated  trees  in  an 
orchard,  it  often  spreads  to  surrounding 
trees,  forming  infested  areas,  which  en- 
large from  year  to  year.  Examination 
at  the  base  of  affected  trees  reveals  a 
decayed  condition  on  the  underground 
part  of  the  trunk  or  on  large  roots.  Un- 
der favorable  conditions  clusters  of  mush- 
rooms (toadstools)  usually  appear  in  the 
fall  at  the  base  of  such  trees.  (See  Fig. 
1.)  Old  trees  and  young  are  equally 
liable  to  attack,  and  once  attacked,  there 
is  little  hope  of  saving  them  from  ulti- 
mate  destruction. 

Distribution 

While  no  careful  survey  has  been  made 
to  determine  its  exact  distribution,  the 
disease  is  reported  from  the  northern  part 
of  the  Willamette  valley  and  from  the 
Hood  River  valley.  It  also  appears  de- 
structively in  Western  Washington  and 
California,  and  similar  root  rots  are  re- 
ported from  the  Southern  and  Eastern 
states. 


0*e-"E.)i.¥- St*-- 

Fig.    1.      Mushrooms     of    Armillaria    ilillea    In    Young   Condition. 


472 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Hosts 

From  numerous  parts  of  Europe  and 
America  it  is  reported  that  many  forest 
trees,  including  various  evergreens,  the 
birch,  beech,  walnut  and  oak,  as  well  as 
such  fruit  trees  as  the  apple,  plum, 
cherry,  peach,  citrus  and  olive,  besides 
certain  bush  fruits  and  the  grape,  are 
attacked  by  very  similar,  if  not  identical, 
mushroom  root  rots.  Along  our  Pacific 
coast,  mushroom  root  rot  is  prevalent  on 
many  kinds  of  trees  and  shrubs.  In 
Western  Washington,  Lawrence  reports 
its  presence  among  several  native  trees, 
both  evergreen  and  deciduous,  and  men- 
tions that  in  orchard  and  field  the  apple, 
plum,  cherry,  gooseberry,  currant,  black- 
berry, raspberry  and  loganberry  were 
found  to  be  badly  Injured  or  killed.  In 
California,  Home  has  reported  that  it 
occurs  throughout  the  state,  attacking  a 
great  variety  of  hosts.  He  says  that  it 
appears  to  be  capable  of  attacking  almost 
any  plant,  in  fact,  that  it  is  somewhat 
woody  and   long-lived. 

Symptoms 

The  symptoms  of  the  disease  vary 
somewhat,  depending  upon  the  point  at 
which  the  tree  is  attacked,  the  rapidity 
or  slowness  with  which  the  parasitic 
fungus  spreads,  and  other  conditions.  It 
is  generally  not  until  the  trouble  has 
made  considerable  progress  that  the  fii'st 
external  evidence  of  the  attack  appears 
in  its  effect  on  the  health  of  the  tree.  The 
earliest  indication  is  usually  a  retarded 
growth,  attended  by  early  dropping  of  the 
leaves.  The  foliage  generally  presents  an 
unnatural  appearance.  Often  this  is  con- 
fined to  that  side  of  the  tree  correspond- 
ing with  the  side  of  the  trunk  first  at- 
tacked. The  fruit  is  usually  poor  and 
stunted.  A  tree  may  sometimes  show 
such  symptoms  for  two  or  three  years  be- 
fore it  finally  succumbs,  but  death  fre- 
quently occurs  during  the  season  in 
which  the  symptoms  first  appear,  or  dur- 
ing the  following  year.  In  rapid  attacks, 
the  leaves  often  become  yellow  early  in 
the  summer.  Not  infrequently  the  entire 
foliage  suddenly  withers  and  the  whole 
tree  dies  in  midseason.  Again,  death  may 


occur  during  the  winter,  in  which  case 
the  tree  fails  to  leaf  out  in  the  spring. 
Sometimes,  but  not  always,  clusters  of 
mushrooms  of  a  light  brownish  color 
come  up  in  the  autumn  around  the  base 
of  the  trunk,  or  push  through  the  soil 
above  diseased  roots.  In  some  cases,  this 
occurs  before  the  tree  is  totally  dead. 

As  soon  as  a  tree  shows  the  first  signs 
of  trouble,  it  should  be  examined  by 
digging  the  soil  away  from  the  base,  and 
a  search  should  be  made  for  decayed  areas 
on  the  trunk  and  roots   (Fig.  2).  and  for 


Fij;.  :;.  Trunk  of  Apple  Tree  Which  Dieil  in 
Midsummer.  Dead  bai-k  removed  to  sliow 
layers  of  wliite   fungus  under   bark. 

peculiar  black,  rootletlike  branching 
strands,  mostly  about  the  thickness  of  the 
lead  in  a  pencil,  clinging  to  the  bark. 
These  strands,  known  as  rhizomorphs,  are 
characteristic  of  the  disease,  since  they 
are  a  special  form  of  the  fungus  which 
causes  the  rot.  They  can  be  distinguished 
from  the  roots  of  any  small  plants  which 
may  also  be  present  in  the  soil,  by  their 
peculiar  irregular  method  of  branching 
and  by  the  white  interior  substance  which 
can   be  rather  easily  separated   from   the 


APPLE   DISEASES 


473 


thin  black  covering.  The  dead  bark  and 
wood  is  penetrated  by  a  whitish  fungous 
growth  and  has  a  strong  mushroom  odor. 
Sometimes  rhizomorphs  are  found  on  the 
roots  of  an  entirely  healthy  tree  apparent- 
ly causing  no  injury. 

The  disastrous  effect  of  the  disease  re- 
sults from  the  girdling  of  the  main  roots 
and  the  trunk,  and  from  a  destruction  of 
the  activity  of  the  sap-wood.  This  brings 
about  root  starvation,  a  checking  of  the 
ascent  of  water  through  the  wood  and,  as 
a  consequence,  the  eventual  death  of  the 
whole  tree. 

Cause 

The  cause  of  this  disease  is  one  of  the 
higher  fungi  known  as  Armillaria  mellea 
(or  varieties)  and  commonly  called,  from 
its  usual  light,  yellowish-brown  color,  the 
honey  mushroom.  Several  forms  or  vari- 
eties of  this  fungus  have  been  found  on 
the  Pacific  coast  attacking  fruit  trees  or 
growing  from  the  decaying  stumps  and 
roots  of  oaks  and  other  native  forest  trees. 
The  following  general  description  of  the 
typical  Ar»iilla)-ia  mellea.  however,  will 
serve  sufficiently  well  to  identify  the 
mushroom  causing  the  disease  under  con- 
sideration. 

Fruiting  bodies  or  toadstools  occurring 
in  tufts  or  clusters,  honey-colored  or  light 
brown;  irregular  ring  (annulus)  on  stem 
near  the  top;  cap  slightly  elevated  at 
center;  margin  inrolled;  later  flat  or  con- 
cave with  margin  upturned.  Cap  varying 
from  nearly  white  to  reddish-brown, 
darker  toward  center.  Caps  vary  in  size 
and  stems  in  length.  Gills  under  cap  radi- 
ating from  center  shed  innumerable 
spores  which  are  blown  about  or  other- 
wise disseminated. 

Life   History  and   .lletliod   of   Siiread 

It  is  believed  by  many  that  the  fungus 
gains  its  entrance,  more  often,  if  not  ex- 
clusively at  points  where  the  root  or  the 
crown  of  the  tree  has  been  injured  by 
cultivation,  by  the  attacks  of  borers,  or 
by  the  presence  of  a  crown  gall,  etc.  When 
once  it  has  entered  the  tree,  it  sends  out 
delicate  filaments  both  into  the  bark, 
where,  given  the  right  conditions,  it 
spreads  rapidly,  and  also,  by  way  of  the 


medullary  rays  (silver  grain),  into  the 
wood,  where  it  spreads  more  slowly. 

The  disease  spreads  fast  from  the  point 
of  attack  up  and  down  the  root  or  trunk, 
apparently  working  most  rapidly  in  the 
cambium  region.  Little  effect  on  the  tree 
is  at  first  noticeable  until  the  decay  com- 
mences to  girdle  the  trunk,  after  which 
the  progress  of  the  disease  is  rapid  and 
the  death  of  the  tree  only  a  question  of 
one  or  two  seasons. 

When  the  decay  has  progressed  suffi- 
ciently and  the  fungus  is  thereby  richly 
supplied  with  reserve  nutriment,  the 
fruiting  bodies  or  mushrooms  may  be 
formed.  In  their  young  condition  these 
are  edible.  Abundant  moisture  is  neces- 
sary for  their  development,  consequently 
they  are  not  met  with,  as  a  rule,  till  the 
fall  rains  have  begun.  The  clusters  of 
mushrooms  usually  appear  at  the  point 
where  the  trunk  enters  the  earth  and  may 
encircle  its  base.  Often  they  rise  through 
the  soil  from  a  diseased  root  or  they  may 
be  attached  to  rhizomorphic  strands  con- 
nected with  crown  or  roots. 

Control   Measures 

The  suggestions  presented  in  the  fol- 
lowing paragraphs  regarding  possible 
modes  of  treatment  for  this  disease  are 
in  no  way  to  be  considered  as  definite 
recommendations.  The  reason  for  this 
appears  when  it  is  said  that  nowhere,  to 
the  writer's  knowledge,  have  thorough  or 
long-continued  investigations  of  possible 
orchard  control  methods  been  carried  out 
to  a  successful  conclusion.  Furthermore, 
information  as  to  the  way  in  which  the 
trouble  may  enter  an  orchard  and  the 
exact  manner  of  its  spread,  is  incomplete 
and  unsatisfactory.  Consequently,  the 
writer  is  not  warranted  in  stating  that 
any  of  the  methods  described  here  are 
sure  to  give  satisfactory  results.  It  is  to 
be  hoped,  however,  that  intelligent  grow- 
ers will  try  out  various  methods  of  treat- 
ment experimentally. 

The  prevalent,  but  not  yet  convincingly 
substantiated,  idea  that  buried  roots  of 
forest  trees  in  newly  cleared  land  are  a 
dangerous  source  of  infection  for  young 
orchard   trees,   has  led   to  the  suggestion 


474 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


that  all  roots  and  stumps  be  carefully  re- 
moved from  the  earth  in  clearing,  and 
that  before  planting  trees,  the  soil  be  de- 
voted to  other  than  orchard  crops  for 
several  years  until  the  root-rotting  fungus 
has  had  a  chance  to  die  out. 

Evidence  that  much  of  the  infection 
takes  place  where  trees  are  injured  bj' 
cultivation  leads  to  the  suggestion  that 
cultivation  close  to  the  tree  be  done  with 
greatest  care  to  avoid  injury.  At  the 
same  time  thorough  cultivation  has  been 
advised  in  order  to  establish  good  aera- 
tion of  the  soli,  since  this  condition  is 
supposed  by  some  to  be  unfavorable  to 
the  progress  of  the  disease  while  it  un- 
doubtedly promotes  the  vigor  of  the  tree. 

When  trees  are  once  attacked  by  the 
fungus,  death,  almost  without  exception, 
is  only  a  question  of  time.  It  seems  use- 
less, therefore,  to  retain  in  the  orchard 
trees  which  will  be  worthless  to  the  own- 
er and  which  may  become  a  source  of  in- 
fection for  other  trees.  It  has  conse- 
quently been  considered  best  to  grub  up 
at  once  any  tree  discovered  to  be  diseased 
and  to  remove  it  from  the  orchard,  taking 
out  at  the  same  time  as  much  of  the  root 
system  as  possible.  It  has  also  been  ad- 
vised not  to  plant  another  tree  in  its 
place  for  at  least  three  years. 

If  it  should  seem  desirable  to  retain 
temporarily  a  tree  known  to  be  diseased, 
it  would  perhaps  be  safest  to  dig  a  trench 
about  two  feet  deep  around  *he  tree  near 
the  tips  of  the  roots  in  order  to  prevent 
the  rhizoniorphs.  which  rarel.y  occur 
deeper  than  this,  from  spreading  to  other 
trees.  Throw  the  dirt  inside  the  ditch. 
Where  conditions  are  such  that  the  dis- 
ease appears  to  be  spreading  rapidly  from 
tree  to  tree,  the  heroic  method  of  uproot- 
ing healthy  trees  in  advance  of  the  zone 
of  infection  has  been  suggested;  but  as 
far  as  we  know,  the  disease  rarely  as- 
sumes such  a  condition  in  the  Northwest 
as  to  warrant  so  drastic  a  method  of 
treatment. 

On  account  of  the  possibility  of  infec- 
tion from  spores  produced  by  the  mush- 
rooms, all  fruiting  bodies  appearing  at 
the  base  of  diseased  or  dead  trees,  or  in 
other  places   in   the   orchards   and   fields, 


should  be  collected  while  still  in  the  but- 
ton stage  and  destroyed  by  burning. 
Knocking  them  over  does  not  prevent 
spore   formation. 

The  effect  upon  the  disease  of  various 
chemical  substances  worked  into  the  soil 
around  a  tree  has  never  been  thoroughly 
tested  out.  This  line  of  investigation  may 
prove  to  be  worth  while,  and  growers  are 
urged  to  make  experiments  upon  trees 
known  to  be  affected.  A  record  of  the 
exact  treatment  should  be  made  and  notes 
kept   regarding   the   effect   in   each   case. 

Those  who  possess  sufficient  patience 
and  skill,  and  are  willing  to  devote  the 
necessary  time,  may  be  able  by  the  fol- 
lowing method  to  save  individual  trees 
that  are  not  too  far  gone  when  the  dis- 
ease is  discovered.  This  method  has  been 
used  in  one  Oregon  apple  orchard  with 
considerable  success.  Whether  it  can  be 
applied  as  well  to  other  kinds  of  fruit 
trees  remains  to  be  seen.  At  the  first 
sign  of  unhealthy  foliage  the  tree  Is  ex- 
amined for  root  rot.  Where  this  is  found, 
the  earth  is  removed  from  the  base  of  the 
tree  and  the  main  roots  are  exposed  for  a 
foot  or  more.  The  soil  is  also  removed 
from  beneath  the  roots.  The  air  and  sun- 
shine have  access  in  this  way  to  the 
crown  and  root  bases.  The  dead  portions 
of  the  bark  are  carefully  and  completely 
removed  from  trunk  and  roots.  If  a  root 
is  girdled,  it  is  taken  out  entirely.  After 
all  the  diseased  parts  of  the  tree  are  cut 
out,  the  exposed  surfaces  are  washed  with 
some  disinfectant,  such  as  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture or  corrosive  sublimate.  When  they 
are  dry,  walnut  grafting  wax  is  applied. 
Then,  in  order  to  restore  as  quickly  as 
possible  the  area  of  the  trunk  destroyed 
by  the  fungus,  bridge-grafting  is  resorted 
to.  A  number  of  scions  are  inserted  into 
the  healthy  tissue  of  the  trunk  just  above 
the  dead  part,  and  their  lower  ends  are 
connected  with  healthy  roots.  This  is  a 
delicate  operation  and  the  trees  have  to 
be  braced  to  prevent  the  scions  from  pull- 
ing out.  In  an  orchard  recently  visited 
by  the  writer,  a  few  young  bearing  apple 
trees  which  were  treated  in  this  way  two 
years  ago  are  now  ai)parently  free  from 
any  trace  of  disease  and  as  thrifty  as  any 


APPLE  DISEASES 


475 


of  the  sunounding  ones.  The  crown  and 
large  roots  of  these  trees  had  been  left 
exposed  for  two  seasons  with  no  apparent 
ill  effect,  the  earth  being  thrown  back 
over  them,  however,  each  winter.  A  trial 
of  these  methods  is  recommended.  It  may 
be  that  simple  root  exposure  would  help 
to  check  the  disease  or  that  thorough 
cutting  out  and  sterilization  would  stop 
its  progress,  but  so  little  experimentation 
has  been  done  along  these  lines  that  def- 
inite assurances  of  success  cannot  be 
made. 

Biblioprapby 

1910.  Washington     Experiment     Station, 
Bulletin   No.   3.   Special   Series. 

1911.  Pennsylvania   Experiment   Station, 
Bulletin  No.  152. 

1911.     Arkansas  Experiment  Station,  Bul- 
letin No.  71. 

1911.  Ohio  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin 
No.  214. 

1912.  Oregon    Experiment    Station,    Crop 
Pest  Report,  1911-12. 

California  Com.  Hort.,  II  No.  6. 
California    Fruit    Growers'    Report.    1910, 

Page  93. 
1901.     Oklahoma      Experiment       Station, 

Bulletin  No.   49. 
1903.     Washington     Experiment     Station, 

Bulletin  No.  59. 

A  >'ew  Disease  on  Apples 

A  new  disease  on  apples  has  been  re- 
ported by  the  Pennsylvania  State  College* 
and  described  as  follows: 

"This  disease  is  apparently  physiolog- 
ical, and  appears  most  conspicuously  as 
an  affection  of  the  twigs  of  the  current 
season's  growth,  though  it  is  not  confined 
to  them.  The  twigs  lose  their  normal 
color  and  become  dull  and  of  a  rather 
blistered  and  mottled  appearance  at  first. 
At  a  casual  glance  the  effect  somewhat  re- 
sembles that  produced  by  an  incrustation 
of  the  San  Jose  scale.  Immediately  under 
the  epidermis  of  the  diseased  areas  and 
extending  about  half  way  to  the  cambium, 
in  the  early  stages,  there  are  numerous 
small,  brown  spots  or  pits  where  the  tis- 
sues are  dead  or  dying.  Later,  on  the 
surface,     the    epidermis     usually     cracks 


♦Pennsylvania   State  College  Report,  1910-11. 


around  and  over  the  diseased  spots  and 
they  become  rough,  dark,  and  rather  scab- 
like, and  are  usually  slightly  sunken 
through  the  drying  out  and  death  of  the 
tissues  underneath.  In  some  cases  the 
cracks  may  go  deeper  and  involve  the 
wood.  The  leaves  are  also  affected  sooner 
or  later,  probably  through  the  girdling  of 
the  twigs  below  them.  They  turn  brown, 
dry  out  and  crumble,  beginning  at  their 
tips  and  outer  margins.  In  time,  the 
twig,  limb  or  whole  tree  may  be  killed. 

"The  disease  usually  becomes  well  de- 
veloped and  conspicuous  by  the  middle  or 
latter  part  of  August." 

No  remedy  is  suggested  but  the  indica- 
tions point  to  fertilizer  trouble. 

>'ew  Hampshire  Fruit  Spot 

See    Cylinclrosporium   Fruit   Spot. 

?few  York  Apple  Tree  Canker 

See  BJack  Rot. 

Orange  Rust 

See  Coryneum  Leaf  Spot. 
Penecillium.     See  Blue  Mould. 

Fink  Rot 

Cephalothecium  roseum 

This  fungus  has  been  found  to  accom- 
pany scab  and  seems  to  gain  entrance  to 
the  apple  at  points  of  rupture  in  the  skin 
caused  by  the  scab.  It  is  called  "pink 
rot"  on  account  of  the  color  of  the  spots 
as  the  fungus  matures.  Its  first  appear- 
ance, however,  is  that  of  a  thin  gray  film 
of  mildew. 

It  develops  both  in  and  out  of  storage. 
The  rot  has  been  very  destructive  at  times 
in  New  York.  The  method  of  control  is 
the  same  as  for  scab,  which  see. 

References 

1902.  Cornell  Bulletin  No.  207. 

1903.  New  York  Bulletin  No.  235. 
Pome  Blight.     See  Blight  under  Pear. 

Powdery  Mildew 

Sphaerotheca  mali 
H.  S.  Jackson 
The   apple   powdery   mildew   is   a  com- 
mon disease  in  nearly  all  fruit  sections  of 
the  Northwest. 

This  disease  was  formerly  considered 
as  most  serious  on  nursery  stock,  but  un- 


476 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


der  certain  climatic  conditions  the  dis- 
ease is  not  uncommon  on  full  grown  trees 
in  the  orchard.  It  usually  attacks  only 
the  tips  of  actively  growing  branches  but 
may  occur  in  spots  on  the  underside  of 
otherwise  unaffected  mature  leaves. 

This    disease    is    caused    by    a    fungus 
known  technically  as  Sphaerothera  mali. 


O.e 


Fig.    1.      ISi'auch    of   Apple    Attacked    by    Powd- 
ei-.v    .Mildew. 

the  mycelium  of  which  develops  mainly 
as  a  covering  on  the  surface  of  the  grow- 
ing twigs  and  leaves  and  sends  feeding 
threads  only  into  the  external  cells.  The 
twigs  present  a  white,  mouldy  appearance, 


due  to  the  growth  of  the  threads  of  the 
fungus  in  considerable  quantity  on  the 
surface.  (See  Pig.  1.)  Sometimes  this 
is  so  copious  as  to  resemble  felt.  Spores 
are  produced  in  great  abundance  imder 
favorable  conditions  and  give  the  affected 
twigs  and  leaves  a  frosty  appearance. 
Such  twigs  are  usually  more  or  less 
thickened  and  shortened,  and  frequently 
distorted.  The  leaves  present  a  wilted 
appearance  and  are  smaller  than  normal. 

When  the  disease  is  abundant,  the  nor- 
mal functions  of  the  tree  are  interfered 
with  on  account  of  the  reduction  in  the 
foliage.  Affected  trees  may  fail  to  form 
blossom-buds,  or  the  fruit  may  not  be  of 
good  size  and  quality. 

The  fungus  hibernates  as  mycelium  on 
the  affected  twigs.  This  is  the  principal 
method  by  which  it  is  carried  over  the 
winter.  Sexual  spores  may  also  be  formed 
in  protected  fruit  bodies  partly  buried  in 
the  felted  mass  of  mycelium. 

Treatment 

It  has  been  found  that  this  fungus,  un- 
like most  powdery  mildews,  is  a  difficult 
one  to  control.  Since  the  fungus  winters 
on  the  twigs,  it  might  be  expected  that  a 
dormant  spray  applied  late  in  the  spring 
would  control  the  disease;  but  this  has 
not  been  found  sufficient  where  the  dis- 
ease is  abundant.  Investigations  carried 
on  in  California  by  Volck  indicate  that  a 
special  spray,  the  iron  sulphide,  will  hold 
the  disease  in  check  so  that  it  will  not 
cause  serious  damage,  if  the  spray  is  ap- 
plied as  soon  as  the  foliage  buds  open 
and  is  repeated  at  frequent  and  regular 
intervals.  Where  lime-sulphur  can  be 
safely  used  as  a  remedy  for  apple  scab, 
it  should  not  be  necessary  to  use  the  iron 
sulphide. 

When  the  disease  is  present  only  in 
slight  amount,  pruning  out  the  diseased 
twigs,  removing  them  from  the  orchard 
and  burning  them,  will  usually  be  found 
sufficient  to  hold  the  disease  in  check. 

Riblinsmpliy 

1909.  B.  M.  Duggar,  Fungus  Diseases  of 
Plants. 

1910.  New     York     Experiment     Station, 
Bulletin  No.  328. 


APPLE  DISEASES 


477 


Ripe  Hot 

Sclerotiitia  fnictigitta 
See  Brown  Rot. 
Root  BLicmT.     See  Blight  under  Pear. 

ROSETTE 

Rosette  has  doubtless  existed  for  ages, 
and  has  affected  many  kinds  of  forest 
trees,  shrubs,  plants,  and  fruit  trees. 
This  seems  a  reasonable  inference,  from 
the  fact  that  the  causes  have  existed  for 
ages  and  the  results  would  naturally  fol- 
low. It  is  only  in  recent  years,  however, 
since  fruit  growing  for  commercial  pur- 
poses has  become  general,  and  since  it  is 
being  studied  with  scientific  accuracy,  that 
rosette  has  been  observed,  and  become 
a  subject  of  considerable  controversy. 

When  first  observed,  it  was  supposed  to 
be  confined  to  the  arid  regions,  where 
the  soil  was  largely  a  volcanic  ash,  or  dis- 
integrated basalt,  and  where  the  sun  was 
hot  enough  and  the  air  dry  enough  to 
cause  a  rapid  evaporation  from  the  leaf. 
This  theory  is  now  abandoned  by  those 
who  have  carefully  studied  the  subject, 
and  it  is  known  that  the  disease  exists 
in  the  humid  regions  of  many  countries 
as  well  as  in  the  arid  regions,  although 
it  is  conceded  to  be  more  prevalent  in 
arid  than  in  humid  regions.  It  is  known 
too,  that  the  disease  is  not  confined  to 
one  species  of  trees,  or  even  to  fruit 
trees,  but  that  ash,  willow,  walnut,  elm, 
oak,  and  many  other  varieties  of  trees 
are  affected  by  it.  In  the  arid  regions 
of  the  Pacific  coast  states,  the  disease 
became  so  prevalent,  where  it  was  gen- 
erally known  as  "Apple  Rosette,"  that  I 
determined,  if  possible,  to  find  the  cause 
and  the  cure.  I  therefore  began  investi- 
gations, first  in  my  own  orchard,  extended 
my  observations  to  other  orchards  in  our 
community,  later  to  other  communities. 
and  later  still  to  other  states.  Soon  after 
beginning  my  investigations,  I  wrote  fifty 
letters  to  practical  orchardists,  fruit  in- 
spectors, and  professors  in  our  state  insti- 
tutions, to  get,  if  possible,  their  many 
viewpoints,  and  to  see  if  there  were  any 
general  agreement,  or  clearly  defined  con- 
sensus of  opinion  on  the  subject.  The 
answers    to    these    letters    were    very    in- 


structive, but  showed  wide  differences  of 
opinion  as  to  causes. 

My  own  observations  were  about  as 
conflicting  as  the  replies  to  my  letters; 
for  often  when  I  had  discovered  what 
seemed  to  be  the  cause,  I  found  rosette 
existing  under  conditions  where  the  sup- 
posed cause  was  not  apparent.  However, 
I  have  kept  up  my  investigations  and 
with  this  disease  in  mind  have  visited 
many  of  the  orchard  sections  in  Wash- 
ington, Oregon,  California.  Idaho,  Mon- 
tana, Utah,  Colorado,  and  Texas. 

The  Causes  Assigned 

I  have  given  here  a  list  of  the  causes 
assigned  for  rosette,  and  in  another  place 
in  this  article  have  quoted  more  fully 
from  the  authors,  using  this  as  a  mere 
catalogue  selected  from  the  replies,  as 
follows: 

Too  much  water. 

Not  enough  water. 

Too  much  alkali. 

An  unbalanced  food  ration. 

Too  much  barn  yard  manure. 

Clean  cultivation. 

The  puddling  of  the  soil  in  irrigation. 

The  bud  moth,  which  injures  the  leaf 
buds. 

Cut  worms  which  work  on  the  leaves 
and  buds. 

Some  kind  of  bacterium  or  microbe. 

An  enzymatic  ferment,  induced  by  in- 
jury to  the  bark  of  the  roots. 

A  rapid  evaporation  from  the  leaf. 

Lack  of  aeration  of  the  soil. 

Hard  pan.  which  retards  root  develop- 
ment. 

Scab  soil,  which  lacks  plant  food. 

Lack  of  proper  drainage. 

Cramping  the  roots  in  planting. 

An  anemic  condition  of  the  tree  simi- 
lar to  anemia  in  the  human  organism. 

Some  of  the  replies  included  more  than 
one  cause,  giving  evidence  that  the  wri- 
ters had  observed  it  under  conditions  that 
were  dissimilar. 

Method  of  Investigation 

In  my  investigation,  I  applied  two 
modes  of  reasoning.  The  first  was  in- 
ductive, in  which,  by  the  examination 
and  study  of  a  large  number  of  cases,  I 


478 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICrLTlRE 


tried  to  discover  a  general  cause  under 
the  operations  of  a  general  law. 

The  second  was  deductive,  in  which, 
after  the  general  cause  was  discovered,  I 
tried  to  determine  whether  all  the  cases 
of  rosette  would  be  included  by  it. 

I  found  that  rosette  actually  existed 
under  the  many  conditions  described  by 
the  writers,  in  their  replies  to  my  letters. 
I  reasoned  that  it  must  therefore  be  in- 
duced by  many  conditions,  and  that  there 
must  be  some  general  cause  which  will 
include  them  all.  I  pursued  the  plan 
adopted  by  Herbert  Spencer  in  the  writing 
of  his  "First  Principles,"  in  presuming 
that  "when  two  or  more  intelligent  per- 
sons differ  upon  a  subject  with  which 
they  are  familiar,  all  of  them  are  right 
in  what  they  affirm,  but  are  wrong  in 
what  they  deny." 

It  is  like  the  old  story  of  the  shield, 
which  one  contended  was  made  of  copper, 
another  that  it  was  made  of  brass.  It 
depends  on  the  viewpoint,  for  on  one 
side  it  was  copper,  on  the  other  brass,  so 
that  it  was  both  copper  and  brass. 

Again,  it  is  lil<e  a  photographer  of  an 
orchard  section  who  stands  on  the  west 
side  of  the  valley  and  gets  for  his  back- 
ground the  hills  toward  the  east;  while 
another  stands  on  the  east  side  and  gets 
the  hills  toward  the  west.  There  may 
be  as  many  unlike  views  as  there  are 
viewpoints,  and  all  of  them  correct.  I 
contend  that  the  same  rule  will  apply  to 
rosette,  and  that  a  proper  analysis  of  the 
subject,  and  a  proper  synthesis  of  facts, 
will  justify  this  claim. 

The  Cause  of  Causes 

A  cause  is  something  that  must  have 
preceded,  in  order  that  an  event  should 
happen. 

A  primary  cause  is  a  first  cause  in 
degree,  time,  rank  or  importance. 

A  specific  cause  is  one  which  has  some 
property,  which  distinguishes  it  from  any 
other. 

A  tributary  or  contributory  cause  is  one 
which  is  not  primary  or  specific,  but  con- 
tributes toward  the  production  of  certain 
results,  as  in  the  case  of  two  rivers, 
neither  of  which  are  navigable;  but  when 
united,  become  navigable. 


A  condition  is  one  which  necessarily 
precedes  a  result,  but  does  not  produce 
it. 

Further,  when  we  find  the  conditions 
under  which  rosette  exists,  and  inquire 
what  are  the  causes  of  these  conditions, 
we  have  gone  only  one  step  backward: 
for  immediately  we  begin  to  inquire. 
What  are  the  causes  of  the  causes  that 
produced  these  conditions?  If  by  any 
means  we  answer  that  question  satisfac- 
torily, then  we  must  inquire  the  cause  of 
the  causes  of  the  causes  of  the  condi- 
tions. 

Suppose  we  say,  as  one  man  did,  that 
"Rosette  is  caused  by  a  rapid  evapora- 
tion from  the  leaf  in  an  arid  climate, 
which  prevents  a  sufficient  manufacture 
of  food." 

We  would  ask  then,  "Why  cannot  the 
leaf  manufacture  a  sufficiency  of  food?" 
He  would  probably  say,  "Because  the 
trunk  does  not  supply  the  raw  materials 
to  the  top  system." 

Why  does  not  the  trunk  supply  the 
top  system? 

"Because  the  root  system  does  not  sup- 
ply the  trunk." 

Why  does  not  the  root  system  supply 
the  trunk? 

"Well,  perhaps  the  root  system  is  de- 
fective." 

Then  we  would  inquire,  What  is  the 
cause  of  the  defective  root  system?  The 
answer  might  include  any  one  of  a  num- 
ber of  causes  or  several  of  them  com- 
bined. For  instance,  it  might  be  gophers, 
aphis,  hard  pan,  clean  cultivation,  alka- 
li, lack  of  water,  too  much  water,  etc. 
Inasmuch  as  all  these  conditions  exist 
sometimes  where  there  is  no  rosette,  it 
will  be  seen  that  they  are  not  primary, 
but  tributary  causes,  contributing  to  a 
root  injury  without  which  there  is  no 
rosette.  This  is  not  only  reasonable, 
but  is  true  in  fact,  if  I  am  not  mistaken 
in  m.v  observations.  A  few  of  these  ob- 
servations I  will  note. 

I  began  in  my  own  orchard,  extending 
my  observations  to  other  orchards,  until 
I  had  dug  the  ground  about  600  trees 
which  were  resetted  or  near  rosetted  and 
examined  100  other  trees  that  had  been 
uprooted.     I  found  that  of  the  600  trees 


APPLE   DISEASES 


479 


examined.  457,  or  a  little  more  than  75 
per  cent,  had  some  root  injury  from  gall, 
aphis,  alkali,  hard  pan,  farm  machinery 
or  something  else.  This  examination  was 
necessarily  superficial,  because  we  were 
careful  not  to  injure  the  roots,  and  gen- 
erally the  area  dug  was  not  more  than 
one  foot  from  the  body  of  the  tree,  and 
not  more  than  six  inches  deep.  Yet 
with  this  casual  examination,  75  per  cent 
showed  root  injury.  Of  the  100  trees 
where  the  whole  root  was  examined, 
every  one  of  them  showed  root  injury  or 
malformation  of  the  roots. 

In  Mr.  Strobach's  orchard,  near  North 
Yakima.  Washington,  I  thought  at  first, 
that  I  had  found  an  exception  to  this 
rule,  but  a  more  careful  examination 
showed  injury,  doubtless  from  gophers, 
and  I  have  the  root  on  exhibition  to  show 
where  the  ends  had  been  eaten  off  and 
the  bark  damaged.  In  one  other  orchard 
I  thought  I  had  found  a  marked  excep- 
tion. However,  an  examination  of  the 
conditions  showed  the  following  facts: 

First.  There  was  a  substratum  of  hard 
pan  near  the  surface,  and  this  hard 
pan   was   strong   in   alkali. 

Second.  In  some  places  it  was  only  six 
inches  and  in  others  two  feet  from  the 
surface  to  the  hard  pan  and  the  average 
depth  was  only  about  sixteen  inches. 

Third.  In  many  cases  the  roots  of  the 
trees  were  down  to  the  hard  pan  and  in 
growing  could  not  penetrate,  therefore 
had  turned,  grown  laterally,  and  formed 
a  kind  of  elbow. 

Fourth.  In  irrigating,  the  water  could 
not  penetrate  the  hard  pan,  and  would 
tend  to  water-log  the  roots  of  the  trees. 

Fifth.  The  orchard  had  been  given 
clean  cultivation  to  a  depth  of  say  four 
inches,  which  would  cut  off  the  tender 
rootlets  to  that  depth,  leaving  an  area 
below  the  cultivated  area  and  above  the 
hard  pan  of  from  two  to  twenty  inches. 

Instead  of  this  being  an  exception  to 
my  rule,  it  became,  after  analysis,  one  of 
the  most  conspicuous  proofs  of  it. 

The   Symptoms  Described 

I  have  purposely  left  the  description  by 
which  rosette  is  usually  judged,  up  to  this 
point,  because  I  regard  that  what  we  gen- 


erally call  rosette,  is  merely  a  symptom, 
rather  tlian  the  disease  itself.  Three 
symptoms  may  be  described  as  follows: 

1.  The  leaves  on  one  or  more  branches 
of  the  tree  fail  to  develop  properly  and 
have  a  yellowish  appearance. 

2.  The  branch  on  which  these  leaves 
appear,  fail  to  elongate:  and  at  a  time 
of  the  year  when  it  would  normally  have 
grown  two  or  three  feet  in  length,  it  has 
only  grown  two  or  three  Inches.  This 
gives  the  leaves  a  bunched  or  rosetted  ap- 
pearance. 

3.  The  wood  of  the  previous  year's 
growth  has  failed  to  enlarge  and  has  a 
sickly  or  shriveled  appearance  as  if  it 
lacked  vigor. 

When  we  presume  that  the  rosetted 
branch  is  a  symptom  of  a  disease,  located 
on  some  other  part  of  the  organism,  we 
are  following  well  known  precedents.  For 
instance: 

Jaundice  in  the  human  body  is  mani- 
fest by  a  yellowing  of  the  skin,  but  phys- 
icians say  it  is  located  in  the  liver. 

Dropsy  is  said  to  be  an  accumulation  of 
serus  fluid  through  some  cavity  or  the 
cellular  tissues  of  the  body,  but  the  real 
disease   is  in  the  kidneys. 

A  bluish  skin  is  regarded  as  a  symptom 
of  heart  disease,  and  unusual  heat  or 
dryness  of  the  skin  as  a  symptom  of  tu- 
berculosis. 

Therefore  when  we  say  that  rosette  is 
a  symptom  of  a  disease  located  in  some 
other  part  of  the  organism,  we  follow 
laws  Ijy  which  other  diseases  are  judged. 

Another  reason  for  this  belief,  and  one 
that  appeals  to  me  with  a  good  deal  of 
force,  is  that  if  we  take  a  rosetted 
branch  and  follow  the  avenues  of  its 
food  supply  down  the  trunk  of  the  tree 
and  into  the  root,  we  will  find  that  all 
along  the  path  of  this  circulation  there 
are  the  same  symptoms  of  disease  as  on 
the  top.  The  bark  of  the  tree  is  often 
yellowish,  the  cabium  lacks  vigor  as  is 
"  manifest  at  the  top,  and  this  condition 
is  traceable  to  the  root  which  is  diseased 
or  injured,  in  much  the  same  manner  in 
which  a  physician  would  trace  a  vein  or 
an  artery  in  the  human  body.  Even  the 
most  casual  observer  has  noted  that  some- 


480 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


^^  ^^4iJ 


Fig.  1.  Rosetted  Apple  Twig  Showing  Characteristic  Bunching  of  Leaves  Due  to  the 
Failure  of  the  Terminal  to  ICIongate.  a,  Dark  spot  at  the  center  caused  by  the  brown- 
ing of  the  pith.  Sometimes  this  extends  for  some  distance  down  the  twig.  Enlarged. 
(Original) 


APPLE  DISEASES 


481 


times  the  branches  on  one  side  of  the 
tree  are  healthy,  while  on  the  other  side 
they  are  diseased.  Invariably  the  dis- 
eased branches  can  be  traced  to  diseased 
roots  on  the  same  side,  unless  the  injury 
is  above  the  ground. 

On  the  high  lands  I  sometimes  found  a 
lack  of  water.  Under  these  conditions 
rosette  could  not  have  been  caused  by 
too  much  water,  seepage,  water-logging, 
or  drowning  the  root  hairs. 

In  these  orchards  I  found  that  gen- 
erally the  rosetted  trees  had  crown  gall, 
nematode  gall,  aphis,  the  roots  had  been 


Fig.  2.  Terminal  Bud  Showing  Origin  of 
Leaves.  f.  leaf  rudiment ;  g.  rudiment  of 
axillary  bud  (x  10).  If,  as  in  the  case  of 
rosette,  this  bud  failed  to  elongate  the  leaves 
would  appear  in  a  bunch  or  "rosette"  instead 
of  being  distributed  along  the  branch  at  in- 
tervals   of   several    inches. 

From    Strasburger's    Lchrhuch    der   Botanik  : 
Encii.  Brit. 

injured  by  gophers,  farm  machinery  and 
sometimes  all  of  these  combined.  Some- 
times the  roots  were  struggling  to  get 
their  food  from  scab  land  or  hard  pan, 
and  were  stunted  or  malformed.  One- 
year-old  nursery  stock  is  sometimes  in- 
jured by  gophers  or  woolly  aphis,  and 
rosette  appears.  Again,  the  graft  some- 
times fails  properly  to  unite,  gall  forms 
at  the  union  and  rosette  appears. 

In  3Iontana 

In   Montana   in   the   Bitter  Root  valley 
is   an    orchard    to    which    M.    L.    Dean, 


State  Horticulturist,  called  my  attention. 
In  this  orchard  was  75  per  cent  of  ro- 
setted trees.  It  had  been  neglected,  iield 
mice  and  gophers  had  so  injured  the 
roots  that  many  of  the  trees  had  been 
bridge  grafted  to  keep  them  from  dying. 
In  this  case  the  dominant  cause  seemed 
to  be  injury  from  gophers  and  field  mice. 
In  other  orchards  in  the  same  valley  ro- 
sette was  evidently  caused  by  seepage 
water  from  the  mountains.  In  other 
places  it  was  evident  that  alkali  was  the 
cause. 

In  Utah 

In  Utah  I  found  peculiar  conditions. 
The  fruit-growing  sections  of  Utah  are 
mainly  in  the  interior  parts  of  the  state. 
These  interior  parts  are  surrounded  by 
mountains  and  hills  that  drain  into  lakes 
in  the  interior  basin.  This  basin  was 
once  a  lake  of  water,  several  hundred 
feet  in  depth,  and  its  outlet  was  toward 
the  Snake  river  and  from  that  into  the 
Columbia.  In  the  process  of  the  ages, 
the  waters  cut  down  to  a  rock  barrier 
and  the  lake  had  no  outlet.  Gradually 
the  waters  sank  away  into  the  earth  un- 
til a  hard  pan  was  formed  which  held 
them.  Now  these  waters  are  not  perco- 
lating through  the  soil  and  sinking  away 
to  any  considerable  degree,  but  their  only 
escape  is  by  the  process  of  evaporation. 
The  drainage  system  from  the  mountains 
pours  into  these  lakes  and  the  water 
rises  and  falls  with  the  floods  and  drouth 
or  the  melting  snows  in  the  mountains, 
and  the  degrees  of  heat  that  increase 
evaporation. 

The  soils  of  Utah  have  a  strong  ad- 
mixture of  salt,  sulphur,  alum,  alkali  and 
other  minerals.  The  Great  Salt  lake  is 
so  strong  in  these  substances  that  scarce- 
ly any  form  of  vegetable  or  animal  life 
can  exist  in  its  waters.  In  the  early 
days  farms  were  established  and  orch- 
ards planted  so  near  these  waters  that 
the  rise  and  fall  of  the  water  table  de- 
stroyed the  roots.  Then  too,  the  water 
table  is  slowly  rising,  for  the  evaporation 
from  the  lakes  is  not  equal  to  the  waters 
drained  into  them  and  the  waters  are 
slowly  encroaching  upon  farms  that  were 
once   fruitful.     Much   the   larger   part   of 


4S2 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


rosette  in  Utah  is  from  the  effects  of 
these  saline  waters.  Sometimes  it  is  found 
on  the  bench  lands  where  there  is  seep- 
age from  the  mountains.  I  found  a  few 
rosetted  trees  with  galled  roots,  gopher 
and  aphis  injuries  where  there  seemed 
to  be  no  rise  and  fall  of  the  water  table 
and  no  seepage  from  the  mountains,  but 
by  far  the  larger  part  of  damage  was 
evidently  caused  from  water. 

NeTada 

I  did  not  visit  Nevada,  but  from  in- 
formation that  is  undoubtedly  reliable, 
the  conditions  are  similar  to  those  of 
Utah.  There  the  agricultural  and  hor- 
ticultural regions  are  surrounded  by 
mountains  that  drain  into  lake  basins  like 
Pyramid  Lake,  Carson  Lake  and  Walker 
Lake,  that  have  no  outlets  and  the  water 
rises  and  falls  with  similar  results  to 
those  of  Utah. 

Grand  Junction,  Colorado 

At  Grand  Junction  rosette  is  common 
and  the  worst  rosetted  trees  are  on  the 
low  lands  where  the  water  is  heavily 
charged  with  alkali.  Their  problem  of 
drainage  will  become  serious  with  the 
irrigation  of  their  higher  lands. 

Crossing  the  Great  Divide  at  Tennessee 
Pass,  I  came  into  the  Arkansas  valley. 
In  this  valley  the  great  orchard  sections 
are  near  Canyon  City.  Here  we  found 
the  same  causes  and  the  same  ef- 
fects as  on  the  west  side  and  were  re- 
minded again  of  the  "Unity  and  Univer- 
sality of  Law,"  and  that  everywhere  sim- 
ilar causes  produce  similar  effects. 

I  have  found  rosette  on  high  lands  and 
low  lands;  on  soggy  soil  and  dry  soil;  on 
shallow  soil  and  deep  soil;  on  gravelly 
soil  and  the  finer  volcanic  ash;  at  Brem- 
erton, on  Puget  Sound,  and  in  Texas,  near 
the  Gulf;  in  Washington,  Oregon,  Cali- 
fornia, Montana,  Utah,  Colorado,  Kansas, 
and  Oklahoma.  I  have  authority  for  say- 
ing that  it  is  found  in  West  Virginia,  the 
Carolinas,  and  in  Europe.  Of  course  in 
the  humid  regions  it  grows  under  differ- 
ent conditions  and  is  not  so  prevalent. 
Some  of  the  conditions  that  produce  it 
are  not  present  in  the  soils  of  the  humid 
regions,  but  some  of  them  are.  and  the 
reason   it  has   not  been   largely  observed 


is  because  we  have  not  trained  ourselves 
to  observe  it.  In  fact,  it  existed  in  the 
orchards  of  the  Pacific  coast  states  years 
ago,  but  it  has  only  been  noted  within 
the  last  two  or  three  years. 

Rossette  Anywhere 

Anywhere  rosette  might  exist  under  the 
following  conditions,  viz.: 

1.  Where  there  is  good  soil  and  plenty 
of  plant  food,  but  where  the  organs  for 
the  assimilation  of  food  are  injured. 

2.  Where  there  is  too  much  water  and 
the  oxygen  is  excluded  from  the  roots. 

3.  Where  there  is  not  enough  water, 
and  plant  food  is  not  available. 

4.  Where  there  is  too  much  alkali,  and 
the  root  hairs  are  destroyed. 

5.  Where  there  is  hard  pan  and  as  a 
consequence  the  roots  are  malformed,  so 
that  there  is  not  a  proper  circulation,  nor 
suflBcient  plant  food  available. 

6.  Where  the  roots  are  injured  by  clean 
cultivation. 

7.  Where  gophers  or  other  rodents  in- 
jure the  roots. 

8.  Where  aphids,  eel  worms  or  other 
insects  injure  the  roots. 

9.  Where  the  trees  are  set  in  a  scab 
soil  that  contains  but  little  plant  food. 

10.  Where  land  is  puddled  by  irrigation, 
excluding  the  air  and  smothering  the 
root  hairs. 

11.  Where  the  water  contains  mineral 
elements  that  destroy  the  root  hairs. 

There  are  other  conditions  under  which 
it  might  exist,  but  to  sum  it  all  up,  the 
roots  are  the  feeding  organs  and  in  pro- 
portion as  these  organs  are  injured,  in 
that  proportion  the  supply  of  food  is  cut 
off,  and  injury  must  result  that  would 
become  manifest  in  the  top. 

I  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  claims  of 
those  who  seem  to  be  in  conflict  as  to  the 
causes,  are  all  of  them  right;  for  I  think 
I  have  verified  most  of  them.  That  is, 
they  are  right  in  what  they  affirm,  and 
are  in  danger  of  being  wrong  in  what 
they  deny. 

Tlie  Cure  of  Rosette 

The  cure  of  rosette  is  not  the  same  in 
every  case. 

While  it  is  true  that  we  must  strive  to 


APPLE  DISEASES 


483 


remove  the  cause,  and  root  Injury  is  a 
cause  without  which  I  do  not  believe 
rosette  will  exist,  yet  root  injuries  are 
not  all  from  the  same  causes,  and  the 
varied  contributory  causes  are  conditions 
which  precede  the  results  and  we  must 
strive  to  correct  them. 

For  instance,  if  there  is  a  condition 
where  the  root  hairs  are  perishing  for 
lack  of  water,  the  remedy  is  more  water. 

If  the  root  hairs  are  being  injured  by 
too  much  water,  the  remedy  is  less  water. 

If  there  is  underground  seepage,  the 
remedy  is  drainage. 

If  the  roots  are  cramped  by  a  hard 
soil,  the   remedy   is   dynamite  or  alfalfa. 

If  field  mice  or  gophers  injure  them, 
kill  the  mice  and  gophers. 

If  the  soil  lacks  humus,  manure  it. 

If  it  has  too  much  alkali,  wash  it  out, 
or  drain  the  land,  if  you  can. 

If  root  injuries  are  caused  by  aphis, 
kill  the  aphis. 

In  every  case  of  a  resetted  orchard  I 
have  observed,  where  alfalfa  or  clover 
has  been  sown,  the  conditions  have  been 
improved.  This  would  not  correct  the  in- 
jury where  the  alkali  or  other  salts  were 
strong  enough  to  kill  the  alfalfa. 

In  case  the  cause  is  crown  gall,  or  some 
other  form  of  gall,  I  have  no  knowledge 
of  a  remedy  which  I  could  recommend, 
but  think  that  alfalfa  or  dynamite  might 
open  up  the  soil  and  improve  the  con- 
ditions. I  have  strong  faith  that  alfalfa 
will  improve  the  orchard  conditions  in  the 
arid  regions. 

Opinions  from  Tarions  Sonrces 

In  1897  Cavara  caused  on  the  roots  of 
the  vine,  what  he  called  "tuberculosis  or 
gall,"  by  means  of  material  which  he  had 
shipped  from  Venice  and  from  which  he 
made  pure  cultures  and  performed  suc- 
cessful inoculations.  The  following  cita- 
tions are  from  his  article  on  the  subject: 

"The  plant  attacked  presents  the  fol- 
lowing  characteristics: 

"A  rachitic  development  of  the  leaves. 
Color  of  the  leaf  greenish  yellow."  The 
work  "ratchitic"  means  a  bunching  or 
clustering  of  the  leaves  as  in  case  of  a 
racime  or  spike. 

In  this  case  then,  we  have  a  bunching 


of  the  leaves,  a  yellowing  of  the  leaves; 
this  bunching  and  yellowing  caused  by 
gall. 

In  U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  213,  Bureau  Plant 
Industry,  it  is  stated  that  an  analysis  of 
sap  from  crown  gall  showed  that  it  con- 
tained an  amount  of  acetic  acid.  See  p. 
174,  Bull.  213. 

Professor  J.  W.  Tourney,  formerly  of 
the  Arizona  Station,  said:  "The  warty 
growth  in  crown  gall  is  due  to  a  vege- 
table organism  or  slime  mould  fungus. 
When  these  galls  grow  until  they  girdle 
the  trunk,  they  interfere  with  the  move- 
ment of  the  sap.  Affected  trees  show 
signs  of  starvation,  yellowish  foliage  and 
enfeebled  growth.  Young  trees  often  die 
of  the  disease." 

Here  Professor  Toumey  describes  some- 
thing very  similar  to  rosette,  and  affirms 
that  these  conditions  are  due  to  crown 
gall. 

The  U.  S.  Bulletins  with  those  of  Cana- 
da give  the  information  that  485  species 
of  trees,  shrubs  and  plants  have  been  ob- 
served to  have  galls,  caused  by  insects, 
rodents,  birds,  or  other  injuries,  and  give 
a  number  of  cuts  showing  the  effects  up- 
on the  leaves  or  branches,  and  the  tend- 
ency is  always  toward  a  resetted  condi- 
tion. 

The  article  on  "Galls"  in  the  new  Ency- 
clopedia Britannica  shows  that  gall  is 
found  in  Europe  on  many  of  the  forest 
trees.  I  have  found  the  same  things  In 
the  forests  of  this  country,  and  on  some 
of  the  forest  trees  in  the  orchards  of  this 
country,  and  have  often  been  able  to  dis- 
cover gall  on  the  roots  because  of  the 
rosetted  condition  of  the  top  first  at- 
tracting my  attention. 

In  North  Carolina  Bulletin  No.  206  Pro- 
fessor Smith  says:  "The  presence  of 
woolly  aphis  on  the  roots  may  often  be 
detected  from  the  outward  appearance  of 
the  trees.  If  badly  infested,  they  usually 
present  a  sickly  appearance,  indicated  by 
scant  foliage  of  a  yellowish  color,  and  a 
dwarfed  growth.  After  the  aphids  have 
been  present  for  two  or  three  years,  the 
roots  become  so  badly  weakened  that  the 
entire  tree  may  become  loosened  or 
pushed  over.    Similar  to  all  plant  lice,  the 


484 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


aphids  subsist  on  the  plant  juices,  feeding 
by  means  of  feeding  or  sucking  beaks. 
Wherever  they  feed,  galls  of  greater  or 
lesser  size  are  produced." 

In  this  bulletin  then  we  have  it  taught 
that  aphis  produces  gall  and  that  gall 
produces  on  the  top  a  condition  similar 
to  what  we  call  rosette. 

Professor  Ralph  E.  Smith,  of  the  Cali- 
fornia University,  says:  "Rosette  may  be 
classed  with  'Die  Back,'  'Little  Leaf,"  and 
'Club  Tip.'  "  "The  symptoms  are  a  stunted, 
weak  growth  of  the  shoots."  "Such  ef- 
fects are  produced  most  commonly  per- 
haps, by  a  long  continued  dry  season  in 
the  fall,  causing  the  trees  to  become  speci- 
ally dormant,  followed  by  warm  spring- 
like weather  during  the  winter,  soon  after 
the  first  rains."  "But  apple  rosette  may 
be  caused  by  unfavorable  soil  conditions, 
or  unfavorable  climatic  conditions  which 
check  the  growth  of  the  terminal  buds." 

California  Bulletin  No.  218  says:  The 
disease  called  in  California  "Club  Tip" 
seems  to  us  the  same  as  that  which  in 
Washington  and  Oregon  is  generally 
known  as  "Apple  Rosette." 

Professor  Wickson,  of  the  University  of 
California,  says:  "Lack  of  proper  mois- 
ture may  cause  the  root  hairs  to  perish, 
as  well  as  too  much  moisture,  alkali  or 
other  causes.  These  conditions  are  mani- 
fest in  'Die  Back,"  'Yellow  Leaf,'  and 
other  forms  of  ailment  on  the  tips  of 
the  branches." 

Professor  A.  D.  Selby,  of  the  Ohio  Agri- 
cultural College,  says:  "Peach  Yellows 
and  Peach  Rosette  are  similar  diseases. 
If  not  identical  in  origin.  They  are 
caused  by  an  enzymatic  ferment  which 
causes  a  physical  breakdown  of  sap 
cells  and  chlorosis,  or  yellowing  of  the 
leaves."     See  Ohio  Bulletin  214. 

Henry  Marshall  Ward,  Professor  of 
Botany,  Cambridge,  England,  says:  "All 
important  results  of  bacteria  are  due  to 
poisonous  bodies  or  toxins  formed  by 
them.  Bacterial  infection  is  in  the  na- 
ture of  an  intoxication.  They,  however, 
multiply  living  organisms  in  the  tissues 
which  fact  regulates  the  supply  of  toxins. 

"The  effects  produced  are  as  follows: 


"1.  Tissue  changes  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
bacteria. 

"2.  Tissue  changes  produced  at  a  dis- 
tance by  the  absorption  of  their  toxins. 

"3.  Degeneration  and  death  of  the  cells." 

M.  L.  Dean,  State  Horticulturist, 
of  Montana,  says:  "Rosette  is  an 
anemic  condition  of  the  tree  similar  in 
nature  to  anemia  in  the  human  organism. 
When  there  is  a  lack  of  vital  force  on 
account  of  lack  of  food,  or  lack  of  assimi- 
lation of  food,  this  disease  may  appear." 

Professor  W.  S.  Thornber,  formerly  of 
Washington  State  College,  said:  "We 
have  learned  that  by  cutting  off  the  sur- 
face roots  of  young  growing  trees,  as  is 
done  by  the  cultivator  on  soil  underlaid 
with  hard  pan,  we  produce  a  yellow, 
starved  growth,  known  as  winter  desicca- 
tion or  fruit  tree  rosette." 

T.  O.  Morrison,  Washington  State 
Horticulturist  said:  "I  do  not  be- 
lieve rosette  is  a  disease,  because  I 
have  been  unable  to  grow  a  culture  of  it 
in  potato  agar.  It  is  a  condition,  not  a 
disease.  I  believe  that  a  very  unbal- 
anced condition  between  the  roots  and 
the  top  will  produce  it.  In  many  cases, 
I  believe,  it  has  been  caused  from  girdling 
the  roots  by  gophers,  or  root  pruning  to 
produce  fruitfulness,  clean  cultivation,  or 
lack  of  available  nitrogen." 

Clarence  Starcher,  former  fruit  inspec- 
tor, said:  "In  my  opinion,  the  cause  is 
lack  of  nutrition,  or  an  unbalanced  soil 
condition.  This  may  result  from  lack  of 
proper  drainage,  too  heavy  manuring  of 
shallow  soils,  or  a  combination  of  too 
heavy  manuring  and  lack  of  drainage." 

Dr.  P.  W.  Cornue,  fruit  grower,  said: 
"I  would  call  it  a  disease  of  malnutrition. 
It  may  be  lack  of  an  available  balance 
ration  as  in  drought,  where  the  food  is 
not  in  solution;  or  mechanical  injuries  to 
roots  or  limbs,  including  winter  injury; 
or  constriction  as  from  galls;  or  an  un- 
balanced ration  as  an  excess  of  some  ele- 
ments and  a  deficiency  of  others,  as  too 
much  alkali,  too  much  horse  or  hen 
manure." 

Dr.  P.  F.  Gray  said:  "Apple  rosette  Is 
caused  by  lack  of  air,  which  causes  nod- 
ules to   form   on   the   roots   and   prevents 


APPLE  DISEASES 


485 


the  circulation  of  sap  and  tlie  food  sub- 
stances. This  lack  of  circulation  and  lack 
of  air,  is  caused  by  the  packing  or  run- 
ning together  of  the  soil  particles  in  irri- 
gation, forming  a  tough,  waxy  substance 
through  which  water  does  not  penetrate, 
nor  the  air  circulate." 

Some  of  the  letters  and  bulletins  from 
which  these  extracts  were  taken  are  near- 
ly two  years  old,  and  may  not  fully  rep- 
resent the  views  of  the  writers  and  auth- 
ors at  the  present  time,  but  I  have  seen 
nothing  from  their  pens  to  the  contrary, 
and  believing  that  they  express  truth,  I 
have  quoted  from  them  in  support  of  my 
own  views. 

"Rosette  occurs  in  the  pecan  and  the 
following  note  as  to  its  cause  and  distri- 
bution from  M.  B.  Waite,  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  is  appended. 

"The  pecan  rosette  occurs  in  humid  re- 
gions. I  have  seen  it  most  abundantly  in 
South  Carolina,  Florida  and  Alabama.  I 
am  under  the  impression  also  that  it  oc- 
curs in  Texas,  but  have  not  any  definite 
reports  by  which  I  can  give  you  its  dis- 
tribution in  that  state  positively.  The 
points  in  which  I  have  observed  it  in 
South  Carolina,  Florida,  Georgia  and  Ala- 
bama are  not  only  in  the  humid  Eastern 
states,  but  in  distinctly  moist  sections 
near  the  Atlantic  seaboard  and  the  Gulf 
coast.  The  pecan  grows  with  great  lux- 
uriance in  the  bottom  lands  along  the 
Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  in  Louis- 
iana, but  I  do  not  recall  having  seen  the 
rosette  on  these  bottom  land  trees.  I 
have  not,  however,  personally  hunted  for 
the  disease  in  this  section. 

"Doubtless  you  know  that  the  pecan 
rosette  is  a  little  known  disease.  It  is 
under  investigation  by  the  Department 
and  is  supposed  to  be  a  physiological 
trouble  induced  by  soil  conditions.  We 
are  not  prepared,  however,  to  say  just 
what  these  conditions  are. 

"Now,  as  to  the  apple  rosette,  it  does 
occur  rarely  in  the  Eastern  states.  It 
has  occurred  at  Winchester,  Va.,  during 
the  years  1911  and  1912,  on  a  few  trees  of 
York  Imperial  in  a  young  apple  orchard 
five  or  six  years  old  and  just  beginning  to 
bear  some   fruit.     It   was   also   found   in 


1911  in  Loudoun  county,  Va.,  east  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  and  some  30  miles  distant 
from  Winchester.  It  is  a  notable  fact, 
however,  that  this  rosette  should  appear 
after  two  or  three  very  dry  seasons.  In 
the  district  named,  the  latter  part  of  the 
season  of  1909  and  the  seasons  of  1910  and 
1911  were  notably  dry,  particularly  the 
summers.  Springs  and  wells,  as  well  as 
streams,  were  lower  than  they  had  been 
for  many  years.  Fairly  good  crops  were 
produced,  except  the  hay  crop  of  1911,  due 
to  drought  in  June,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
about  the  general  deficiency  of  subsoil 
moisture  during  this  period. 

"It  should  be  stated  that  apple  rosette 
is  so  rare  in  the  East  as  to  be  only  of 
scientific  interest.  It  is  not  abundant 
enough  to  be  of  any  serious  economic  im- 
portance east  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas. 
From  those  states  westward  it  is  one  of 
the  most  important  orchard  diseases.  The 
disease  called  Chlorosis,  which  we  have 
considered  to  be  somewhat  related  to  ro- 
sette and  which  intergrades  with  it  in  the 
West,  behaves  in  the  same  way.  This 
physiological  trouble  is  an  important  dis- 
ease from  the  Missouri  river  westward, 
but  is  rather  scarce  all  over  the  humid 
states.  It  occurs,  however,  much  more 
frequently  than  the  rosette,  and  I  have 
observed  it  in  several  states,  notably  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  West  Vir- 
ginia and  Virginia." 

Geanville  Lowther 

Rust 

Oymnosporangium   spp. 

Apple  rust  is  a  widely  distributed  dis- 
ease, and  in  some  sections  is  quite  in- 
jurious. It  is  of  common  occurrence  in 
Eastern  states  and,  while  not  one  of  the 
most  serious  apple  troubles,  it  often  does 
considerable  damage.  It  sometimes  at- 
tacks the  fruit,  but  its  effects  are  usually 
confined  to  the  foliage.  Here  it  causes 
yellowish  spots  which  usually  become 
somewhat  elevated  in  the  center  and  in 
which  are  produced  numerous  spores.  The 
spots  usually  appear  on  the  leaves  in 
June.  The  spores  from  these  spots  are 
borne  by  the  wind  and  attack  the  twigs 
of  Junipers,  causing  morbid  growths  or 
swellings.    One  of  the  most  characteristic 


486 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.   1.     Rust  on   Apple  Foliase  and  Cedar  Ap- 
ple.'    (New   Hampshire  Experiment  Station.) 

effects  produced  is  the  so-called  "cedar 
apples."  The  fungus  passes  the  winter  on 
the  Juniper  and  in  the  spring  produces 
gelatinous  outgrowths  that  contain  numer- 
ous spores.  These  spores,  when  borne 
hack  to  the  apple  foliage,  produce  the  rust 
again,  and  thus  the  fungus  passes  from 
one  host  back  to  the  other. 

Treatment 

Spraying  has  not  usually  been  very 
effective  in  controlling  the  disease.  Since 
the  Junipers  harbor  the  fungus  through 
the  winter  the  method  of  control  is,  obvi- 
ously, to  destroy  them. 

Charles   Brooks 

The   Pacific    Coast    Cedar   Rust   of    the 

Apple,  Pear,  Quince  and  Related 

Pome  Fruits 

Oymnosporangium  hlasdaleanum 
For  several  years  the  writer  has  been 
studying  a  rust  on  several  cultivated  and 
native  species  of  the  pome  family.  In 
1908  the  fruiting  stage  of  this  rust  was 
found  on  the  serviceberry,  and  on  the 
thorn  apple  or  haw.  Later  the  same  spe- 
cies was  found  on  the  apple,  pear,  quince 


and  the  native  pome  fruits  as  noted  be- 
low. 

The  final  stage  of  this  rust  is  found  on 
the  incense  cedar. 

During  the  past  six  years  the  writer 
has  paid  particular  attention  to  this  rust, 
for  the  reason  that  it  is  of  considerable 
economic  importance.  While  it  occurs 
rather  sparingly  on  all  varieties  of  apples 
so  far  observed,  it  has  been  found  to  at- 
tack certain  varieties  of  pears  very  seri- 
ously. The  quince  is  also  subject  to  con- 
siderable injury  by  this  rust. 

In  1910  and  again  in  1912  serious  in- 
fections of  this  rust  were  noted  in  some 
orchards  in  the  Rogue  River  valley.  In 
1912  the  writer's  attention  was  called  to 
a  very  serious  infection  in  a  small  block 
of  pears  of  the  Winter  Nelis  variety 
which  practically  destroyed  95  per  cent  of 
the  crop.  The  fruit  was  badly  deformed 
and  fully  50  per  cent  of  the  leaves  were 
found  infected.  The  attention  of  the 
writer  was  called  to  this  orchard  by  P.  E. 
Zepp,  who  brought  specimens  to  the  labo- 
ratory and  who,  under  date  of  June  20, 
1912,  wrote  the  following  in  answer  to  an 
inquiry  made  by  the  writer: 

"A  block  of  150  pear  trees  (mostly  Win- 
ter Nelis)  on  the  west  side  of  the  orchard 
was  so  badly  diseased  that  the  entire 
crop  was  lost.  The  fruits  were  covered 
with  yellow  spots  and  were  all  twisted 
out  of  shape.  Later,  these  fruits  dropped 
off.  The  foliage  was  also  badly  injured 
and  it  was  hard  to  find  a  leaf  that  was 
not  attacked.  There  were  other  varieties 
in  the  orchard  that  also  had  rust  on  them. 
Even  Kieffer  pears  were  attacked,  but  the 
Winter    Nelis   was   most    hurt." 

All  varieties  of  pears  are  not  equally 
susceptible,  but  both  European  and  Ori- 
ental varieties  were  found  affected.  Ori- 
ental hybrids,  such  as  the  Kieffer,  showed 
infection  in  a  more  or  less  serious  degree. 
The  incense  cedar,  which  bears  the  resting 
stage,  is  very  common  in  Southern  Ore- 
gon, being  found  on  the  floor  of  the  Rogue 
River  valley  and  on  the  dry  hillsides.  The 
rust  was  not  noted  as  affecting  the  cul- 
tivated pome  fruits  until  the  orchards 
were    pushed    into    the    foothills    in    the 


APPLE  DISEASES 


487 


vicinity  of  stands  of  infected  cedars  and 
native  pome  fruits. 

The  examination  of  the  orchard  men- 
tioned by  Mr.  Zepp  in  his  letter  as  quoted 
revealed  a  very  interesting  situation.  Not 
over  100  feet  from  the  nearest  pear  tree 
stand  half  a  dozen  incense  cedar  trees  of 
various  ages,  from  those  but  a  few  years 
old  to  those  probably  50  years  old  or 
more.  A  careful  examination  of  these 
trees  showed  that  practically  the  entire 
foliage  was  covered  with  the  telial  stage. 
The  readiness  with  which  the  nearby  cul- 
tivated pome  fruits,  as  well  as  the  cedars, 
were  infected  might  easily  be  understood, 
since  the  heavy  wind  currents,  moving 
up  and  down  the  small  canyon  in  which 
the  trees  are  growing,  easily  carried  the 
spores. 

During  the  course  of  the  writer's 
studies  inoculation  experiments  were 
taken  up  and  it  was  shown  that  practical- 
ly all  pome  fruits  could  be  infected  by 
this  rust. 

Hosts 

The  hosts  upon  which  the  fruiting  stage 
of  this  rust  have  been  produced  by  inocu- 
lation from  the  incense  cedar,  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

Apple,    flowering   crab,   pear,   mountain 

ash.    native    crab    apple,    quince,    Japan 

quince,  serviceberry,  thorn  apple  or  haw. 

P.  J.  O'Gara 

Scab 

Venturia  pomi 

H.  S.  Jackson 

Apple  scab  is  the  most  serious  and  most 
generally  distributed  fungous  disease  of 
the  apple  known,  and  in  the  Northwest 
during  favorable  seasons,  west  of  the  Cas- 
cade mountains,  is  particularly  severe. 

Symptoms 

Apple  scab  attacks  both  foliage  and 
fruit.  On  the  foliage  the  spots  are  at  first 
more  or  less  circular  in  outline,  olive 
green  or  brown  in  color,  becoming  darker 
and  more  irregular  in  shape  as  they  be- 
come mature.  The  leaves  are  frequently 
more  or  less  curled  or  wrinkled.  When 
the  spots  are  abundant,  the  leaves  fall 
prematurely  and  considerable  defoliation 
may  thus  take  place  when  infestation  is 


abundant.  This  may  result  in  a  failure 
of  the  fruit  buds  to  develop  normally  and 
so  affect  the  amount  of  the  crop  the  fol- 
lowing year. 

On  the  fruit  the  fungus  produces  more 
or  less  circular  spots  of  a  greenish-black 
color.  The  vegetative  stage  of  the  fungus 
causing  the  disease  develops  under  the 
cuticle  of  the  apple  fruit,  finally  ruptur- 
ing it  by  the  elongation  of  the  threads 
which  bear  the  spores.  The  ruptured 
cuticle  may  frequently  be  seen  clinging  as 
whitish  membranous  shreds  about  the 
edge  of  recently  developed  spots.  As  the 
spots  become  older,  all  trace  of  the  fungus 
may  become  obliterated  and  the  only  evi- 
dence of  the  former  spot  is  seen  in  a  large 
or  small,  rough,  russeted  spot.  Fre- 
quently the  fruit  is  distorted  when  mature 
as  the  result  of  early  scab  infections. 
Where  scab  spots  are  abundant  the  fruit 
may  become  cracked.  Scab  in  an.v  degree 
of  severity  on  the  fruit  renders  it  un- 
sightly and  unmarketable  as  fancy  fruit. 

In  the  spring  of  1912  at  Corvallis,  apple 
scab  was  observed  to  develop  abundantly 
while  the  trees  were  in  blossom  on  the 
sepals,  petals  and  ovaries,  as  shown  in 
Fig:    1. 

Cause 

As  noted  above,  apple  scab  is  caused  by 
a  parasitic  fungus.  The  technical  name 
of  this  fungus  is  Venturia  pomi.  Two 
distinct  phases  are  known,  the  conidial  or 
summer  spore  stage  and  the  sexual  or 
ascus  spore  stage.  The  summer  spore 
stage  develops  on  both  foliage  and  fruit 


Fig.  1. 


Apple   Scab   on    Blossoms.      Note  spots 
on  petals,  sepals  and  ovaries. 


488 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICILTURE 


in  spring  and  summer  and  causes  the 
spots  described  above.  The  spores  of  the 
fungus  are  produced  in  the  spots  on  leaves 
or  fruit  in  great  abundance,  and  are  dis- 
seminated by  the  wind,  spreading  the  dis- 
ease to  other  leaves  and  fruit.  One  finds 
the  scab  spots  first  appearing  in  the  spring 
on  the  under  side  of  leaves  on  the  lower 
branches.  Spores  produced  in  these  spots 
are  disseminated  to  other  leaves  and  to 
the  developing  fruits.  Several  genera- 
tions may  thus  occur  during  a  single 
season. 

The  mycelium  of  the  fungus  present  on 
the  leaves  which  tall  to  the  ground  in 
the  autumn  does  not  die,  but  develops 
in  these  leaves  during  the  winter  as  a 
saprophyte,  and  in  the  spring  produces 
spores  quite  different  both  in  manner  of 
formation  and  in  the  shape  and  size  from 
those  borne  in  the  spots  on  living  leaves 
and  fruit.  The  spores  found  in  the  spots 
on  leaves  and  fruit  are  one-celled,  rarely 
two-celled,  and  are  borne  on  the  ends  of 
short  threads,  while  the  spores  developed 
on  the  dead  leaves  in  spring  are  always 
distinctly  two-celled  and  are  borne  in  lit- 
tle cylindrical  sacs  called  asci.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  these  sacs  are  borne 
in  a  hollow,  more  or  less  pear-shaped  re- 
ceptacle buried  in  the  tissues  of  the  leaf. 
These  receptacles  containing  the  asci  are 
known  as  perithecia,  and  when  mature 
project  as  little  black  elevations  from  the 
surface  of  the  leaf.  These  are  barely 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.  At  maturity  an 
opening  appears  in  the  projecting  eleva- 
tions. The  asci  elongate  and  protrude 
through  this  opening  and  forcibly  eject 
the  spores,  which,  wafted  by  currents  of 
air,  may  be  carried  to  the  young  leaves 
of  the  apple,  where  they  germinate  and 
produce  the  first  scab  spots.  The  sexual 
spores  are  disseminated  about  the  time 
the  blossoms  open.  So  far  as  is  known, 
all  primary  Infection  of  the  leaves  and 
fruit  in  the  spring  takes  place  as  a  con- 
sequence of  disseminations  of  the  sexual 
spores.  Subsequent  infections  result  from 
the  dissemination  of  the  conidial  or  sum- 
mer spores. 

The  development  of  the  scab  fungus  is 
found    to    be    very    much    influenced    by 


weather  conditions.  Moisture  on  the  sur- 
face of  leaves  and  fruit  is  essential  to  the 
germination  of  the  spores  and  the  conse- 
quent infection  of  the  plant.  On  this  ac- 
count scab  is  found  to  spread  most  rapidly 
in  the  spring,  early  summer  and  late  fall. 
The  disease  spreads  little,  if  any,  during 
the  summer  in  dry  seasons.    In  seasons  of 


Fig.  2.     Scab  on  Apple  Leaf.     New  Hampshire 
Experiment   Station. 

frequent  summer  rains,  as  in  1912,  scab 
may  spread  all  summer,  if  the  trees  are 
not  properly  protected  by  spraying. 

Apple  scab  is  not  uncommonly  found  de- 
veloping in  storage.  If  fruit  infested  with 
scab  is  stored  the  fungus  may  continue 
to  develop  around  the  edges  of  the  old 
spots.  New  spots  due  to  infection  in  stor- 
age may  also  occur.  It  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  small  black  spots  of  apple  scab  de- 
veloped on  apples  in  storage,  particularly 
in  the  hollow  about  the  stem.  This  may 
occur  on  fruit  that  was  perfect  when 
stored. 

Treatment 

As  with  all  fungi  of  this  nature,  treat- 
ment must  be  preventive  rather  than  cura- 
tive.   The  method  of  treatment  is  depend- 


"Apple  Scab.  1,  Mcintosh  apple  with  scab  spots;  2,  Fruit  cut  open 
to  show  depth  of  penetration  ;  3,  Leaf  with  many  young  spots;  4.  Leaf 
with  older  spots  ;  5,  Spots  on  twig,  winter  condition  ;  6,  Spots  on  twig, 
slightly  magnified."— Bi'  permission  mohtana  Experiment  Sta. 


APPLE  DISEASES 


489 


ent  on  the  life  history  of  the  fungus 
causing  the  disease.  Since  the  fungus 
winters  over  on  the  fallen  leaves,  it  would 
be  advisable  to  destroy  all  such  leaves 
before  blossoming  time.  The  usual  recom- 
mendation is  to  plow  the  orchards  early 
in  the  spring  before  the  trees  blossom,  in 
order  to  bury  the  leaves  in  which  the 
ascogenous  spore  stage  is  developed.  The- 
oretically, the  best  way  to  destroy  the 
leaves  would  be  to  rake  and  burn  them 
before  plowing,  but  pathologists  have  hesi- 
tated to  make  this  recommendation  on  the 
grounds  of  impracticability. 

In  any  case,  the  trees  should  be  given 
at  least  three  sprayings  during  the  spring. 
The  first  application  should  be  made  as 
the  blossom  buds  begin  to  separate  in  the 
cluster  and  show  color;  the  second  should 
be  applied  just  after  the  petals  fall,  fol- 
lowed by  a  third  application  10  days  or 
two  weeks  later.  Should  the  third  appli- 
cation be  followed  by  prolonged  rains,  a 
fourth  may  be  found  profitable. 

Formerly  Bordeaux  mixture  was  used 
almost  entirely  as  a  preventive  of  scab, 
but  in  certain  sections  of  this  country, 
notably  under  the  climatic  conditions 
prevalent  in  the  Northwest,  the  injury 
from  russeting  has  been  so  severe  as  to 
make  its  use  prohibitive.  On  this  ac- 
count lime-sulphur  has  largely  supplanted 
Bordeaux  as  a  remedy  for  this  disease. 

In  the  Willamette  valley  repeated  ex- 
periments conducted  under  the  direction 
of  Prof.  A.  B.  Cordley  have  shown  that 
lime-sulphur  (stock  solution  30  degrees 
Barme)  diluted  one  to  30  with  water, 
app 'ed  in  three  sprayings  as  recom- 
mei.'i->(i  above,  has  given  excellent  results 
in  V\-  control  of  apple  scab.  This  method 
is  ni.-\  nsed  by  most  growers  in  the  Will- 
amette    alley. 

The  fall  applications  of  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture recommended  for  the  control  of  the 
apple  tree  anthracnose,  will  doubtless 
have  a  tendency  to  reduce  the  spread  of 
the  apple  scab  in  the  fall  and  may  prove 
to  have  a  beneficial  effect  in  retarding 
the  development  of  the  ascogenous  stage 
in  the  leaves  which  fall  to  the  ground 
coated  with  the  spray. 


liiblio^^^a])lly 
1S91.     Ohio  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin 

Vol.  IV.,  No.  9. 
1897.     Ohio  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin 

No.  79. 
1899.     Ohio  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin 

No.  111. 

1909.  Duggar,  Fungus  Diseases  of  Plants. 

1910.  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin 
No.  214. 

1912.     Montana  Experiment  Station,  Cir- 
cular  No.    17. 

Scurf 

Phyllosticta  prunicola  Sacc. 

The  branch  scurf  fungus  is  believed  to 

occur   in   Ohio.     This   causes   roughening 

of  the  bark,  but  no  statements  can  now 

be  made  as  to  its  possible  seriousness. 

A.  D.   Selbt 

Shot-hole  Fungus.     See  Leaf  Spot. 

Silver  Leaf 

Stereum  purpureum,  Pers. 

Attacks  a  variety  of  plants  in  Europe 
and  reported  in  1910  from  Nova  Scotia. 
Trees  affected  may  be  cherry,  plum,  al- 
mond, apple  or  pear.  The  leaves  have  a 
peculiar  silvery  appearance  or  milky- 
white  gloss  on  the  upper  surface  which 
appears  brittle  when  bent.  Branches 
attacked  die  after  one  or  two  years.  The 
whole  tree  eventually  succumbs. 

Remedy 

Cut  off  affected  branches  as  fast  as  they 
appear  and  burn.  Paint  all  wounds  with 
white  lead. 

Soft  Rot  (Sclerotinia  fructigina).  See 
Brown  Rot. 

Sooty  Blotch  and  Fly  Speck 

Leptotherium  Pomi    (Mont.  &  Fr.)    Sacc. 

The  sooty  blotch  and  the  fly  speck  of 
the  apple  were  formerly  thought  to  be 
caused  by  two  different  fungi,  but  a  re- 
cent writer*  claims  that  one  fungus  is 
responsible  for  the  two  diseases.  The 
names  given  to  these  two  effects  charac- 
terize their  appearance.  The  former  pro- 
duces blotches  one-eighth  to  one-half  inch 
in  diameter  on  the  fruit  (Fig.  1)  and  the 


•  B.   F.   Floyd  in  Dueear's   Fundus  Diseases  of 
Plants. 


490 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.   1.      Sooty  Blotch  of  Apple. 

latter  numerous  minute  specks.  They 
give  the  apple  a  sooty  appearance  that 
depreciates  the  market  value.  The  fungus 
growth  is  entirely  on  the  surface  ot  the 
fruit,  and  hence  the  disease  is  especially 
dependent  upon  the  moist  weather  for 
development. 

Treatment 
The  disease  is  readily  controlled  by 
spraying.  Thorough  pruning  is  impor- 
tant, and  if  light  and  air  have  free  access 
to  the  fruit  the  disease  usually  gives 
little  trouble. 


Fig.    2.      Sooty    Blotch   and    Fly    Speck    Fungus. 

Sooty  Mould 

Capnoditim  sp. 

Black  sooty  fungus  sometimes  found 
growing  upon  branches  and  twigs.  Fre- 
quently caused  by  the  deposits  of  "honey 
dew"  from  aphids,  which  is  a  favorable 
medium  for  the  growth  of  the  fungus. 
Not  serious. 

Spray  Injnry 

Injury  from  Bordeaux  mixture  is  of 
quite  common  occurrence.     On  the  leaves 


it  appears  first  as  purplish  brown  spots 
of  various  shapes  and  sizes.  They  are 
usually  smaller,  irregular  in  shape  and 
thickly  distributed  on  the  affected  foliage. 
Soon  after  the  appearance  of  these  spots 
the  leaves  may  begin  to  turn  yellow. 
Leaves  so  affected  soon  fall,  and  in  serious 
cases  the  trees  may  be  almost  entirely 
defoliated.  Such  extreme  cases,  how- 
ever, have  been  very  rare. 

On  the  fruit  the  injury  appears  first 
as  small,  black  or  brown  specks  scat- 
tered thickly  over  the  apple.  Later  in 
the  season  the  skin  may  become  corky 
and  russeted.  In  serious  cases  the  ap- 
ple may  be  much  roughened  and  deform- 
ed, and  large,  deeply-sunken  scars  de- 
velop. The  slightly  affected  fruit  may 
almost  entirely  outgrow  its  injuries  by 
picking  time,  but  when  the  injury  is  very 
great  the  fruit  may  drop  before  maturity, 
and  in  any  case  is  of  little  commercial 
value. 

The  most  serious  injuries  have  been  ob- 
tained from  the  early  sprayings.  This 
may  be  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  show- 
ers are  common  at  that  time  of  year.  It 
is  a  well-known  fact  that  when  an  ap- 
plication of  Bordeaux  is  followed  by  rain 
within  the  next  few  days  it  is  likely  to 
produce  injury.  Records  from  a  large 
number  ot  cases  of  Bordeaux  injury  would 
indicate  that  damage  seldom,  if  ever,  oc- 
curs in  properly  sprayed  orchards  except 
under  the  above  mentioned  conditions. 

The  injury  done  by  Bordeaux  has  not 
been  great  enough  to  offset  the  good  ac- 
complished, and  various  commercial  grow- 
ers have  annually  obtained  large  profits 
from  its  use,  yet  the  condition  has  been 
serious  enough  to  make  strong  demands 
for  a  solution  of  the  difficulties.  The  mat- 
ter has  been  taken  up  at  various  experi- 
ment stations.  Including  those  of  New 
York,'  Illinois'  and  New  Hampshire,  but 
a  complete  solution  of  the  problem  has 
not  been  found. 

Much  trouble  may  arise  from  the  use 
of  improper  mixtures  and  from  unsatis- 


'  ITedi-ick.  N.  P.  Bordeaux  Injury.  N.  T. 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  287. 
1907. 

'  Crandall.  C.  R.  Bordeaux  Mixture.  Il- 
linois Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulle- 
tin  135.      1909. 


APPLE  DISEASES 


491 


factory  methods  of  application.  Only  good 
material  should  be  used,  and  the  follow- 
ing of  the  directions  for  making  the  solu- 
tion is  important.  The  foliage  must  be 
thoroughly  covered,  but  dripping  from 
the  leaves  indicates  an  excessive  or  care- 
less application.  The  nozzles  should  be  of 
a  kind  adapted  to  give  a  very  fine  spray. 
Nozzles  that  give  good  results  with  insect- 
icides may  be  entirely  unsuited  for  Bor- 
deaux. The  Mistry  and  Friend's  nozzles 
have  given  good  results.  The  liquid 
should  be  applied  to  the  tree  as  a  fine 
mist  and  never  allowed  to  sprinkle  or 
drip  from  the  nozzles.  Mistakes  are  of- 
ten made  by  trying  to  spray  with  insuf- 


Fis.    1.      .\pple   Russeted   by   Bordeaux 

— Charles   Brooks 

ficient  power.  A  pressure  of  70  pounds 
is  essential,  and  one  of  100  pounds  or 
over  is  very  desirable* 

In  looking  for  a  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem various  kinds  and  strengths  of  Bor- 
deaux have  been  tested.  While  weaker 
solutions  may  produce  less  injury,  they 
do  not  obviate  the  trouble.  The  use  of 
an  excess  of  lime  has  had  little  or  no  ef- 
fect upon  the  amount  of  injury.  The 
3-3-50  formula  seems  to  produce  as  lit- 
tle injury  as  any,  and  is  most  satisfac- 
tory for  the  majority  of  apple  diseases. 
The  patent  Bordeauxs  which  are  on  the 


•  (In    the    Northwest    200    lbs.    pressure 
a    common    practice. — Ed.) 


market  have  not  been  shown  to  be  any 
less  liable  to  produce  injury  than  the 
home-made  mixtures,  and  many  of  them 
have  proven  quite  inefficient  in  control- 
ling diseases. 

During  recent  years  lime-sulphur  solu- 
tions have  been  rapidly  gaining  favor 
as  fungicides.  They  seem  to  be  almost 
as  effective  as  Bordeaux  in  controlling 
diseases  and  to  be  less  likely  to  cause 
injury.  In  the  summer  of  1909  commer- 
cial, home-made  and  self-boiled  lime-sul- 
phur were  used  alongside  patent  and 
home-made  Bordeaux.  None  of  the  sul- 
phur mixtures  caused  injury,  while  none 
of  the  Bordeauxs  failed  to  do  so.  Re- 
cent experiments  in  other  states  have 
shown  that  when  sprayings  are  followed 
by  excessively  hot  dry  weather  the  lime- 
sulphur  is  more  likely  to  cause  injury 
than  Bordeaux.  Probably  the  strongest 
argument  against  the  use  of  lime-sul- 
phur in  New  England  is  that  it  is  very 
soluble  in  water  and  in  rainy  seasons 
more  frequent  applications  are  likely  to 
be  required  to  secure  the  same  efficiency 
as   obtained   with  Bordeaux. 

Charles  Brooks 

New  Hampshire  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 
157. 

Stag  Horn 

Very  frequently  apple  trees  are  seen 
with  the  topmost  branches  dead  and  re- 
maining as  dry  sticks  like  antlers  pro- 
jecting above  the  foliage.  This  condition 
may  be  due  to  various  unfavorable  con- 
ditions, but  in  New  England  it  is  chiefly 
encountered  with  old  trees  which  have 
long  remained  unsprayed.  unpruned,  un- 
cultivated and  unfertilized.  This  allows 
opportunity  for  wood  destroying  fungi  to 
gain  an  entrance.  Once  started  their 
growth  will  eventually  destroy  the  whole 
tree.  Severe  heading  back  and  clearing 
out  of  the  dead  and  fungus  infested  wood 
followed  by  cultivation  and  fertilization 
should  be  resorted  to.  In  some  instances 
it  may  be  necessary  to  top-graft  to  rene-v 
the  head  of  the  tree.  The  full  results  of 
such  treatment  do  not  show  the  first 
year.  Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
leave  wounds  through  which  the  spores 
of  fungi  can  gain  an  entrance  to  cause 
future  decay.  W.  J.  Morse 


492 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Stigmonose 

This  trouble,  occurring  upon  apples  and 
pears.  Is  caused  by  Insect  punctures.  The 
surface  of  the  fruit  shows  sharp  depres- 
sions. Cut  through  the  point  of  one  of 
these  pits,  the  tissue  of  the  flesh  shows 
brown  and  dry  following  the  track  of  the 
puncture. 

Not  serious  In  the  Northwest. 

Storage  Rots 

These  rots  of  the  apple  are  extremely 
various,  since  apples  Infected  before  stor- 
age are  liable  to  develop  during  storage 
the  forms  of  rot  due  to  that  infection. 
Even  bitter  rot  may  not  be  overlooked  in 
this  way  and  much  more  commonly  still, 
black  rot  and  the  rots  which  develop 
from  the  gradual  invasion  of  molds.  It 
is  found,  furthermore,  that  bruises  upon 
the  apple  or  any  tendency  to  sun  scald 
phenomena  give  dead  tissues  in  which 
various  saprophytic  organisms  that  nor- 
mally hasten  decay  will  do  their  work 
with  rapidity.  It  is  understood,  of  course, 
that  the  temperatures  of  storage  will  reg- 
ulate or  control  more  or  less  perfectly 
the  rate  of  this  development.  Storage 
scalding  of  apples  is  much  worse  in  some 
varieties,  notably  in  York  Imperial,  than 
In  the  normal  toughened  skin  types.  At 
present,  one  can  only  suggest  the  rejec- 
tion of  those  sorts  susceptible  to  scald 
for  cold  storage  keeping. 

Sun  Scald,  Collar  Rot 

There  is  frequent  complaint  of  the 
dying  of  the  trunk  of  both  younger  and 
older  apple  trees  wherein  there  appears  to 
be  associated  the  exposure  to  sun  and 
the  death  of  the  bark  of  the  trunk  upon 
younger  orchard  trees.  The  freezing  in- 
jury has  been  carefully  worked  out  in  re- 
cent years  with  several  varieties  of 
apples,  notably  the  Grimes  and  King.  This 
trouble  is  so  serious  as  to  reduce  the 
growth  of  these  sorts;  while  Murrill  has 
suggested  a  connection  between  a  fleshy 
fungus  and  this  dying  of  the  trunks  of 
the  King,  the  connection  has  not  been 
proved.  The  injuries  which  occur  on  the 
south  and  southwest  exposures  of  the 
trunk  have  probably  a  direct  connection 
with   the   danger   from   freezing   injuries. 


Some  apparent  sun  scald  is  more  prob- 
ably due  to  the  bacterium  of  pear  blight 
as  has  been  recently  proved  by  cultures 
from  young  trees  by  Walte.  With  Grimes 
and  other  varieties  susceptible  to  collar 
rot  caused  by  the  bacterium  of  pear  blight 
the  only  true  relief  is  found  by  top  work- 
ing on  some  vigorous  sort,  such  as  Bald- 
win, Gano,  and  like  varieties.  In  the 
case  of  true  sun  scald  the  effect  of  freez- 
ing is  to  form  an  ice  layer  and  thus  sepa- 
rate the  bark  or,  in  the  case  of  many 
water-gorged  cells,  to  kill  the  sap  layer. 
For  further  discussion  in  this  line  see 
winter  injury. 
See  Collar  Rot. 

Sun  Scald  on  Fruit 

Accompanied  by  hardening  and  crack- 
ing of  skin  and  tissues  of  the  apple. 
Sometimes  following  spraying  during  hot 
weather,   but  by   no   means   always   true. 

Syncarpy 

Double  or  triple  fruits  caused  by  the 
fusion  of  two  or  more  separate  lateral 
blossom  buds.  The  variation  occurs  but 
rarely  and  is  not  pathological. 

Twig  Blight 

This  disease  of  the  apple,  caused  by 
the  bacterium  of  pear  blight  (Bacillus 
amylovorus  Burr.),  is  often  very  preva- 
lent. The  microbe  enters  through  the 
blossoms,  being  propagated  in  the  nectar 
after  infection  by  insect  visitation.  It 
destroys  the  blossoms  as  well  as  small 
twigs  of  the  tree.  Beyond  the  injuries 
just  noted  this  microbe  may  gain  en- 
trance through  the  bark. 

See  Sun  Scald. 

Remedy 

The  prevention  will  lie  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  all  the  blighted  parts  on  apple, 
crabapple,  pear  and  quince  trees  in  the 
vicinity.  For  fuller  discussion  see  pear 
blight.  In  substance,  this  treatment  con- 
sists in  cutting  out  all  blighted  portions 
in  fall  and  early  winter  and  burning  them 
to  kill  the  resting  forms  of  the  microbe. 

Variegated  Foliage 

Occurs  rarely.  The  leaves  of  a  branch 
or  section  of  a  tree  and  occasionally  the 


APPLE  DISEASES 


493 


whole  tree  will  have  leaves  streaked  with 
yellow. 

Not  pathological. 

Tolntella  Rot 

Tolutellose 

A  black  rot  of  apples,  closely  imitating 
in  appearance  that  caused  by  Sphaer- 
opsis,  but  differing  from  sphaeropsose  in 
several  details,  is  reported  from  South 
Carolina.* 

In  general  appearance  the  disease  con- 
sists of  a  rotten  black  spot,  the  spot  in- 
creasing in  size  until  it  eventually  en- 
compasses the  whole  fruit.  The  central 
and  older  portions  of  the  decayed  region 
are  of  an  intense  coal  black  color.  The 
younger  region  of  the  spot,  its  outer 
border,  a  zone  about  five-eighths  of  an 
inch   wide,   is  brownish. 

Spray  as  for  scab  and  black  rot. 

THE  WATER  (ORE  OF  APPLE 

P.  J.  O'Gaba 

Water  core  of  apple  is  a  trouble  which 
is  not  restricted  to  any  one  district  where 
apples  are  grown,  but  is  found  to  occur 
more  or  less  generally  over  the  country, 
particularly  in  the  arid  and  semi-arid 
districts.  Reports  of  this  trouble  have 
also  come  from  apple-growing  districts  of 
Europe,  Asia  and  Africa.  Although  the 
trouble  has  been  known  for  some  time, 
data  of  very  little  importance  is  to  be 
found  in  American  plant  pathological  and 
physiological  literature.  It  seems  that 
very  little  serious  work  has  been  done  in 
the  matter  of  determining  the  true  cause 
of  the  disease.  Some  European  writers 
have  held  that  the  disease  is  caused  by 
bacteria,  although  others  have  shown  that 
the  trouble  is  not  due  to  any  parasitic 
agency. 

The  writer  has  done  considerable  work 
on  this  disease  during  the  past  few  years, 
and  in  no  case  has  it  been  possible  to 
identify  any  organism  as  the  causative 
agent.  All  the  methods  known  to  modern 
bacteriology  especially  those  used  in  the 
study  of  ultra-miscroscopic  organisms, 
have  failed  to  show  the  presence  of  any 
organism.     Numerous  attempts  have  been 


made  to  inoculate  healthy  fruits  by  in- 
jecting the  juice  from  water-cored  spots 
of  diseased  apples,  but  in  no  case  did  the 
inoculated  fruits  develop  anj'  symptoms 
of  water  core.(l)  The  writer  has  noted 
the  presence  of  various  organisms,  espec- 
ially Alternaria  sp.,  but  in  no  case  could 
it  be  shown  that  any  organism  caused 
the  disease. 

The  characteristic  appearance  of  water- 
cored  apples  is  so  well  known  that  a 
minute  description  is  hardly  necessary. 
The  affected  apples  have  hard  watery 
areas  extending  outward  from  the  outer 
edges  of  the  seed  cavities.  In  the  begin- 
ning stages,  the  first  appearance  of  water 
core  is  in  connection  with  the  vascular 
system.  Each  bundle  will  show  a  water- 
soaked  area  surrounding  it,  and,  as  a  rule, 
this  area  makes  its  appearance  a  short 
distance  from  the  stem.  As  the  vascular 
system  is  variously  branched  upward, 
water-soaked  areas  may  appear  at  almost 
any  place  in  the  fruit.  In  the  later  stages 
the  seed  cavity  usually  contains  liquid,  and 
the  hard  inner  membrane  of  the  carpels 
is  cracked  and  covered  with  hair-like 
growths  which  finally  assume  a  brownish 
appearance.  The  fruit  has  a  somewhat 
sweetish,  fermented  flavor,  and  the  watery 
parts  contain  more  sugar  and  less  acid 
than  the  normal  or  unaffected  parts.  It 
is  during  the  later  stages  of  the  disease, 
especially  where  cracks  appear  in  the  ca- 
lyx or  blossom  end,  that  we  find  fungi  and 
bacteria  present.  Alternaria  sp.  is  a  com- 
mon intruder,  and  produces  a  serious  core 
rot.  This  latter  trouble,  namely,  Alterna- 
ria infection,  may  be  prevented  by  the 
proper  and  timely  application  of  Bordeaux 
mixture. 

It  must  be  understood  that  no  single 
condition  may  produce  water  core;  as  a 
rule,  it  is  a  combination  of  perhaps  two 
or  more  factors.  In  some  cases  avoidance 
of  the  trouble  may  be  possible;  however, 
for  the  most  part,  it  is  entirely  impossible 
to  prevent  it  because  of  the  fact  that  cer- 
tain climatological  factors  enter  into  the 
problem.  The  most  prominent  factors  in- 
ducing water  core  are: 


•  North    Carolina    Experiment    Station    Bul- 
letin   No.    206. 


(1)  O'Gara.  P.  .T.  Water  Core  of  .^pple. 
Office  of  the  Pathologist  and  Entomolosist  for 
Rogue  River  Valley,  iledford.  Oregon.  Bulletin 
9.     October  11.   1912. 


494 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


1.  Excessive  or  strong  vegetative  growth, 
especially  in  young'  trees  just  coming  into 
bearing.  Such  trees  usually  set  light 
crops  and  the  fruits  are  abnormal  in  size. 
Fruits  borne  far  out  on  the  terminals 
are  very  liable  to  water  core,  whether 
the  trees  are  old  or  young,  providing  the 
trees  are  vigorous.  Trees  making  poor 
growth,  which  may  be  caused  by  soil 
conditions,  lack  of  moisture,  root  trouble, 
or  any  other  cause,  rarely  show  water 
core  in  the  fruit. 

2.  High  cultivation  is  a  factor,  but 
alone  would  not  cause  the  trouble.  How- 
ever, well  cultivated  soils  retain  moisture 
much  better  than  those  which  are  not 
cultivated,  hence,  as  a  rule,  high  cultiva- 
tion will  promote  vigorous  growth  and, 
therefore,  favors  water  core,  providing 
other  factors  are  present. 

3.  Excessive  precipitation  or  Irrigation 
shortly  before  the  maturity  of  the  fruit 
if  followed  by  great  extremes  of  temper- 
ature and  atmospheric  humidity,  are  fac- 
tors of  the  greatest  importance.  During 
hours  of  sunshine  the  moist  ground  is 
warmed  to  such  an  extent  that  water  is 
readily  taken  up  by  the  root  system,  and 
at  this  time  transpiration  is  also  very 
rapid.  During  the  night  the  atmospheric 
temperature  lowers  to  the  point  of  satura- 
tion, this  often  being  very  little  above  the 
freezing  point;  however,  the  moist  soil  in 
which  the  roots  are  growing  remains 
warm,  or  at  least  several  degrees  above 
that  of  the  air  temperature.  Under  such 
conditions,  sap  pressure  is  continuous, 
but  transpiration  is  checked.  Evapora- 
tion cannot  take  place  from  any  surface 
when  the  surrounding  medium  (air,  in 
this  case)  has  reached  the  point  of  sat- 
uration. With  transpiration  checked  and 
the  sap  pressure  continuing,  the  tissues 
along  the  lines  of  greatest  pressure 
must  give  way.  These  tissues  are 
found  in  the  fruits,  especially  those 
farthest  out  on  the  terminals,  because 
they  are  exposed  to  extremes  of  temper- 
ature. Fruits  on  the  south  or  southwest 
sides   of  trees   are   always  most  affected. 

4.  Severe  pruning  shortly  before  the 
ripening  period,  or  defoliation  by  disease 
or  otherwise,  thus  causing  the  fruit  to  be 
exposed  as  well  as  reducing  the  evapora- 


tion   surface    of    the    tree,    will    have    a 
tendency   to   produce   water  core. 

5.  Frosts,  which  are  severe  enough  to 
injure  the  foliage,  have  an  effect  similar 
to  that  of  defoliation,  since  leaves  which 
are  so  injured  no  longer  function  as  true 
agents  of  transpiration.  Certain  chemi- 
cal activities  are  also  set  up  in  plants 
after  frosts  have  injured  them,  and  this 
produces  rapid  ripening  in  the  case  of 
apples.  It  is  quite  noticeable  after  a 
heavy  frost  that  apples  color  rapidly,  this 
being  due  to  the  formation  and  activity 
of  certain  enzymes. 

6.  Cell  tension  or  turgor  may  be  in- 
duced by  the  rapid  conversion  of  starch 
into  sugar.  This  tension  may  be  caused 
in  two  ways:  (1)  by  the  rapid  absorp- 
tion of  water  by  the  sugar  through  os- 
motic pressure;  (2)  by  the  rearrange- 
ment of  the  molecules  during  the  process 
of  starch  conversion  into  sugar.  This, 
however,  is  of  less  importance  than  the 
other  factors  enumerated  above. 

Weather  conditions  favored  water  core 
during  the  season  of  1912  in  the  Rogue 
River  district.  During  this  period  prac- 
tically clear  weather  prevailed.  Begin- 
ning with  August  31  and  ending  Septem- 
ber 8,  1.15  inches  of  rain  fell.  Following 
this  period  of  moderate  temperatures 
came  three  weeks  of  clear  weather  with 
high  temperatures  during  the  hours  of 
sunshine  and  low  temperatures  during 
the  nights. 

A  careful  examination  of  orchards  of 
the  same  age  and  variety  showed  that 
the  amount  of  water  core  present  in  the 
fruit  was  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  precipitation  or  irrigation, 
range  in  temperature  and  range  in  rela- 
tive humidity.  Records  were  taken  on 
the  valley  floor  where  the  range  in  both 
temperature  and  relative  humidity  was 
very  great.  At  elevations  where  this 
range  was  not  so  great,  there  was  very 
little  water  core.  The  amount  of  pre- 
cipitation also  had  its  effect.  In  orchards 
where  the  precipitation  was  light,  water 
core  was  much  less  abundant.  A  case 
was  noted  where  the  rainfall  was  sup- 
plemented by  a  heavy  irrigation,  both  pre- 
ceding and  after  the  rain  occurred.  In 
this  orchard  over  90  per  cent  of  the  fruit 


APPLE  DISEASES 


495 


showed  water  core,  while  an  adjacent 
orchard  on  the  same  type  of  soil,  with 
the  same  varieties  of  apples,  but  not  ir- 
rigated, showed  not  over  5  per  cent  of  the 
fruit  affected.  Another  case  was  noted 
where  an  orchard  was  severely  pruned 
during  the  latter  part  of  August,  expos- 
ing most  of  the  fruit.  In  this  orchard, 
nearly  all  of  the  fruit  became  water-cored, 
while  an  adjacent  orchard  growing  under 
the  same  conditions,  but  unpruned,  had 
very  little  water  core.  Another  orchard 
where  one-half  the  trees  were  pruned,  as 
above,  showed  90  per  cent  water  core  in 
the  part  pruned,  while  the  unpruned 
trees  did  not  show  more  than  5  per  cent. 
As  has  been  stated  before,  water  core 
is  more  liable  to  occur  in  exposed  fruits, 
especially  those  far  out  on  the  terminals 
and  those  on  the  south  or  southwest  parts 
of  the  tree.  In  order  to  prove  that  this 
is  universally  true,  I  had  a  large  number 
of  boxes  of  fruit  picked  from  the  south 
and  southwest  parts  of  trees  by  picl<ers 
who  did  not  know  my  purpose.  I  also 
had  fruit  picked  from  the  unexposed 
parts  of  trees.  In  the  former  case,  fully 
90  per  cent  of  the  fruit  showed  water 
core,  while  less  than  5  per  cent  were 
found  to  be  water-cored  in  the  latter 
case.  This  proved  to  be  a  very  important 
matter  in  the  segregation  of  water-cored 
fruits  preparatory  to  boxing  for  ship- 
ment. 


The  examination  of  water-cored  fruit 
shows  that  it  is  water-cored  in  proportion 
to  its  exposure  to  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture and  humidity.  The  side  or  part  of 
an  apple  presented  to  the  direct  action  of 
the  sun's  rays  will  show  more  water- 
soaked  tissue  than  the  part  not  so  ex- 
posed. In  the  orchard,  or  even  with  the 
fruit  in  the  boxes,  the  careful  observer 
may  pick  out  the  water-cored  fruit,  al- 
though no  evidence  of  water-soaked  tis- 
sue may  be  seen.  Usually,  water-cored 
apples  have  a  much  higher  color  than 
those  not  affected.  In  the  Newtown,  a 
yellow  variety,  a  blush  or  colored  cheek 
usually  indicates  a  water-cored  fruit.  A 
normal  Newtown  should  be  green  when 
picked.  Water  core  is  much  more  easily 
detected  in  yellow  than  in  red  varieties 
of  apples. 

In  both  sections  of  the  fruit  the  parts 
marked  v  are  vascular  bundles,  which 
are  ten  in  number.  It  will  be  noted  in 
the  cross  section  that  the  upper  bundles 
show  smaller  areas  of  water-soaked  tis- 
sue than  the  lower  bundles  which  have 
rather  large  areas  surrounding  them 
showing  a  water-soaked  appearance.  In 
the  region  marked  c  of  the  cross  section 
there  are  large  areas  of  water-cored  tis- 
sue, the  injury  extending  outward  to  the 
epidermis.  The  water-soaked  area  is  on 
the  side  of  the  fruit  presented  to  the 
direct   rays  of  the  sun,   while  the   upper 


Fig.  1.       Longitudinal     and    Cross     Section    of    Newtown  Apple  Affected  with  Water  Core 


496 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICl'LTURE 


side,  showing  practically  no  water  core, 
is  on  the  side  away  from  the  sun.  The 
cracked  carpel  with  its  hairy  growths  is 
shown  at  w.  It  is  best  seen  in  the  lon- 
gitudinal section,  which  also  shows  very 
plainly  the  connection  of  the  vascular 
strands  marked  v  with  the  stem.  This 
fruit  was  taken  from  a  terminal  on  the 
southwest  side  of  a  vigorous  ten-year-old 
Newtown  tree,  and  did  not  outwardly 
show  water  core. 

Under  proper  storage  conditions,  water- 
cored  fruit,  unless  badly  affected,  will  en- 
tirely recover.  This  will  be  the  case 
where  no  liquid  fills  the  seed  cavities  and 
if  the  fruit  is  placed  in  a  cool,  even-tem- 
peratured  place  (not  cold  storage).  The 
fact  that  water-cored  fruit  will  become 
normal,  the  water  soaked  spots  entirely 
disappearing  under  proper  storage  con- 
ditions, demonstrates  the  non-parasitic 
nature  of  the  trouble.  As  soon  as  it  is 
found  that  apples  are  becoming  water- 
cored,  they  should  be  immediately  picked 
and  placed  in  proper  storage.  If  allowed 
to  remain  on  the  trees  until  liquid  fills 
the  seed  cavities,  ultimate  recovery  is 
almost  impossible.  Besides,  various  or- 
ganisms gain  access  to  the  fruit  and  com- 
plete its   destruction. 

*In  an  experiment,  1,000  boxes  of  New- 
town apples  showing  fully  90  per  cent 
water  core  were  stored  for  about  three 
weeks.  The  percentage  of  water  core  was 
carefully  determined  before  putting  the 
fruit  into  storage.  As  far  as  possible 
all  fruits  very  badly  water-cored  and 
evidently  having  the  seed  cavities  filled 
with  liquid  were  not  put  into  storage.  At 
the  end  of  three  weeks  the  fruit  was 
again  examined  and  showed  scarcely  1 
per  cent  water  core.  The  only  cases  not 
fully  recovering  were  those  in  which  the 
seed  cavities  had  become  filled  with  liquid, 
and  in  which  fermentative  processes  had 
been   set   up. 

Medfoed.  Oregon. 


•During  the  fall  and  wintpr  <if  ini2-l.'?  the 
RIchey-Gilbert  Co.  stored  10.000  boxpR  of  water- 
cored  apples,  grown  in  the  Yakima  Valley. 
They  were  removed  late  In  the  storasre  season 
with  a  loss  of  only  0.3  per  cent.  Mr.  Gilbert 
states :  "I  think  it  can  be  announced  with 
some  certainty  that  water  core  does  not  mean 
ruin  to  the  apples." — Ed. 


Important  References  Bearing  on 
Water  Core 

1.  Handbuch  Pflanzenkrankheiten,  1:142. 

1886,  Sorauer. 

2.  Handbuch    Pflanzenkrankheiten.    3rd. 

Edition,  1909,  Sorauer. 

3.  Zeitschr.      Pflanzenkrankheiten,      5:8, 

1895,  Aderhold. 

4.  Bull.   Soc.   Bot.  France  33:600.     1896, 

Prillieux. 

5.  Bulletin  No.  39:61.    1892,  Purdue  Uni- 

versity.   Agri.   Exp.    Sta. 

6.  Report  Canada  Exp.  Farms  for  1896: 

172. 

7.  Bull.    No.    214:374.     1910,   Ohio   Agri. 

Exp.  Sta. 

8.  Bulletin   No.    235,    1903,    N.    Y.    Agri- 

Exp.    Station. 

9.  Bulletin   No.    61,    1893,   Cornell    Univ. 

Exp.    Station. 

10.  Bulletin    No.    94,    1905.      Bureau    of 

Chemistry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri. 

11.  Technical  Bulletin  1,  1909.    Transvaal 

Dept.  Agri. 

12.  Country  Gentleman  68:   1084,  1903. 

13.  Phytopathology-,    Vol.    1,    No.    4:    126, 

1911,  Norton. 

14.  Bulletin    No.    9.    1912.      Office    of    the 

Pathologist  for  Rogue  River  Valley. 
Medford,  Oregon. 
Winter  Desicc.\tiox.     See  Rosette. 

Winter  Injury 
Also  Called  Snn  Scald 

There  are  a  number  of  evidences  of  in- 
jury which  involve  the  trunks  of  apple 
trees  of  all  sizes;  they  are  many  times 
due  to  freezing  injury;  while  this  name 
winter  injury  appears  at  the  beginning 
of  the  paragraph,  and  while  the  name 
sun  scald  has  been  applied  for  a  long 
time  to  similar  conditions,  the  injuries 
are  directly  due  to  freezing,  sometimes 
occurring  in  winter  and  sometimes  due 
to  premature  low  temperatures  when  the 
trees  are  gorged  with  water  (sap)  and 
there  is  stimulus  to  excessive  water  ab- 
sorption and  no  tendency  to  hasten  rip- 
ening of  tissues  through  water  loss  and 
reduced  water  content  such  as  occur  in 
dry  autumn  periods.  It  is  evident  that 
where  we  have  such  excessive  water  sup- 
ply in  the  inner  bark  and  in  the  process 
of    freezing,    a    layer    of    ice    crystals    is 


APPLE  DISEASES 


497 


Fig.    1.      W'intei'    Injury    to    Youdr   Apple    Tree. 

formed.  There  is  great  danger  ot  sep- 
aration of  the  bark  layer  from  the  wood 
at  that  time  as  at  others.  The  sun  ex- 
posed side  seems  to  suffer  worse  by  rea- 
son of  the  more  extreme  temperature 
changes  which  were  incited  on  these  ex- 
posures. It  is  evident  that  warm  periods 
In  winter  are  a  source  of  danger  when 
followed  by  low  temperatures. 

Upon  very  large  trunks  near  the  base, 
as  on  Grimes  and  some  others,  this  may 
be  the  real  explanation  of  frequent  sun 
scald  or  basal  injuries.  Wherever  such 
an  injury  begins  there  is  risk  of  the  in- 
trusion of  wound  fungi  with  all  the  con- 
sequences which  follow  their  entrance. 
The  handling  of  winter  injuries  must,  so 
far  as  prevention  goes,  precede  the  condi- 
tions which  cause  it.     Where  possible  the 


prevention  of  excessive  late  growth  is  de- 
sirable. In  cases  of  orchard  trees  it  may 
be  that  mulches  of  coarse  litter,  espe- 
cially, will  prove  serviceable.  It  may  be 
added  that  this  injury  to  woody  growths 
is  a  less  developed  phase  of  the  killing 
back  of  herbaceous  plants  by  the  prema- 
ture   frosts. 

Another  phase  still  is  the  killing  back 
of  branches  at  the  tips  of  woody  growth 
which  are  not  strictly  hardy  in  our  cli- 
mate. In  the  case  of  our  Japanese  plum 
and  of  some  ornamental  shrubs,  this  is  a 
frequent  phenomenon  and  its  cause  is  to 
be  sought  in  the  same  factors  above  de- 
scribed. Growth  being  protracted  late  in 
the  season,  these  water-gorged  terminal 
twigs  are  killed  by  the  subsequent  winter 
freezing  whenever  this   is  severe. 

See   Sun    ScaJd. 

A.  D.  Selby 

Winter  Injury  and  Cankers 

Ben  Davis  and  Gano  apple  trees  died 
in  such  large  numbers  throughout  Iowa 
during  1912  season  that  the  Iowa  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  Horticultur- 
ists, S.  A.  Beach  and  Lauren  made  a 
thorough  investigation  of  the  districts 
most  affected.  In  their  preliminary  re- 
port they  say  that  injury  and  death  of 
these  fruit  trees  is  due  to  a  number  of 
factors,  chief  of  which  are  cankers  and 
blight  caused  by  various  parasitic  dis- 
eases; the  early  fall  freeze  of  October, 
1909;  the  late  spring  freeze  of  April. 
1910;  the  dry  season  of  the  summer  of 
1910,  followed  by  the  cold  winter  with 
comparatively  light  snow,  and  the  ex- 
treme drouth  and  heavy  crop  production 
of  1911. 

All  of  these  factors  tended  to  weaken 
the  vitality  of  the  apple  trees,  and  par- 
ticularly of  the  older  and  less  vigorous 
ones,  rendering  them  less  able  to  with- 
stand the  unusual  and  continued  low 
temperatures  of  last  winter.  Those  or- 
chards which  had  been  well  cared  for  are 
showing  less  injury  than  neglected  or- 
chards and  their  trees  are  recovering 
more  rapidly.  Also,  the  younger  and 
more  vigorous  trees  recovered  more  rapid- 
ly;   they  were  also  less  injured. 

In    general,    those    trees    which    were 


498 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


previously  weakened  by  disease  or  me- 
chanical injury  showed  the  most  winter 
killing.  This  was  especially  true  in  Fre- 
mont, Pottawattamie.  Mills,  Iowa,  Polk 
and  Page  counties,  south  of  the  Rock  Isl- 
and railway,  where  no  cases  of  injury 
found  was  traceable  to  winter  killing 
alone.  Here  the  blister  canker  or  Illinois 
canker  was  the  most  common  cause  of  in- 
jury and  it  is  considered  by  the  experi- 
ment station  as  a  very  serious  menace  to 
Iowa  orchards.  In  a  recent  bulletin  is- 
sued    by     the     station     on     new     fungus 


Fig       1.      rankt-r     nii      \<niiig      lift'. 
Winter  Injury. 
(Purdup    Experiment    Station.  I 


growths  in  Iowa,  No.  131,  there  is  a  de- 
scription of  this  disease.  In  Harrison 
and  Woodbury  counties,  winter's  severe 
cold  is  the  chief  cause  of  trouble. 

Where  orchards  are  afflicted  with 
canker  or  other  disease,  the  diseased 
wood  should  be  cut  out.  That  should  be 
done  at  once.  The  cuts  should  extend 
back  well  into  the  healthy  bark  and  wood. 
The  wounds  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed 
and  disinfected  with  any  good  disinfect- 
ant, as  formalin,  corrosive  sublimate, 
copper  sulphate,  Bordeaux  mixture,  or 
lime  sulphur,  and  then  covered  with 
paint. 


Where  the  trees  have  been  weakened, 
provide  them  with  a  generous  and  con- 
tinuous supply  of  food  and  the  soil  moist- 
ure necessary  to  make  the  food  available 
to  the  tree.  This  can  be  done  by  break- 
ing up  the  land  and  keeping  the  soil  well 
tilled  so  as  to  form  a  dust  mulch  at  least 
three  inches  deep.  Whenever  possible, 
apply  manure,  especially  where  the  soil 
is  too  steep  for  cultivation.  This  will 
add  fertility  and  helps  to  conserve  moist- 
ure. This  treatment  will  bring  many 
trees  back  into  good  condition  and,  while 
they  may  not  produce  apples  this  season, 
its  beneficial  effects  will  continue  for  a 
good  many  years  later. 

S.  A.  Be.\ch, 

Ames,  la. 
Wounds 

No  artificial  medium  can  be  applied  to 
the  surface  of  a  wound  which  will  induce 
it  to  heal  more  quickly.  The  activity  of 
the  healing  process  depends  upon  the 
character  and  position  and  the  time  of 
year  when  the  wound  is  made  rather 
than  upon  protective  coverings. 

Large  wounds  which  result  from  the 
removal  of  branches  of  considerable  diam- 
eter, leaving  a  large  surface  of  heartwood 
exposed,  may  with  advantage  be  protect- 
ed by  painting  the  cut  surface  with  a 
heavy  coat  of  white  lead,  the  sole  object 
of  this  precaution  being  to  protect  the 
heartwood  from  decay  until  the  new 
growth,  which  forms  from  the  growing 
tissue  immediately  under  the  hark,  has 
had  time  to  develop  over  the  exposed 
dead  wood  and  protect  it  from  decay. 

A  large  number  of  waxes,  paints  and 
washes  have  been  tried,  and  the  con- 
clusion of  the  whole  matter  may  be  sum- 
marized in  the  statement  that  any  sub- 
stance which  is  not  corrosive  or  detri- 
mental to  growth  which  will  protect  the 
heartwood  from  the  attacks  of  rot  spores 
will  prove  a  satisfactory  covering  for  a 
cut  surface.  Among  such  substances  may 
be  mentioned  white  lead,  yellow  ocher. 
coal   tar,  and   grafting  wax. 

L.    C.   COBBETT, 
TVashinKton,   D.   C. 

Yellow  Leaf.     See  Rosette. 


APPLE  DISEASES 


499 


DISEASE  SUSCEPTIBILITY  OF  APPLE 
VARIETIES  I>  OHIO 

A.  D.  Selbt 

Botanist.  Ohio  Agricutural  Experirtient 
Station,  Wooster,  Ohio 
The  tabular  matter  prepared  under  this 
heading  is  designed  to  answer  many  of 
the  usual  questions  with  regard  to  sus- 
ceptibility or  disease  resistance  of  this 
or  the  other  apple  variety  under  Ohio 
conditions.  It  was  originally  suggested 
by  Prof.  W.  J.  Green,  horticulturist  of 
the  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
who  has  assisted  freely  in  its  preparation. 
J.  B.  Keil,  assistant  horticulturist,  has 
also  contributed  freely  with  his  expe- 
rience in  the  orchard.  I  am  under  similar 
obligations  to  Prof.  Wendell  Paddock, 
professor  of  horticulture,  Ohio  State  Uni- 
versity,    Columbus,     and     to     numerous 


growers  for  extracts  from  their  note- 
books. 

The  plan  of  the  table  is  to  specify  in 
each  column  opposite  the  name  of  the 
variety,  the  observed  susceptibility  or  re- 
sistance to  the  disease  named  in  the 
column.  The  general  behavior  of  the 
varieties  included  has  been  under  observ- 
ation for  a  varying  number  of  years, 
according  to  the  newness  of  the  variety, 
and  while  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  vari- 
ation in  behavior  with  respect  to  disease 
susceptibility  actually  occurs,  the  forms 
of  statement  used  in  the  table  are  de- 
signed to  include  this  variation  where 
known. 

The  usefulness  of  the  table  will  be  best 
realized  by  rejecting  the  varieties  show- 
ing serious  weaknesses  or  susceptibilities 
and  endeavoring  to  group  those  having 
the  maximum  number  of  good  grades 
with   respect  to  disease  susceptibility. 


500 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


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502 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICILTURE 


APPLE  PESTS 

Anoinala 

Anomala  hipunctata 
Has  been  known  to  attack  apple  foliage 
in  Michigan.  The  beetles  measure  about 
seven-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  length. 
They  are  stout  and  resemble  their  rela- 
tive, the  June  beetle  in  form,  also  like 
the  June  beetles,  they  are  clumsy  in  their 
movements.  In  color  they  are  for  the 
most  part,  polished  black,  except  for  the 
wing  covers,  which  are  washed  with 
bronzy  straw  color,  the  feet  and  antennae 
being  dark  brown.  The  underside  of  the 
body  is  coated  with  fine  light  hairs. 

Bemedies 

Like  the  June  beetle,  this  small  rela- 
tive readily  responds  to  a  spray  of  one 
of  the  arsenites.  Paris  green  or  arsenate 
of  lead,  or  any  one  of  the  reliable  arsen- 
ical sprays  will  control  it.  In  the  case 
of  small  trees,  hand  picking  often  suf- 
fices. 

R.    H.    Pettit, 
East    Lansing,    Mich. 

Aphids 

For  the  various  species  of  plant  lice, 
see  general   article   on   aphids. 

Apple  Leaf  Grumpier 

Mineola  indigenella 

The  leaf  crumpler  is  a  common  insect. 
When  the  leaves  are  gone,  the  little  tufts 
of  dried  up  leaves  attached  to  the  silken 
case  in  which  the  larva  passes  the  win- 
ter, are  often  seen  attached  to  the  twigs 
of  apple  trees  both  in  the  nursery  and 
orchard.  It  is  really  common  enough  to 
do  some  mischief  at  times,  but  from  its 
manner  of  attack  it  is  likely  ordinarily  to 
escape  attention.  As  it  passes  the  winter 
on  the  trees,  it  is  one  of  the  insects 
likely  to  be  sent  out  of  the  nursery,  and 
doubtless  has  attained  its  present  general 
distribution  in  the  Eastern  United  States 
through  the  instrumentality  of  nursery 
stock. 

The  larvae  occupying  the  cases  are 
brownish-red  in  color,  about  one-fifth  inch 
long,  the  surface  everywhere  opaque, 
with  slender  erect  pale  hairs.  Head  red, 
like  the  body,  but  paler.     The  first  body 


division   with   a   conspicuous   black   neck- 
plate. 

The  pupa  is  formed  in  June  and  yields 
the  adult  moth  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
month  and  early  in  July.  The  moth  is 
gray  In  general  color,  marked  with  white 
and  black. 

The  best  treatment  for  the  insect  is 
the  simple  process  of  removing  the  cases 
from  the  twigs  in  winter.  In  summer 
the  only  practicable  treatment  is  spray- 
ing the  leaves  with  arsenical  poisons. 
H.  Garman, 
Lexineton.  Ky. 

Apple  Leaf  Hopper 

Empoasca  7naU  LeB. 
General  Appearance 

The  presence  of  the  insect  is  made 
known  by  the  curling  and  twisting  of 
the  infested  leaves,  especially  on  nursery 
stock:  it  being  primarily  a  nursery  pest. 
The  adult  insect  is  pale  yellowish-green 
in  color,  with  white  marking  and  is  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  long.  The  young 
appear  much  like  the  adults  except  that 
they   lack  wings. 

Life  History 

The  winter  is  passed  both  in  the  adult 
and  egg  stage.  The  winter  eggs  are 
white,  very  delicate  and  curved  in  the 
middle.  They  are  inserted  under  the 
bark  of  young  apple  trees  (preferably 
under  bark  of  two  or  three  years' 
growth).  These  eggs  hatch  in  the  early 
spring  so  that  the  young  nymphs  and 
hibernating  adults  attack  the  first  green 
foliage.  During  the  summer,  eggs  are 
deposited  in  large  numbers  on  the  food 
plants  in  the  leaf  petioles  or  in  the 
larger  veins.  Favorite  places  are  the  leaf 
petioles  of  apple  trees  and  alfalfa.  The 
position  of  the  egg  under  the  bark  or 
epidermis  is  made  known  by  a  slight 
swelling  of  the  surface. 

Distribution 

Throughout  the  United  States;  seldom 
becoming  a  serious  pest  in  any  locality, 
though  occasionally  it  may  do  great  dam- 
age. 

Food  Plants 

As  previously  stated,  the  apple  leaf 
hopper  is  primarily  a  nursery  pest  affect- 


APPLE  PESTS 


503 


ing  especially  young  apple  trees,  thus 
dwarfing  them.  The  work  is  particularly 
on  the  leaves.  Besides  the  apple  it  feeds 
upon  currant,  gooseberry,  blackberry, 
pear,  cherry,  plum,  thorn-apple,  black 
walnut,  grapes,  cottonwood,  elm,  birch, 
maple,  box-elder,  hazel,  choke-cherry, 
sumach,  oak.  s.vringa.  snowball,  canaigre, 
basswood,  buckthorn,  rose,  buckeye,  corn, 
beans,  potatoes,  sugar  beet,  clover, 
grasses,  buckwheat,  dahlia,  rhubarb, 
hemp,  alfalfa,  oats,  celery  and  hollyhock. 
Without  doubt  other  plants  are  also  at- 
tacked. 

Control 
The  difficulty  of  control  lies  in  the  im- 
possibility of  killing  the  eggs  without  in- 
juring the  young  trees.  Successive  spray- 
ings with  the  oil  emulsions,  whale  oil 
soap  solution  of  one  pound  to  eight  gal- 
lons of  water,  or  tobacco  decoctions,  as 
often  as  the  young  become  apparent,  will 
prevent  serious  attacks  and  hold  the  pest 
in  subjection.  Affected  nursery  stock 
should  be  thoroughly  dipped  in  such 
solutions  before  shipping.  To  prevent  at- 
tacks nurseries  should  not  be  located 
near  orchards  or  fields  in  which  the 
hopper  breeds.  All  food  plants  should  be 
kept  out  of  the  nursery.  Sticky  shields 
and  hopperdozers  may  be  used  with  good 
effect. 

Natural  Enemies 

The  most  effective  natural  enemy  is  the 
small  dark  bug  {Triphleps  insidiosus 
Say),  which  preys  upon  the  nymphs  by 
puncturing  their  bodies  and  extracting 
the  contents. 

The  larvae  of  the  green  lacewings  also 
prey  upon  the  young  hoppers. 

E.  O.   EssiG 

Apple  Leaf  Sewer 

Ancylis   mibeculana 

The  caterpillars  of  the  apple  leaf  sewer 
fold  the  edges  of  the  leaves  together, 
commencing  to  feed  inside  the  folded 
leaf  sometime  in  July  and  continuing 
therein  until  the  leaves  fall  in  autumn. 
The  larvae  is  greenish-yellow,  with  a 
yellow  head  and  a  horny  plate  of  darker 
color  just  back  of  the  head.  On  each 
side  of  the  plate  is  a  black  dot.     On  each 


of  the  remaining  segments  are  a  number 
of  pale,  shining,  raised  dots,  from  each 
of  which  springs  a  single  hair.  When 
full  grown,  the  larvae  line  their  nests 
with  silk  and  fall  to  the  ground,  remain- 
ing in  the  caterpillar  stage  until  next 
spring.  Sometimes  the  insect  becomes 
sufficiently  numerous  to  cause  serious 
damage  to  the  foliage.  The  summer 
spraying  with  arsenicals  for  codling 
worm  doubtless  kills  many.  Collecting 
and  burning  the  fallen  leaves  and  other 
rubbish   is  an   excellent  measure. 

Apple  Leaf  Skeletonizer 

Cana7-sia  hammondi 

Nursery  trees  and  sometimes  young 
trees  recently  transplanted  from  the 
nursery  are  badly  gnawed  some  seasons 
by  a  brown  larva,  becoming  finally  about 
one-half  inch  long,  living,  often  a  number 
together,  in  the  grooves  above  the  mid- 
ribs of  the  leaves  under  a  light  silken 
web.  Sometimes  it  draws  several  leaves 
together  and  lives  concealed  among  them. 
This  insect  feeds  upon  green  substance 
of  the  leaves  only,  leaving  finally  only 
the  veins  and  veinlets,  the  foliage  at  a 
distance  then  appearing  as  if  scorched 
by  fire.  Whole  blocks  of  young  trees  in 
the  nursery  may  become  thus  Injured. 
In  the  orchard  it  is  less  often  seen,  and 
then  appears  most  frequently  on  rather 
young  trees. 

This  insect  is  well  known  in  the  upper 
Mississippi  valley  from  its  injuries  to 
apple  trees,  but  eastward  appears  to  be 
less  well  known. 

The  larva  reaches  one-half  inch  in 
length  and  may  be  recognized  by  four 
round  black  dots  back  of  the  head.  The 
moth  is  slate  gray,  measuring  about  a 
half  inch  from  tip  to  tip.  Paris  green 
or  arsenate  of  lead  in  good  season  will 
kill    them. 

H.  Garman 

Apple  Maggot  or  "Railroad  Worm" 

Rhagoletis  (Tryeta)  pomonella  Walsh 
The  apple  maggot,  as  the  name  implies, 
is  the  larva  of  a  fly  or  dipterous  insect, 
and  belongs  to  the  family  Trypetidte, 
which  group  contains  numerous  other 
fruit-infesting    maggots,     some     of     them 


504 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


very  serious  pests,  and,  from  their  struc- 
ture, mode  of  life,  and  feeding  habits, 
very  difficult  of  control.  Apples  injured 
or  "railroaded"  by  the  apple  maggot  show 
discolored  winding  burrows,  or  tracks, 
and  cavities  here  and  there  in  the  flesh, 
and  when  infested  with  several  larvae 
the  pulp  will  be  usually  quite  honey- 
combed with  their  burrows  and  more  or 
less  broken  down  into  a  yellowish  mass, 
merely  held  together  by  the  skin. 


Vie.    1.      Flies  nf  the  Apiile  Maemit. 
a,  Male  ;  b,  female — enlarged. 

Distribution 

The  apple  maggot  is  a  native  Ameri- 
can species,  its  natural  food  being  haws 
(Crataegus),  and  in  at  least  one  instance 
it  has  been  bred  from  crabapples.  Its 
feeding  upon  cultivated  apples  is  thus  an 
acquired  habit,  and  although  the  Insect 
has  been  reported  from  widely  separated 
points  in  the  Central  and  Eastern  states, 
indicating  its  possible  general  distribu- 
tion, for  some  reason  it  does  not  attack 
the  apple  throughout  its  range,  but  only 
in  certain  localities  and  portions  of  the 
country.  Of  apples,  sweet  and  sub-acid 
summer  varieties  are  worst  attacked,  but 
fall  and  winter  sorts  are  also  infested, 
including  distinctly  acid  varieties. 

Preventive  Measures 

The  apple  maggot  has  proved  to  be  an 
unusually  troublesome  insect  to  combat 
successfully.  The  eggs  are  deposited  be- 
neath the  skin  of  the  fruit,  within  which 
also  the  larva  feeds  until  full  grown.  The 
pupal  stage  is  passed  just  under  the  soil, 
or  around  the  roots  of  grass  in  sod  land, 
and  the  flies  do  not  feed  in  a  way  to  per- 
mit of  their  destruction.  Spraying  with 
arsenicals,  so  effective  against  the  codling 
moth  or  apple  worm,  is  for  this  pest 
quite   useless. 

The  insect,  however,  may  be  attacked 
in    two   important   ways.      As   stated,   the 


larvae  do  not  leave  the  fruit  until  the 
latter  has  ripened  and  fallen  to  the 
ground.  The  prompt  gathering  and  de- 
struction of  the  windfalls,  before  they 
are  deserted  by  the  maggots,  would  serve 
to  keep  the  insects  greatly  reduced, 
amounting  to  practical  extermination  if 
thoroughly  carried  out.  This  practice 
has  long  been  recommended  by  entomo- 
logists, and  comprises  the  most  effective 
measure  of  controlling  the  pest  at  present 
known. 

A.    L.    QUAINTANCE, 
Bureau    of    Eutomoloto'    Bulletin    101. 

Apple  Tree  Measuring  Worm 

Ennomos  subsignarius 
Two  brown  or  black  looping  caterpil- 
lars occurring  on  apple  trees  are  not  al- 
ways discriminated  by  fruit  growers, 
who  speak  of  both  as  canker  worms.  The 
species  here  treated  is  sometimes  very 
common  and  may  defoliate  whole  or- 
chards at  times,  but  its  larvae  is  so  much 
like  that  of  the  true  canker  worm  that 
one  might  be  excused  for  failing  to  rec- 
ognize the  differences.  The  adult  moths, 
however,  are  very  different,  though  the 
insects  are  members  of  the  same  family. 
They  are  leaf  feeders  and  so  may  be  con- 
trolled   by    arsenical    sprays. 

Apple  Bed  Bug  and  False  Apple  Red  Bug 

Heterocordylibs  malinus  Rent. 
Lygidea  manrlax  Rent. 

Two  species  of  red  bug  have  been  re- 
ported from  New  York.  These  leaf  bugs 
are  a  brilliant  tomato  red  in  their  imma- 
ture stages.  The  first  appearance  of  the 
bugs  is  detected  by  the  red  dots  on  the 
foliage  caused  by  their  feeding  punctures. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  late  June  or  early 
.luly.  The  nymphs  pass  through  five 
moults,  the  wings  appearing  with  the  fifth 
moult. 

Injury  to  the  fruit  is  caused  by  the 
punctures  of  the  young  nymphs  while 
feeding  upon  the  small  fruit.  These 
punctures  sometimes  reach  to  the  center 
of  the  apple.  Apples  thus  injured  some- 
times fall  and  those  which  remain  on 
the  trees  until  maturit.v  are  spoiled  for 
market,  on  account  of  their  rough,  nobby 


APPLE  PESTS 


505 


appearance.     Other   sucking   insects   pro- 
duce the  same  sort  of  injury. 

Spray  with  "black  leaf  40"  diluted  one 
to  800,  just  before  the  fruit  buds  burst. 
A  later  spraying,  if  necessary,  may  be 
made  at  the  time  of  the  calyx  spray  for 
the  codling  moth  when  the  tobacco  mix- 
ture may  be  added  to  the  arsenate  of 
lead. 

Apple  Seed  Chalcis 
Syntomaspis  druparuvi 

Minute  black  dots  in  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct depressions  of  malformed  or  knotty 
apples  may  be  due  to  the  work  of  the 
apple  seed  chalcis.  A  brownish  line  of 
hardened  corky  tissue  may  extend  from 
the  spot  to  the  core,  if  this  insect  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  mark.  Some  of  the  suck- 
ing insects  make  very  similar  external 
marks  upon  the  fruit.  This  insect  in- 
fests the  seed  in  the  larval  stage,  the 
initial  puncture  having  been  made  when 
the  fruit  was  so  small  that  the  ovipostor 
of  the  female  could  reach  through  the 
pulp  to  the  young  seed.  Some  injury  is 
done  to  the  texture  of  the  pulp  and  the 
seed  will  be  of  no  use  for  planting.  Wild 
crabapples  and  seedlings  seem  most  liable 
to  attack.  Destruction  of  all  fallen  fruit 
in  the  fall  and  of  wild  crabapple  trees  and 
seedling  trees  will  control  the  insect 
whenever  it  becomes  sufficiently  impor- 
tant to  justify  such  measures. 

H.    A.    GOSSARD, 
Wooster.    Ohio. 

Apple  Tingis 

Corythuca  sp. 

H.   P.   WlL.SON- 

An  insect  which  feeds  on  the  under  side 
of  the  leaves  of  apple  and  is  often  mis- 
taken for  plant  lice  is  the  above  insect. 
It  is  of  a  shiny  black  color  when  viewed 
from  below,  the  wings  lie  horizontally 
on  the  body,  and  the  markings  upon  them 
are  such  that  they  appear  to  be  made  of 
lace.  The  winter  is  passed  in  the  adult 
stage  and  hibernation  takes  place  in  rub- 
bish on  the  ground.  With  the  appearance 
of  warm  weather  and  the  spreading  of 
the  leaves  in  the  spring  they  leave  their 
hibernating  quarters  and  proceed  to  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves  where  the  females 


deposit  their  eggs.  One  of  these  eggs  is 
a  very  interesting  and  peculiar  object, 
being  somewhat  the  shape  of  a  truncated 
cone  attached  by  the  base  to  the  ridge  of 
the  leaf,  dull  black  in  color  and  some- 
what shriveled.  When  the  eggs  are  ready 
to  hatch  the  smaller  end  opens  and  the 
young  insect  comes  forth  and  feeds  on 
the  leaf.  These  young  feed,  grow,  cast 
their  skins  several  times  and  after  a  time 
reach  the  adult  stage  as  described  above. 
Two,  three,  or  more  generations  are  thus 
produced  quite  rapidly.  Some  years  they 
become  so  abundant  as  to  do  considerable 
harm  and  hundreds  may  be  found  on  a 
single  leaf.  A  very  characteristic  effect 
of  their  work  is  the  burnt  appearance  of 
the  leaves  caused  by  the  punctures  made 
by  the  insects  and  the  withdrawal  of  sap 
from  them. 

Remedies 

This  is  one  of  the  hardest  insects  to 
control,  due  to  its  seeming  great  resist- 
ance to  insecticides  which  can  be  applied 
without  burning  the  leaves.  Tobacco 
compounds,  such  as  black  leaf,  etc.,  prob- 
ably give  the  best  results,  and  should  be 
applied  about  the  time  the  young  are 
leaving  the  eggs.  By  observation  only 
can  one  tell  the  proper  time.  Continual 
clean  cultivation  is  by  far  the  best 
remedy. 

Apple  Twig  Borer 
Amphicerus  hicaudatus,  Say 

This  twig  borer  is  an  insect  of  small 
importance  compared  to  many  orchard 
pests,  but  is  often  present  In  apple  or- 
chards. It  is  a  cylindrical  beetle  about 
one-third  of  an  inch  in  length,  of  a  chest- 
nut brown  color  above,  and  black  beneath. 
In  early  spring  they  bore  into  the  small 
branches  of  apple,  pear  and  cherry,  enter- 
ing just  above  a  bud  and  working  down- 
ward in  the  pith,  evidently  for  both  food 
and  shelter.  Such  twigs  soon  wither  and 
their  leaves  turn  brown. 

The  beetles  do  not  remain  long  in  these 
burrows,  but  leave  in  search  of  grape- 
vines or  green  brier,  where  their  eggs 
are  laid  and  their  j-oung  reared,  in  the 
dead  or  dying  shoots. 

Exemption    from    injury    by    the    twig 


506 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


borer,  will  generally  be  secured  when  all 
neglected  vineyards,  wild  grapes  or  brier 
thickets  are  not  allowed  to  remain  near 
apple  orchards.  The  usual  practice  of 
pruning  apple  trees  to  remove  all  twigs 
injured  by  various  agencies,  is  a  neces- 
sary part  of  good  orchard  management 
and  should  not  be  neglected,  although 
this  twig  borer  usually  deserts  its  burrow 
before  such  pruning  can  be  made. 

North  Carolina   Experiment  Station. 
Apple  Wilt  Ting 
Euthoctha  galeator 

The  tender  terminal  growths  of  apple, 
quince  and  plum  trees  are  sometimes 
found  to  have  been  stung  and  apparently 
killed  by  a  large  brownish  black  bug 
somewhat  resembling  the  squash  bug.  It 
has  been  noted  repeatedly  in  nurseries, 
and  sometimes  attacks  trees  in  the  or- 
chard. 

The  insect  is  one  of  the  true  bugs,  and 
is  provided  with  a  strong  beak  with  which 
it  punctures  plants  to  reach  the  sap.  Like 
the  squash  bug  and  some  other  members 
of  its  order,  it  injects  something  that 
seems  to  affect  the  plant  injuriously. 
Many  other  insects  of  the  same  group, 
the  plant  lice,  for  example,  puncture 
plants,  but  seem  to  inject  nothing,  and 
the  plants  do  not  droop  and  wilt,  though 
of  course  are  finally  weakened,  it  the 
insects  are  numerous. 

The  apple  wilt  bug  is  frequently  seen 
everywhere  in  Kentucky,  but  probably 
feeds  ordinarily  on  some  native  plant.  It 
is  capable  of  very  severe  mischief  it  it 
should  become  at  any  time  more  numer- 
ous than  it  now  is.  H.  Garman, 

Lexington,   Kv. 

Baij  Worm 

ThyrUlopteryx  ephemeraeformis 
Occasional  enemy  of  apple  trees  in  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee  and  neighboring  states. 
A  naked  caterpillar  which  constructs 
and  carries  about  with  it  a  tough,  gray, 
silken  case  over  the  outside  of  which  it 
fastens  fragments  of  leaves.  The  adult 
male  is  a  small,  black  moth  with  trans- 
parent wings.  The  females  are  wingless 
and  deposit  their  eggs  in  their  pupa 
cases  left  hanging  to  twigs.  The  eggs 
are  deposited  in  September  and  October. 


Fig.  ].  Adult  Bas;  Worm.  Male.  .\lsn  iis  .  as,- 
and  pupa  case.  I'J'ennessee  Exj>friment  Sta- 
tion.) 

Control 

Destroy  the  pupa  cases.  Spray  with 
arsenate  of  lead. 

Bark  Beetle.  See  Fruit  Tree  Bark 
Beetle,  this  section. 

Black  Scale.     See  Olive. 

Blister  Mite,  Leaf  Blister  Mite,  Pear 
Leaf  Blister  Mite.     See   under  Pear. 

BORERS 

Apple  Bud  Borer 

Steganoptycha  pyricolana  Murt. 

Young  apple  trees  have  been  consid- 
erably injured  by  small  caterpillars  bor- 
ing into  the  terminal  buds  and  thus 
stunting  their  growth.  Upon  trees  top- 
worked  by  budding  the  shoots  from  the 
buds  are  often  seriously  injured.  Only 
the  "water  sprouts"  are  attacked  upon 
old  trees.  These  caterpillars  ultimately 
transform  into  small  moths,  which  lay 
eggs  for  another  brood.  Pour  broods 
occur  in  a  season,  about  six  weeks  being 
required  for  each.  During  the  winter  the 
caterpillars  hibernate  in  their  burrows  in 
the  twigs  and  in  small  silken  cases  on 
the  branches.  They  may  thus  be  spread 
on  nursery  stock.  The  best  means  of 
control  is  by  pruning  off  infested  termi- 
nals in  winter,  keeping  "water  sprouts" 
cut  off  old  trees,  and  frequent  spraying 
with  arsenites. 


APPLE  PESTS 


507 


Fig.  1.  Terminals  m"  Youns  Apple  Trees.  Tak- 
en During  the  Winter.  Hibernating  Bud 
Borers  were  found  at  x.  x.  x.  often  at  tlie 
base  of  a  leaf  stem.  (Delaware  Experiment 
Station.) 

The  bud  borer  has  a  wide  distribution. 
It  seems  to  be  held  in  check,  however, 
by  a  natural  enemy  in  the  form  of  a 
small    fly. 

Apple   Twiiar  Borer 
Ai7iphicerus  liicaudatus.  Say 

Attacks  apples,  pears,  cherries,  and 
other  trees,  and  bores  into  the  twig  just 
above  a  bud  for  food  and  shelter.  The 
beetle  which  does  the  damage  is  about 
one-third  of  an  inch  long,  cylindrical  in 
form,  brownish  above  and  black  under- 
neath. 

Remedies 

The  remedy  that  is  recommended  is  to 
look  for  the  infested  twigs,  cut  them  off 
and  burn  them.  ,See  also  page  505. 

Branch   and   Twie   Borer 

Polycaon    confertus   Lee. 

H.    F.    WiLSox 

Although   apparently   never   doing   any 

amount   of   damage   this    insect   is   often 

found  attacking  the  stems  and  branches 

of  pome  fruits  and  even  grapes.     Nothing 


is  known  of  its  life  history  in  Oregon, 
but  in  California  the  larvae  work  in  live 
oak  trees  and  it  is  very  likely  that  they 
do  the  same  here.  The  adult  beetles 
start  in  to  burrow  above  the  buds  and 
excavate  a  shallow  burrow  downwards, 
rarely  deeper  than  the  length  of  the  body. 
This  burrow  is  about  one-fourth  inch  in 
diameter  and  why  It  is  made  is  not 
known  unless  it  is  for  the  purpose  of 
feeding,  as  they  apparently  never  deposit 
eggs    in    them. 

They  have  never  been  abundant  enough 
to  cause  any  great  alarm,  but  the  bur- 
rows offer  excellent  opportunity  for  the 
entrance   of   fungi   and   decay  organisms. 

There  is  no  known  method  of  preven- 
tion. 


Fig.    1.      The   Branch   and   Twig   Borer.      Adult 
and  work  on  young  twig.      (Original) 

Flat-Headed  Apple  Tree  Borer 

Chrysobothris  femorata  Fab.     Family 

Buprestidae 

General  Appearance 

The  adult  beetle  is  oblong,  flattened 
and  the  body  color  metallic  greenish 
black.  On  each  wing  cover  are  three 
raised  longitudinal  lines  which  are  tra- 
versed by  two  brass-colored  depressions, 
dividing  the  surface  into  three  nearly 
equal  dark  areas.  The  underside  is 
metallic  copper,  and  the  feet  green.  The 
eggs  are  yellow,  ribbed,  but  one-fiftieth 
of  an  inch  long  and  oval  in  form  with 
one  end  flattened.  The  mature  larvae 
are  dark  yellow  and  without  legs.  The 
anterior  portion,  just  behind  the  head. 
is  enormously  enlarged  and  flattened, 
giving  the  insect  its  common  name, 
though  in  reality  the  head  proper  is  very 
small  and  easily  distinguished  by  the 
black  jaws.     The  pupa  is  first  white,  but 


508 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


becomes  darker  until  it  assumes  the  color 
of  the  mature  beetle. 


Fig.  1.     Tlie  Larvae  of  the  Flat-IIeaded  Apple- 
Tree    Borer    iChnisobnthiis    femorata    Fab.  i. 
and   their   worli   on   young  apple   trees. 
(Original) 

Life  History 

The  eggs  are  fastened  with  a  cement 
in  the  crevices  and  under  the  loose  scales 
of  the  bark,  either  singly  or  in  groups. 
After  hatching  the  small  grubs  bore  into 
the  sapwood  upon  which  they  feed.  Young 
trees  may  thus  be  completely  girdled  by 
their  wide  flattened  burrows.  As  the 
larvae  develop  they  work  into  the  older 
and  firmer  wood.  When  ready  to  pupate 
they  work  upward  to  the  bark,  eating 
nearly  through.  After  pupation  the 
adults  emerge  early  in  the  spring  and 
begin  egg  laying.  The  trees  selected  are 
usually  unhealthy  or  are  afflicted  with 
wounds  and  sunburns.  Upon  or  around 
such  affected  places  the  eggs  are  laid. 
The  presence  of  the  larvae  in  healthy 
tissue  may  be  told  by  the  discoloration 
of  the  bark  and  the  exudation  of  sap 
from   the   burrows. 

Distribution 

Throu.ehout  the  entire  T'nited  States. 

Food  Plants 

Especially  injurious  to  weak  or  wound- 
ed trees,  but  occasionally  attacks  young 
nursery   stock.     It   is   especially   destruc- 


tive to  the  apple,  but  also  attacks  the 
pear,  plum  and  occasionally  the  peach 
and  raspberry. 

t'ontrol 
Though  this  pest  burrows  in  the  trunks 
and  limbs  of  large  trees  it  is  most  de- 
structive to  young  trees,  the  bases  of 
which  are  often  completely  girdled. 
Therefore  young  trees  should  be  pro- 
tected from  sunburn  and  injury  to  pre- 
vent attacks  of  the  borer.  A  very  good 
preventive  is  to  paint  the  trunks  and 
larger  limbs  with  a  solution  prepared  by 
reducing  soft  soap  to  the  consistency  of 
paint,  by  the  addition  of  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  washing  soda  in  water.  This 
should  be  applied  early  in  the  spring 
(May  or  June)  and  again  in  the  middle 
of  the  summer  (July  or  August).  The 
young  burrowing  larvae  may  be  de- 
stroyed with  a  knife-blade  or  crooked 
wire. 

Natural  Enemies 

Internal  parasites  play  an  important 
role  in  the  control  of  this  pest  in  the 
East.  A  small  chalcid  and  two  ichneu- 
monid  parasites  (Bracon  charus  Riley 
and  Cryptus  graUator  Say),  prey  upon 
the  larvae,  while  woodpeckers  also  dig 
out   .great  numbers   of   them. 

The  work  of  these  natural  enemies  is 
responsible  for  its  not  doing  more  dam- 
age. E.  O.  EssiG 

Fruit  Tree  Bark  Borer 

Euzophera  semifuneralis  Walk. 

The  larvae  bore  into  the  bark  of  apple 
and  plum  and  related  trees,  not  entering 
the  wood.  Trees  are  sometimes  girdled 
by  them.  Distributed  over  the  United 
States.  The  borers  pass  the  winter  in 
silken  cocoons  beneath  the  bark;  their 
cocoons  quite  closely  resemble  those  of 
the  codling  moth.  About  May  1  the 
caterpillars  change  to  pupae  and  the 
adults  emerge  late  in  May  or  early  in 
June.  There  appears  to  be  a  second 
brood,  the  moths  appearing  the  last  of 
September. 

The  larvae  are  about  one  inch  long  and 
are  quite  variable  in  color  but  for  the 
most  part  of  a  dark  pink  or  reddish 
color. 


APPLE  PESTS 


500 


Fig.    1.      The  Fruit  Tree  Barii   Borer,      a,   caterpillar  or   horer  from   above  ;   c.   same 
from  below ;   b,  adult  moth — all   enlarged.     Delaware  Experiment   Station. 


The  moths  fly  at  night  and  are  rarely 
seen.  The  wing  expanse  is  about  an 
inch.  The  head  and  body  are  dusky 
gray  while  the  fore  wings  are  a  dusky 
gray  with  brownish-red  and  black  mark- 
ings.    The   hind   wings   are  smoky. 

Bemedies 

The  borers  are  most  commonly  found 
boring  Into  wounds,  cracks  of  the  bark, 
cut  ends  of  branches,  etc.  Such  abrasions 
should,  therefore,  be  cut  as  smooth  as 
possible  and   then   be  well   painted. 

Infested  trees  with  loose  and  cracking 
bark  should  be  well  scraped  during  the 
winter,  thus  destroying  many  of  the 
hibernating  borers,  as  well  as  many  other 
insects  with  similar  habits  (such  as  the 
codling  moth).  Trees  with  smooth  bark 
are  also  less  likely  to  be  again  attacked. 
The  borers  will  not  all  be  caught  by 
scraping,  however,  and  the  trees  should 
be  carefully  gone  over  and  all  borers  cut 
out  before  May  1.  Washing  the  trunks 
and  lower  branches  of  the  trees  with 
whale-oil  soap  or  thick  caustic  soft  soap, 
to  which  has  been  added  one  pint  of 
crude  carbolic  acid  to  every  ten  gallons. 
which  is  used  as  a  repellent  against  the 
apple  tree  borer  beetle,  may  also  prevent 
the  moths  from  depositing  their  eggs  on 
trees  so  treated.  Such  washes  should  be 
applied  before  the  middle  of  May  and 
will  be  of  value  in  repelling  other  boring 
insects. 

Subsequently  during  the  summer  the 
borers  should  be  cut  out  as  often  as  ob- 
served, which  can  be  easily  and  quickly 
done,    as   they   never   penetrate    the    sap- 


wood  and  their  presence  is  usually  no- 
ticeable by  the  borings  thrown  out  at  the 
surface  of  the  bark. 

Ronnd-Headed  Apple  Tree  Borer 

Saperda  Candida  Fabr. 
This  is  a  very  injurious  beetle  to  the 
apple  trees.  The  adult  insect  measures 
about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  is 
brown  and  has  two  broad  white  stripes 
extending  the  length  of  the  body.  The 
eggs  are  laid  on  the  bark  near  the  base 
of  the  tree  during  the  summer.  The 
larvae,  which  are  white  with  round  heads 
and  black  jaws,  hatch  within  a  short 
time  and  immediately  they  begin  to  bore 
into  the  interior  of  the  tree.  It  takes 
three  seasons  for  the  larvae  to  reach 
maturity:  the  beetles  come  out  during 
the  summer. 

Remedies 

The  larvae  may  be  detected  first  by  the 
discoloration  of  the  bark  and  later  by  the 
castings  which  have  been  pushed  out  of 
the  burrows.  The  most  effective  remedy, 
as  for  the  other  tree  borers,  is  the  dig- 
ging out  method.  Of  course  this  means 
the  making  of  additional  wounds  on  the 
trees  which  in  some  cases  may  be  as  bad 
as  the  borers.  Protecting  the  trunk  of 
the  tree  to  prevent  the  laying  of  the  eggs 
by  the  females  is  recommended.  Mosquito 
netting  wrapped  about  the  trunk  is  said 
to   be  satisfactorj'. 

Measures  used  against  the  peach  tree 
borer  ought  to  give  just  as  good  satis- 
faction with  the  round-headed  apple  tree 
borer. 


510 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.  1.     Rouud-IIeaUed  Apple  Tree  Borer.  Larva 
and  female  beetle.      (After  Chittenden) 

Spotted  Apple  Tree  Borer 

Saperda  cretata  Newm. 

Related  to  the  round-headed  borei'  and 
similar  in  appearance  except  that  it  has 
two   white  spots   on   each   wing  case. 

The  species  is  quite  widely  distributed 
having  been  found  from  Michigan  to 
Texas. 

Remedies  the  same  as  for  round-headed 
borer. 

Bronze  Apple  Tree  WeeTil 

Magdalis  aenescens  Lee. 

H.  F.  Wilson 

Like  many  of  the  common  Insects  found 
in  Oregon,  this  insect  appears  to  be  a 
native  of  the  Northwest,  and  has  only 
been  reported  from  Oregon,  Washington 
and  British  Columbia.  When  first  no- 
ticed, it  was  reported  as  destroying  whole 
apple  orchards,  but  later  observations 
show  that  most  of  the  feeding  occurs  in 
the  bark.  In  many  instances  the  bark 
appears    to    be    dead    before    the    weevils 


Fir.   ].     The  Bronze  Apple  Tree  Weevil  :  show- 
ing  egg   cells    Id    bark    o(   apple.    (Original) 


make  their  egg  punctures,  but  it  has  also 
been  noticed  that  healthy  bark  affords 
suitable  places  for  egg  deposition  and 
several  growers  in  the  Willamette  valley 
report  serious  injury  to  apple  trees. 

It  one  notices  the  egg  cells,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  1,  and  cuts  away  the  bark,  the 
larval  galleries  can  be  easily  traced  to 
where  the  larvae  are  feeding. 

The  egg  cells  are  made  by  the  female 
weevil,  which  eats  out  circular  burrows 
to  a  depth  of  .08  inch.  The  eggs  are 
then  deposited  singly  in  a  few  of  the 
pits  and  the  young  white  larvae  hatch 
from  these  in  a  week  or  two.  They  feed 
and  develop  in  these  burrows  until  fall, 
when  the  larvae  hibernate  over,  pupate 
in  the  spring  and  change  to  adults. 

The  adult  insect  is  an  elongate  bronze 
black  beetle,  measuring  about  one-fifth 
inch   in   length. 

Methods  of  Control 

Careful  examination  of  trees  in  locali- 
ties where  this  insect  is  found  and  cut- 
ting out  the  infested  areas  appears  to  be 
the  most  satisfactory  method  for  combat- 
ing  this   pest. 

Brown  Tall  Moth 

Euproctis  chrysorrhoea  Linn. 

H.    F.    WlLSON 

Accidently  introduced  into  this  country 
along  in  the  nineties  on  nursery  stock 
imported  from  Holland:  the  brown  tail 
moth  has  become  one  of  our  worst  insect 
enemies  of  orchard,  forest,  ornamental 
and   shade  trees. 

Not  now  present  in  the  Northwest  but 
over  wintering  nests  have  been  brought 
in  on  nursery  stock  and  there  is  danger 
of   its  becoming  a  pest. 

The  eggs  hatch  during  August  and  the 
larvae  live  over  winter  in  nests  of  leaves 
drawn  together  by  silken  threads.  The 
eggs  are  globular  in  shape  and  quite 
small;  they  are  laid  in  masses  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves  along  in  late 
July  and  early  August.  Each  mass  con- 
tains approximately  300  eggs,  is  brown 
in  color  and  covered  with  numerous 
brown  hairs  taken  from  the  body  of  the 
moth.  The  egg  masses  measure  two- 
thirds  of  an  inch  in  length  by  one-fourth 


APPLE  PESTS 


511 


inch  in  width.  The  larvae  when  first 
hatched  are  black  with  reddish-brown 
hairs  dorsally  placed:  on  the  fourth  and 
fifth  segments  one  may  find  a  single  large 
tuft   of  brown   hairs,   and   on   the   middle 


Fig.   1.     Brown  Tail  Moth  and   Larva, 
line  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  segments  is 
a   reddish   tubercle   which   may   be   with- 
drawn  into  the  body. 

When  full  grown  the  larvae  measure 
about  two  inches  in  length,  are  reddish- 
brown  in  color  with  two  red  spots  on  the 
back  near  the  rear  end,  and  with  a  lon- 
gitudinal row  of  white  markings  on  each 
side  of  the  abdomen.  The  body  is  also 
covered  with  numerous  tubercles  bearing 
long  barbed  hairs.  The  tubercles  along 
the  back  and  sides  of  the  abdomen  are 
thickly  covered  with  short  brown  hairs 
In  addition  to  the  longer  ones.  These 
short  hairs  are  the  ones  known  as  the 
"nettling  hairs." 

About  the  middle  of  June  the  larvae 
spin  silken  cocoons  among  the  leaves  and 
then  pupate.  Here  they  remain  for  about 
20  days,  and  begin  to  appear  as  moths 
about  the  middle  of  July.  Both  the  males 
and  the  females  are  pure  white,  with  the 
exception  of  the  abdomen,  which  is  brown 
at  the  tip;  on  account  of  these  brown 
tips  the  moth  is  known  as  the  brown  tail 
moth.  The  females  have  a  wing  expan- 
sion of  about  one  and  one-half  inches, 
the   males   one   and   one-third    inches. 

As  soon  as  they  have  copulated  the 
females  begin  depositing  the  eggs  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves.  These  hatch  in 
about  three  weeks  and  the  young  larvae 


immediately  begin  feeding  on  the  leaf 
bearing  the  egg  mass.  After  a  short  time 
they  wander  to  other  leaves  and  feed, 
returning  to  the  old  leaf  at  night.  To- 
ward fall  they  begin  forming  the  winter 
web  in  which  they  leave  exit  holes  so 
that  they  may  go  out  and  feed  during 
good  weather. 

The  Principal  Means  of  Distribution 

The  principal  means  of  distribution  to 
any  distance  is  made  by  the  importation 
of  nests  on  nursery  stock.  Having  once 
established  themselves  they  have  but 
little  difficulty  in  getting  from  orchard 
to  orchard,  as  both  males  and  females 
are  strong  fliers.  It  is  said  that  they 
have  a  habit  of  soaring  above  the  tree 
tops  and  buildings  and  so  are  carried 
long  distances  by  the  wind.  They  are 
also  attracted  to  lights  and  so  are  dis- 
tributed by  trains  and  electric  cars  into 
which   they   flj'   when   opportunity   offers. 

Food  Plants 

Pear  and  apple  are  the  favorite  food 
plants  of  this  insect,  but  nearly  all  fruit 
and  shade  trees,  excepting  the  conifers, 
are  attacked.  . 


Fig.  2.     Pupa  Cases  of  Brown  Tail  Moth. 

Methods  of  Control 

Collecting  and  destroying  the  winter 
nests  seems  to  be  the  best  method  and 
supplemented  with  spraying  for  the  newly 


512 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


hatched  young  offers  a  means  whereby 
this  Insect  can  be  held  in  check.  Unin- 
fested  trees  can  be  protected  by  applying 
bands  of  some  sticky  substance  as  tangle- 
foot or  tarred  bands. 

Natural  Enemies 

[For  several  years  past  the  government 
entomologists  have  been  importing  vari- 
ous species  of  parasitic  flies  and  predaci- 
ous beetles  which,  in  the  native  habitat 
of  the  moth  have  served  to  hold  it  in 
check.    After  some  years  of  waiting  these 


Fig.    3.      Chalcis    Flv.    Enemy    of    Brown    Tail 
Moth. 

parasites  have  at  length  increased  to  such 
numbers  as  to  begin  to  have  an  appre- 
ciable effect  in  controlling  the  moth  and 
may  eventuall.v  reduce  their  number. — 
Ed.] 

Buffalo  Tree  Hopper 

Ceresa  iubaliis  Fab. 

H.  F.  Wilson 

This  insect  is  quite  common  through- 
out the  United  States  and  may  do  con- 
siderable damage  when  abundant.  The 
common  name  applied  to  the  adults  is 
given  on  account  of  an  imaginary  simi- 
larity in  shape  to  a  male  buffalo.  The 
mature  insect  is  grass  green  in  color, 
triangular  in  shape  and  with  the  prono- 
tum  projecting  strongly  into  sharp  points 
in  front.  The  summit  of  the  pronotum 
forms  a  longitudinal  line  extending  on  a 
slant  to  the  tip  of  the  abdomen. 

The  Injury  done  by  this  insect  is 
caused  by  the  cutting  of  the  twigs  and 
limbs  of  trees  and  nursery  stock  for  the 
purpose  of  depositing  eggs.  When  abun- 
dant smaller  limbs  often  become  so  badly 
scarred    and    injured    that    they    become 


hidebound  and  cannot  grow  properly;  as 
a  result  they  are  stunted  and  unthrifty. 

In  addition,  the  scars  form  favorable 
receptacles  for  fungous  growths  and 
other  insects. 

The  habits  and  life  history  have  been 
taken  from  C.  L.  Marlatt. 

Habits  and  Life  History 

The  habits  and  life  history  of  the  buf- 
falo tree  hopper  are  as  follows:  The  adult 
insect  chooses  as  a  nidus  for  its  eggs — the 
twigs,  preferably  those  of  two  to  three 
years'  growth,  of  various  trees,  partic- 
ularly the  apple,  willow,  cottonwood, 
maple,  etc.,  confines  itself  in  general  to 
the  upper  surface  of  the  twigs.  *  *  * 
The  eggs  are  deposited  quite  as  readily 
in  the  new  growth  of  old  trees,  as  in 
young  trees,  but  the  damage  is  much 
more  noticeable  in  the  latter  case.  *     *    * 

In  depositing  the  eggs  the  bark  is  cut 
by  the  ovipositor  in  such  a  way  that  the 
narrow  bark  intervening  between  the  two 
incisions  is  cut  entirely  loose.  This  has 
a  very  important  bearing  on  the  subse- 
quent condition  of  the  wounds  made  by 
the  insect  in  oviposition.  The  object  is 
doubtless  to  cause  a  deadening  of  the 
wood  between  the  two  rows  of  eggs,  to 
prevent  their  being  crushed  and  choked 
out  by  the  subsequent  rapid  growth  of 
the  twig,  and  it  is  due  to  this  peculiarity 
that  the  injury  later  assumes  so  serious 
a  nature.  A  single  incision  made  by  the 
insect  to  contain  its  eggs  would  heal  over 
and  cause  little  after-damage,  but  with 
the  combination  of  two  incisions  and  the 
killing  of  the  intervening  bark,  causing 
it  to  adhere  to  the  wood,  a  large  scar  is 
produced,  which,  with  each  subsequent 
year's  growth,  enlarges  and  ultimately 
assumes  an  oval  form,  the  dead  bark  of 
the  center  breaking  out.  After  a  few 
years,  limbs  which  have  been  thickly 
worked  on  by  the  insect,  become  very 
scabby  and  rough,  are  easily  broken  off 
by  the  wind  and  are  very  liable  to  attack 
by   wood-boring   insects. 

The  adults  first  appear  about  the  mid- 
dle of  July  and  become  most  numerous 
during  August,  or  even  earlier,  and  con- 
tinue this  work  until  they  are  killed  by 


APPLE  PESTS 


513 


the  frosts  of  early  winter,  sometimes 
working  as  late  as  the  end  of  October. 
The  number  of  eggs  deposited  by  a  single 
female  exceeds  100,  and  possibly  200.  The 
eggs  remain  unchanged,  or  dormant,  in 
the  twigs  until  the  following  spring. 
hatching  in  May  or  early  in  June.    *    •    * 


Fig.    1.     The    Buffalo    Tree    Hopper:     Female — 
enlarged.       (After    Marlatt.) 

The  eggs  of  the  buffalo  tree  hopper  are 
subject  to  the  attaclvs  of  at  least  two 
minute  egg  parasites,  which  often  do 
much  to  keep  the   insect  in  check. 

In  general  characteristics  the  larvae 
and  nymphs  resemble  the  adults,  but  are 
wingless  and  covered  along  the  center 
dorsally  with  numerous  forked  or  barbed 
projections. 

Food  Plants 

All  kinds  of  succulent  plants  such  as 
weeds  and  garden  vegetables  are  fed 
upon,  but  in  this  respect  the  insect  is  not 
a   serious   pest. 

Remedies 

The  destruction  of  the  insects  them- 
selves is  hardly  practical.  By  limiting 
the  amount  of  unnecessary  vegetation  in 
and  about  nurseries  and  orchards,  a  great 


deal  can  be  done  toward  keeping  down 
the  insect  in  the  larval  and  pupal  stages. 
Pruning  out  and  burning  the  infested 
twigs  will  also  materially  decrease  their 
numbers.  Clean  cultivation  will  probably 
do  more  than  all  other  precautions. 

Canker  Worm 

Notolopus  sp. 
H.  F.  Wilson 

In  the  early  spring,  after  the  apple 
leaf  buds  have  opened,  we  often  find 
numbers  of  little  darkish  colored  measur- 
ing worms,  which  feed  on  the  leaves. 
These  are  called  canker  worms  and  are 
apparently  different  from  our  Eastern 
canker  worms.  The  eggs  of  this  insect 
are  deposited  on  the  trunks  and  leaves 
and  hatch  in  the  spring.  When  first 
hatched  the  larvae  are  very  small  and 
such  feeding  as  they  do  is  not  apparent. 
As  they  increase  in  size  the  entire  leaf, 
with  the  exception  of  the  midrib  and 
larger  veins,  is  devoured.  About  four 
weeks  after  hatching  the  larvae  are  full 
fed  and  then  drop  to  the  ground,  enter 
to  a  depth  of  a  few  inches  and  pupate. 
They  remain  here  until  late  fall  or  early 
spring,  when  they  change  to  the  adult 
insect.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  masses 
by  wingless  moths  of  sluggish  appearance 
that  gradually  crawl  up  a  small  twig,  de- 
positing the  eggs  as  they  move  forward. 

The  female  moth  is  brownish  in  color 
with  a  slight  tinge  of  gray  and  measures 
about  three-fourths  inch  in  length.  The 
male  moth  has  not  been  observed.  As 
the  female  moth  is  unable  to  fly,  this 
species  is  distributed  very  slowly,  and 
since  the  larvae  readily  succumb  to  ar- 
senical poisons,  there  is  very  little  chance 
for  this  pest  to  ever  become  very  serious. 

The  same  remark  would  apply  to  the 
fall  canker  worms. 

Casebearers 

Coleophora  fletcTierella 
C.  malivoreUa 
The  cigar  casebearer  [Coleophora 
-fletchereUa)  and  the  pistol  casebearer  iC. 
■malivoreUa) ,  so  named  from  the  shape 
of  their  cases,  are  insects  which  may  do 
a  considerable  amount  of  injury  but 
which    may    be    controlled    by    spraying 


514 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


properly.  The  adults  are  moths  measur- 
ing about  one-half  inch  from  tip  to  tip  of 
the  wings.  The  larvae  hibernate  in  cases 
attached  to  twigs.  In  spring  they  feed 
on  the  opening  buds  and  the  new  foliage 
till  full  grown,  living  all  the  time  in  cases 
which  are  readily  seen  projecting  from 
the  surface  of  the  bud  or  leaf.  They  also 
attack  the  flowers  and  fruit.  The  case- 
bearers  are  distributed  from  Nova  Scotia 
westward  to  the  Mississippi  and  south- 
ward. They  are  held  in  check  by  a  mi- 
nute parasite. 

Treatment 

Spray  with  kerosene  emulsion  or  Paris 
green  early  in  spring  before  the  leaf  buds 
are  opening.  Orchards  regularly  treated 
for  codling  moth  will   not  be  troubled. 

Caterpili.ahs.  See  Tent  Caterpillar. 
Red  Humped  Caterpillar. 

Cecropia   Moth 

Samia   cecropia 

This  is  the  largest  caterpillar  and  moth 
occurring  in  the  United  States.  The 
caterpillar  measures,  when  grown,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  four  inches  in  length  and 
bears  along  the  back  blunt  tubercles, 
some  red,  some  yellow,  some  blue.  Some 
of  the  larger  moths  have  a  wing  expanse 
of  seven  inches. 

The  magnificent  moth  of  this  insect  is 
so  striking  in  size  and  colors  that  most 
people  who  have  lived  in  the  country  or 
in  villages  have  at  some  time  had  their 
attention  arrested  by  it.  The  larvae  is 
not  less  striking,  but  its  green  colors  are 
so  like  those  of  the  leaves  that  it  is  not 
often  seen,  unless  several  of  them  should 
denude  a  small  tree  or  two  in  a  door- 
yard,  I  have  known  a  couple  of  the 
ravenous  fellows  to  clear  the  leaves  from 
a  young  apple  tree  pretty  completely. 

The  pupa  stage  is  passed  in  a  large 
reddish  gray  cocoon,  consisting  of  tough 
layers,  the  outer  one  separated  by  a  layer 
of  loose  silk  from  an  inner  oval,  com- 
pletely closed  over  surrounding  the  pupa. 
Not  important.  H.   G.vkm.^n, 

r^pxington,    K.v. 

('limbing  Cutworms 

(Various    species) 
Sometimes  the  expanding  buds  of  apple 
and  other  fruit  trees  are  eaten  into  and 


destroyed,  yet  no  destructive  agent  is  in 
evidence  to  account  for  the  damage. 
Some  parts  of  the  tree  fail  to  leaf  out, 
or  the  young  leaves  on  an  entire  branch 
suddenly  disappear.  Some  of  the  blos- 
soms are  found  to  have  a  hole  cut 
through  the  side  of  the  calyx  and  the 
ovary  consumed.  Such  damage  is  usually 
indicative  of  the  work  of  climbing  cut- 
worms which  feed  at  night.  Several  dif- 
ferent species  work  such  injury.  Band- 
ing the  trees  as  for  canker  worms,  with 
sticky  materials,  cotton  batting  or  tin  col- 
lars is  perhaps  the  most  reliable  measure. 
Poisoned  bran  mash  used  in  conjunction 
with  banding  is  very  effective.  Where 
early  spraying  is  done  for  the  bud  worms 
and  casebearers  or  canker  worms,  prob- 
ably no  other  measure  will  be  needed. 

H.    A.    GOSSARD, 

Wooster.  Ohio. 

Codling  Moth 

Carpocapsa  pomonella  Linn, 

By  H.  F.  Wilson 

The  codling  moth  must  everywhere  be 
considered  an  important  factor  in  apple, 
and  to  a  less  extent,  in  pear  growing. 
It  occurs  in  every  important  apple  grow- 
ing section  of  the  world,  and  wherever 
repressive  measures  are  not  employed, 
annually  destroys  one-fourth  or  more  of 
the   crop. 

Supposed  Immune  Regions — The  above 
statement  is  made  notwithstanding  the 
repeated  appearance  of  reports  of  new  or 
little  developed  fruit  regions  which,  by 
reason  of  some  especially  favorable  soil 
or  climatic  condition,  are  supposed  to  be 
immune. 

Orchardists  who  are  located,  or  who 
contemplate  locating  in  such  supposed 
favored  regions  are  cautioned  against  re- 
lying too  implicitly  upon  the  continued  ab- 
sence of  the  codling  moth,  unless  active, 
intelligent  effort,  rather  than  blind  reli- 
ance upon  an  unknown  factor,  be  made 
to  prevent  its  gaining  a  good  foothold. 
During  the  past  fifteen  years  we  have 
seen  this  idea  of  immunity  dispelled 
in  locality  after  locality  in  the  Pacific 
Northwest,  and  when  we  consider  that 
the  codling  moth  is  a  serious  pest  in 
England,    on    the     continent     of     Europe 


APPLE  PESTS 


515 


from  Mediterranean  regions  to  the  north- 
ern limits  of  apple  growing  in  Siberia, 
in  Southern  Africa.  Australia,  New  Zea- 
land, Tasmania  and  China,  as  well  as 
In  the  United  States  and  Canada,  we 
are  forced  to  recognize  the  improbability 
of.  perpetually  immune  regions.  Once  it 
gains  a  foothold  the  codling  moth  will 
thrive  wherever  the  apple  can  be  grown 
successfully. 

We  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as 
arguing  that  the  codling  moth  will  be- 
come equally  destructive  in  all  localities, 
or  that  its  prevalence  is  independent  of 
climatic  conditions.  Rather  the  contrary 
is  true,  since  the  seriousness  of  its  depre- 
dations varies  with  both  the  locality  and 
the  season.  Temperature  is  the  great  fac- 
tor which  controls  the  abundance  of  a 
species  in  a  given  locality;  hence,  as  the 
female  moth  deposits  eggs  freely  only 
when  the  evening  temperature  is  above  60 
degrees  Fahrenheit,  we  should  expect  to 
find,  as  indeed  we  do  find,  that  the  orch- 
ards in  the  coast  regions  west  of  the  Cas- 
cades, and  those  of  the  inland  plateau 
sections,  are  less  subject  to  the  ravages 
of  the  codling  moth  than  those  of  the  in- 
land valleys.  This  factor  is  of  but  little 
practical  importance,  however,  and  should 
be  given  scant  consideration  in  the  selec- 
tion of  an  orchard  site.  The  probability 
is  that  as  orchards  become  more  numer- 
ous, active  repressive  measures  against 
the  codling  moth  will  become  necessary. 
even  in  the  most  favored  localities. 

Know  All  Stages — Efficient  spraying 
operations  and  the  proper  application  of 
other  repressive  measures  against  the 
codling  moth  are  so  intimately  linked  with 
Its  habits,  and  these  habits  so  varying, 
within  certain  limits,  with  the  locality  and 
the  season,  that  every  grower  should  be- 
come familiar  with  it  in  all  of  its  stages. 
Unfortunately,  however,  growers  do  not 
seem  fully  to  recognize  the  importance  of 
such  information,  or  consider  it  too  tech- 
nical and  difficult  to  obtain.  Consequent- 
ly few  actually  do  know  it  in  any  other 
than  the  larval  or  "worm"  stage,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  a  "speaking 
acquaintance"  with  all  stages  is  easily 
acquired. 


The  codling  moth,  in  common  with 
many  other  insects,  passes  through  four 
sharply  defined  stages  during  its  develop- 
ment, viz.:  the  egg,  the  larva  or  "worm," 
the  pupa,  and  the  moth  or  adult.  All 
four  stages  from  the  egg  to  the  moth 
inclusive  constitute  a  generation  or  a 
"brood,"  and  since  this  cycle  from  egg  to 
moth  is  completed  twice  during  the  year, 
the  insect  is  said  to  pass  through  two 
generations  yearly,  or  to  be  "two 
brooded."  In  some  of  the  warmer  apple 
growing  sections  of  the  South  three 
broods  are  reported.  During  the  winter 
It  exists  only  in  the  larval  state,  but  dur- 
ing a  greater  portion  of  the  summer 
months  it  may  be  found  in  all  four 
stages. 

The  Egg — The  eggs,  which  ai'e  laid 
singly,  are  minute,  nearly  circular  scale- 
like objects  about  one-twentieth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  pearly  white  in  color 
and  somewhat  translucent.  They  may 
well  be  likened  to  minute  trout  scales 
glued  to  the  surface  of  a  leaf  or  fmit. 
The  surface  of  the  egg,  however,  is  finely 
wrinkled  and  so  reflects  the  light  that  it 
appears  as  a  minute  glistening  speck,  if 
the  fruit  or  leaf  to  which  it  is  attached 
is  held  at  the  correct  angle  before  the 
eye.  In  two  to  four  days  after  oviposi- 
tion  the  developing  larva  becomes  dis- 
tinctly visible  as  a  black  spot  near  the 
center  of  this  circle  and  the  outline  of 
the  whole  body  is  discernible  for  a  day 
or  two  before  the  egg  hatches.  The  eggs 
hatch  in  from  seven  to  ten  days. 

The  Lan-a — When  first  hatched  the 
young  larva  is  scarcely  one-sixteenth  of 
an  inch  long.  The  head  is  large,  black 
and  shining;  the  body  is  slender,  translu- 
cent white  in  color  and  marked  with  dis- 
tinct black  spots,  each  of  which  has  a 
minute  bristle.  Owing  to  their  minute 
size  and  to  the  fact  that  they  usually 
enter  the  fruit  very  soon  after  hatching, 
these  young  larvae  are  rarely  seen.  As 
the  larva  develops  it  molts  five  times; 
the  color  of  the  head  and  the  thoracic 
and  anal  shields  turn  black  to  brown,  and 
the  body  acquires  a  pinkish  tinge.  The 
full-grown  larva  is  about  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  long  and  one-twelfth  of  an  inch 


516 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


in  diameter.  The  duration  of  the  larval 
stage  is  from  sixteen  to  twenty-four  days. 

The  Pupa — Shortly  after  becoming  full 
grown  the  larva  leaves  the  apple  and 
seeks  some  protected  spot  in  which  to 
hide  while  passing  through  its  transfor- 
mations from  larva  to  pupa,  then  to 
moth.  Having  found  a  suitable  place,  it 
hollows  out  a  little  oval  cavity  with  its 
jaws  and  proceeds  to  envelop  itself  in  a 
thin  tough  cocoon  of  silken  threads  in- 
termingled with  particles  of  the  excavated 
material.  When  completed,  the  cocoon  is 
usually  oval  in  form  and  about  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  long.  When  the  pupal 
stage  Is  reached  the  insect  remains  in 
that  stage  for  about  three  weeks,  and 
then  emerges  as  the  adult  or  moth. 

The  Moth  or  Adult — The  moths  are 
really  beautiful  little  creatures.    The  body 


is  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  long  and 
is  of  a  modest  greyish  brown  color.  The 
fore  wings  when  fully  expanded  measure 
about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  from  tip 
to  tip  and  are  of  approximately  the  same 
color  as  the  body  but  relieved  by  incon- 
spicuous, transverse  wavy  lines  or  lighter 
scales.  The  hind  wings  which  are  en- 
tirely covered  when  the  insect  is  at  rest 
are  nearly  slate  colored  and  are  clothed 
with  long  hairs.  The  most  characteristic 
marking  is  a  large  golden  brown  spot  at 
the  posterior  outer  angle  of  each  front 
wing.  No  other  insect  is  known  which 
has  this  marking  and  no  insect  need  be 
mistaken  for  the  codling  moth.  The  males 
are  further  distinguished  by  a  narrow 
pencil  of  black  hairs  on  the  hind  wings 
and  an  elongated  black  spot  on  the  upper 
surface  of  each  front  wing. 


Fig.  1.  Codling  moth.  A,  adult  moth  with  wings  expanded :  B.  esK  much  enlarged  ;  C,  halt  of 
worm-eaten  apple:  D,  cocoon  with  empty  pupa  shell  protruding;  E,  cocoon  with  pupa  en- 
closed; F,  leaf  and  apple  showing  eggs  of  a  codling  moth;  G.  caterpillar  or  "apple  worm" 
enlarged:  H.  a,  young  apple  just  attcr  petals  fall;  b,  cup  beginning  to  close;  c,  too  late  to 
spray.      (Montana  Experiment  Station.) 


APPLE  PESTS 


517 


Owing  to  their  coloring,  which  resem- 
bles closely  that  of  the  bark  upon  which 
they  often  rest,  and  their  habit  of  re- 
maining quiet  during  the  daytime,  these 
moths  can  very  rarely  be  detected  in  the 
orchard.  Occasionally  one  may  be  seen 
flitting  about  the  trees  at  twilight,  and 
very  rarely  we  have  observed  them  resting 


Fig.   2.      Adult  Resting  on  Apple. 

quietly  upon  the  bark  and  leaves  and 
even  on  the  ground.  When  disturbed 
they  start  away  with  a  swift  zig-zag  mo- 
tion very  hard  to  follow.  For  the  purpose 
of  depositing  eggs  they  normally  fly  only 
during  the  warm  nights,  and  are  pre- 
sumably most  active  during  the  twilight 
period. 

Recommendations  for  Northwest 

Conditions  which  are  found  in  the  East- 
ern states  have  but  little  bearing  upon 
somewhat  dissimilar  conditions  found  in 
this  section.  Early  spraying  alone  will 
not  save  the  fruit,  and  it  is  not  only  prac- 
ticable but  necessary  to  fight  the  second 
brood.  So  far  as  the  codling  moth  is  con- 
cerned, early  applications,  after  the  calyx 
lobes  close  are  of  very  little  value  in 
Western  Oregon  and  Washington.  In  the 
orchard  sections  of  those  regions  the 
petals  fall  from  the  first  week  in  May  to 
several  weeks  later  in  sections  along  the 
coast. 

The  first  larvae  enter  the  fruit  at  Cor- 
vallis,  Oregon,  rarely  before  June  25,  so 
that  a  period  of  about  six  or  seven  weeks 
exists  between  the  time  of  the  calyx  spray 


and  the  time  when  the  larvae  enter  the 
fruit.  This  is  in  a  great  measure  due 
probably  to  the  fact  that  the  eggs  of  the 
codling  moth  are  not  deposited  until  the 
evening  temperatures  reach  60  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  or  above. 

At  Roseburg,  Oregon,  the  records  of  the 
U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  for  the  past  ten 
years  were  examined  and  notes  made  as 
follows:  After  May  20,  at  dusk  of  each 
day  the  temperature  is  about  60  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  or  above.  Beginning  with  June 
1  the  evening  temperature,  up  to  12 
o'clock,  does  not  fall  below  65  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  At  Roseburg,  June  8,  eggs, 
hatched  and  unhatched,  were  found  with 
an  occasional  larva  entering  the  fruit. 

At  Medford,  Oregon,  the  larvae  begin 
to  work  in  the  fruit  about  the  same  time. 

Becommendations   for  Spraying  in 
Northwest 

Make  at  least  three  applications  and  in 
renovating  old  orchards  a  fourth  will  not 
do  any  harm. 

1.  In  all  sections  spray  immediately 
after  the  petals  fall. 

2.  In  all  sections  of  Western  Oregon  and 
Washington  it  is  not  necessary  to  spray 
two  weeks  after  the  first  application. 
Make  the  second  application  approximate- 
ly six  weeks  after  the  calyx  spray,  and 
the  third  about  five  weeks  after  the  sec- 
ond. Where  a  fourth  application  is  deemed 
necessary,  spray  about  three  weeks  after 
the  third. 

3.  In  sections  of  the  Northwest,  east  of 
the  Cascade  mountains,  spray  from  two  to 
three  weeks  after  the  first  application,  de- 
pending upon  the  weather  conditions. 
Make  a  third  application  five  weeks  after 
the  second  and  a  fourth  two  weeks  later 
than  the  third. 

Poisons  To  Be  Used 

Paris  green,  London  purple,  arsenate  of 
lime,  and  arsenate  of  lead,  are  the  prin- 
cipal arsenites  which  have  been  used  for 
spraying.  At  present  the  last-named  is 
practically  the  only  one  used.  The  prin- 
cipal brands  upon  the  market  at  present 
are  Bean's  Ortho  13,  Better  Spray,  Gras- 
selli's  Star,  Lyons',  Swift's,  and  Sherwin- 
Williams.  These  fall  readily  into  two 
classes,   viz.:    the   neutral   ortho-arsenates 


518 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


and  the  acid  arsenates.  In  those  of  the 
first  group  the  ratio  of  lead  oxide  to  ar- 
senic oxide  is  approximately  3  to  1.  In 
those  of  the  second  group  the  ratio  is  as  2 
to  1.  The  neutral  or  ortho-arsenates  are 
made  by  combining  lead  acetate  and  so- 
dium arsenate;  the  acid  arsenates  by  us- 
ing lead  nitrate  in  place  of  lead  acetates. 
The  insecticidal  value  of  the  various 
brands  depends  upon  the  actual  amount  of 
lead  arsenate  which  is  present. 

Concerning  the  relative  value  of  neutral 
and  acid  arsenates  no  reliable  experiments 
have  demonstrated  the  superiority  of 
either.  It  is  commonly  believed  that  the 
acid  arsenates  are  more  likely  to  burn 
foliage  and  we  have  received  reports  of 
injury  from  the  use  of  Swift's  which 
would  seem  to  support  the  inference. 
Manufacturers  advise  using  3  pounds  ar- 
senate of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  water.  We 
usually  recommend  2  pounds,  and  Me- 
lander,  of  Washington,  recommends  to 
drench  the  trees  with  a  weak  solution  of 
1  pound  to  50  gallons.  Recently  there 
has  been  placed  upon  the  market  a  prod- 
uct known  as  zinc  arsenite,  which  is  said 
to  be  cheaper  and  better  than  arsenate  of 
lead.  Several  growers  have  reported  in- 
jury from  this  spray  and  it  does  not  ap- 
pear favorable.  We  have  experimented 
with  this  spray  during  the  past  season 
and  found  it  quite  satisfactory. 

fotfony   Maple    Scale 

Pulvinaria  vitis  Linn. 
Pulvinaria  innumerahilis  Rathv. 

General  Appearance 

This  species  can  be  easily  recognized 
in  early  summer  by  the  large  white  cot- 
tony egg-sacs  which  are  posterior  to  the 
brown  female  bodies. 

Life  History 

The  eggs  are  very  small,  oval,  and 
white  to  yellow  in  color.  They  are  de- 
posited in  the  large,  loose,  cottony  sacs, 
which  are  secreted  by  the  females.  The 
young  first  settle  on  the  leaves  and  later 
move  to  the  limbs.  The  males  appear 
late  in  the  fall  to  mate  and  die.  In  the 
spring  the  females  increase  very  rapidly 
and  after  egg-laying  shrivel  and  die. 
There  is  but  one  generation  a  year. 


Distribution 

Maine  to  California. 

Food  Plants 

Maple,  pear,  apple,  plum,  peach,  grape, 
sumach,  linden,  sycamore,  locust,  beech, 
elm,  oak,  orange,  box-elder,  spindle-tree, 
mulberry,  alder,  hawthorn,  lilac,  black- 
berry, willow. 

Control 

Kerosene  and  carbolic  acid  emulsions, 
or  resin  wash,  applied  when  the  young 
are  hatching  will  aid  in  reducing  the 
coming  broods. 

Natural  Enemies 

There  are  many  natural  enemies,  in- 
cluding Rhizohius  ventralis,  Coccophagus 
lecanii  and  Encyrtus  flavus,  which  prey 
upon  this  coccid. 

E.  O.  EssiG 
Curculio 
Anthonomus   guadrigibbus   Say 
C onotrachehis  nenuphar  Herbst. 

Two  species  attack  the  apple.  The 
plum  curculio  and  the  apple  curculio. 
ConotracUeliis  nenuphar,  Herbst.  and 
Anthonomus  guadrigibbus.  Say.  Doubt- 
less the  curculio  does  more  injury  to  the 
apple  crop  in  some  of  the  Central  states 
than  any  other  insect  except  the  codling 
moth.  It  is  a  snout  beetle  about  one- 
fourth  inch  long  and  of  a  dark  grayish 
color.  The  snout  is  long  and  slender  and 
may  be  folded  under  the  body.  The  beetle 
winters  under  rubbish  or  in  the  soil  and 
in  early  spring  begins  feeding  on  the 
opening  leaves.  After  fruit  sets  it  may 
gnaw  little  holes  in  the  fruit,  but  it  does 
most  damage  by  laying  its  eggs  in  the 
fruit,  cutting  a  crescent  flap  at  the  place 
where  the  egg  is  laid. 

This  insect  infests  the  plum,  cherry, 
and  peach,  as  well  as  the  apple.  Com- 
paratively few  of  its  larvae  develop  in  the 
apple  but  they  develop  freely  in  the  plum 
and  sweet  cherry.  They  develoi)  less 
readily  in  the  sour  cherry  and  peach. 
Since  damage  to  peach,  cherry  and  plum 
often  results  from  the  fruit  rot  fungus 
entering  through  the  wounds  made  by 
the    curculio.      Orchards    well    cared    for 


APPLE  PESTS 


519 


and  sprayed  for  codling  moth  and  other 
pests  will  not  be  unduly  troubled. 

S.  A.  Beach, 

Ames,    la. 

Reference. — Illinois  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin   No.   98. 

CuKTis  Scale.  See  European  Fruit 
Scale,  this  section. 

Ermine  Moth 

Yponomentidae 

Small  moths  with  snowy  white,  black 
dotted  front  wings.  The  hind  wings  are 
gray  or  leaden  in  color. 

Imported  to  New  York  from  Europe 
upon  nursery  stock. 

As  the  larvae  feed  upon  the  foliage 
they  are  easily  controlled  by  arsenical 
sprays. 

They  attack  apple  and  cherry  as  well 
as  a  variety  of  other  plants. 


Geneva  Technical   Bulletin   No.   24. 
EuBOPEAN  Fruit  Lecanium.    See  Prune. 

European  Fruit  Scale  or  Curtis  Scale 

Aspidiotus  Ostreaeformis 
The  female  is  circular  or  broadly  oval 
in  outline,  dark  ashy  gray  in  color  with 
paler  margin;  sometimes  the  scale  is 
nearly  white.  The  exuvia  is  central  or 
nearly  so,  dark  brown,  usually  naked  and 
glossy.     Diameter  %  of  an  inch. 

life  History 

The  winter  is  passed  by  partly  grown 
individuals  which  become  mature  early 
in  the  summer.  The  insect  gives  birth 
to  living  young  which  begin  to  appear 
soon  after  the  maturity  of  the  female.  In 
this  State  they  are  apparently  but  one 
brooded. 

This  scale  has  been  recorded  from  a 
number  of  different  plants,  among  them, 
the  apple,  pear,  plum,  peach,  cherry, 
birch,  poplar,  horse  chestnut,  basswood, 
alder,  haw,  maple,  aspen,  oak.  etc.  It 
has  been  reported  in  this  country  from 
Maine,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Michi- 
gan. Ohio,  Iowa,  Idaho,  California  and 
several  other  states.  In  Maine  it  is  most 
frequently  found  on  large  trees  in  old 
and  neglected  orchards,  though  we  have 
records  also  of  its  occurrence  on  cur- 
rant bushes.     Specimens  the  past  season 


Fig.  1.  The  European  Iruii  Si  ale  on  Branch 
of  Apricot.  (Essig.  Bulletin  li.  Vent.  Co. 
ilort.   Com.,  Cal.i 

were   received  from   Brunswick,  Millvale, 
Buckfield  and  W.  Auburn. 

Remedies 

Spraying  with  lime-sulphur  late  in  the 
winter  or  early  spring  before  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  leaves  will   control  it. 

O.  A.  Johansen, 

Orono,   Me. 

Eye  Spotted  Bud  Moth 

Tmetocera  ocellana  Schliett 

H.  F.  Wilson 
The  larvae  of  this  moth  resemble  those 
of  the  Peach  and  Prune  Twig  Miner  quite 
closely,  and  they  are  often  mistaken  one 
for  the  other,  but  the  latter  work  only 
on  the  stone  fruits,  while  the  former 
work  on  practically  all  of  the  orchard 
trees.  By  careful  examination  they  can 
readily  be  distinguished  by  the  anal 
shield,  which  on  the  above  insect  is  shin- 
ing   black    like    the    head    and    thoracic 


520 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


shield,  while  that  of  the  twig  miner  is 
the  same  as  the  rest  of  the  body.  When 
fully  grown,  the  larvae  are  one-half  inch 
long  and  of  a  dirty  gray  color.  They  are 
not  yet  full  grown  with  the  opening  of 
the  buds  in  spring  and  will  feed  upon 
the  blossoms  during  the  entire  blossom- 
ing period.  They  may  mat  the  blossoms 
and  leaves  of  a  cluster  together  with  their 
silken  threads  within  which  they  feed, 
making  it  difficult  to  reach  them  with 
spray. 

Life  History 

The  larvae,  like  those  of  the  twig 
miner,  winter  on  the  twigs  and  branches 
in  an  immature  condition,  but  while  the 
twig  miner  excavates  a  cavity  in  the 
bark,,  the  larvae  of  the  bud  moth  form 
minute  inconspicuous  cocoons  on  the 
bark.  This  is  a  peculiar  habit  of  a  few 
larvae  that  form  cocoons  before  reaching 
maturity. 

As  the  buds  start  in  spring  the  larvae 
leave  their  winter  quarters  and  begin 
feeding  upon  the  outcoming  leaves  and 
blossoms.  They  mature  in  early  May, 
pupate,  and  in  from  10  to  14  days  appear 
as  adults.  The  moths  deposit  eggs  in 
late  May  and  early  June,  probably  upon 
the  leaves  (although  this  has  not  been 
determined).  The  young  larvae  feed  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  and 
skeletonize  them,  especially  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  midrib.  So  far  as  known, 
there  is  but  one  generation,  although 
from  the  shortness  of  the  life  cycle,  it  is 
apparent  that  moths  from  the  first  brood 
might  produce  a  second  generation  that 
would  mature  in  time  to  deposit  eggs 
for  the   spring  forms. 

Remedies 

There  are  three  methods  of  control. 
The  first  is  to  spray  the  trees  before  the 
buds  start  in  spring  in  order  to  destroy 
the  overwintering  larvae.  One  applica- 
tion of  crude  oil  emulsion  or  kerosene 
emulsion,  applied  just  before  the  buds 
start,  would  be  the  most  effective  means 
for  this. 

The  second  method  is  to  spray  with  ar- 
senicals  when  the  larvae  are  feeding 
upon  the  foliage  and  blossoms,  but  they 


are  sometimes  hard  to  reach,  especially 
when  they  have  matted  the  blossoms  to- 
gether. The  pome  fruits  that  are  well 
sprayed  for  the  codling  moth  will  not  be 
bothered  with  the  bud  moth. 

Third.  Recent  experiments  tend  to 
show  that  the  best  time  to  spray  for 
this  insect  is  in  the  fall  at  a  time  when 
the  larvae  are  working  on  the  under  side 
of  the  leaves.  This  spray  applied  about 
September  1,  will  also  help  to  catch  a 
great  many  codling  moth  larvae. 

Fall  Web  Worm 

Hyphantria  cunea  Dru 
The  moth  producing  this  caterpillar  is 
white  and  sometimes  has  a  few  black  spots 
on  the  wings.  The  larvae  hatching  from 
masses  of  eggs  laid  on  different  parts 
of  the  trees  spin  their  webs  which  ex- 
tend over  quite  an  area.  These  webs 
may  be  noticed  in  the  Mesilla  valley  by 
the  middle  of  July  on  a  number  of  trees, 
but  more  particularly  on  the  cottonwood 
and  poplar.  The  caterpillars  will  first  eat 
all  the  leaves  within  the  web,  then  those 
nearest  by,  often  defoliating  the  entire 
tree.      The  worm  is  noticeably    set    with 


Fit;.  1.  Fall  Web  Worm.  a.  b.  caterpillars:  d. 
moth.  (Howard,  yearbook,  1895,  B.  of  Ent. 
U.   S.  D.  A.) 


APPLE  PESTS 


521 


tufts  of  bristle-like  projections.  Two 
broods  are  reported,  the  last  one  seems 
to  be  the  worst.  This  insect  is  sometimes 
confused  with  the  tent  caterpillar  which 
appears  in  the  spring  and  builds  its  webs 
in  the  forks  of  the  limbs. 

Remedies 

The  clusters  of  eggs  on  the  limbs  should 
be  destroyed  if  possible  when  the  leaves 
are  off.  The  webs  or  tents  may  be  cut  out 
and  destroyed  or  they  may  be  burned 
with  a  torch.  If  this  cannot  be  done 
spray  with  standard  solutions  of  some  of 
the  arsenical  mixtures. 

Fabian  Garcia 

Fruit  Tree  Bark  Beetle 

Scolytiis  rugulosus  Ratz 

General    Cbaracteristics    and    Metliod    of 
Work 

Orchard  trees  are  subject  to  the  attack 
of  a  small  boring  insect,  the  fruit  tree 
bark  beetle  (Scolytiis  rugulosus  Ratz),  its 
presence  being  manifested  by  what  are 
called  "worm  holes,"  minute  round  open- 
ings in  the  outer  bark  scarcely  a  sixteenth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  accompanied  by 
wilting  of  the  leaves  and  shriveling  of  the 
bark,  and,  in  the  case  of  stone-fruit  trees, 
by  more  or  less  copious  exudations  of 
gum.  The  first  appearing  holes  are  made 
by  the  parent  beetles  in  entering  the  bark 
to  deposit  their  eggs,  but  later,  if  no  effort 
is  made  to  check  the  insect's  work,  the 
bark  will  be  found  thickly  "peppered" 
with  holes  as  though  by  fine  bird  shot. 
These  are  the  exit  holes  of  beetles  that 
have  in  their  larval  stage  mined  and  de- 
veloped under  the  bark. 

Distribution 

Since  first  observed  in  this  country  in 
1877  the  species  has  spread  pretty  general- 
ly from  New  York  westward  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi states. 

Life  History 

As  early  as  the  middle  of  March,  first  of 
April  or  later  in  May,  according  to  local- 
ity and  season,  the  parent  beetles  make 
their  first  appearance  and  may  be  seen 
crawling  about  orchard  trees  and  begin- 
ning to  burrow  through  the  bark.  After 
penetrating   to   the   sapwood,    the    female 


constructs,  partly  within  the  bark  and 
partly  in  the  wood  next  to  it,  a  vertical 
gallery  or  brood  chamber,  and  along  the 
sides  of  this  at  very  short  intervals  gnaws 
little  pockets  in  which  she  deposits  her 
eggs.  The  minute,  whitish,  grub-like  lar- 
vae hatching  from  these  eggs  excavate 
little  side  galleries,  which  start  out  at 
right  angles  to  the  brood  chamber  but 
soon  diverge  and  widen  with  the  increase 
in  size  of  the  growing  larvae.  Much 
more  frequently  this  insect  lives  in  such 
numbers,  with  its  galleries  so  closely 
packed  together  under  the  bark  of  a 
tree,  that  it  is  with  difficulty  that  individ- 
ual galleries  can  be  distinguished. 

The  complete  transformation  from  egg 
to  adult  occupies  from  four  to  six  weeks. 
There  are  two,  and  possibly  three,  broods. 

Keniedies 

The  beetles  are  held  in  check  by  a  num- 
ber of  parasites.  The  "cutting  out" 
method  in  use  against  other  borers  is  of 
little  avail  in  this  case. 

Where  clean  culture  is  practised  and 
trees  are  regularly  sprayed  for  codling 
moth  and  scale  these  insects  will  be  in 
large  measure  repelled.  The  beetles  may 
be  killed  in  specially  infested  areas  by 
light  applications  of  kerosene  oil.  after 
which  these  areas  should  be  cut  away. 


From   Div.    Ento.   Circular  29,   Revised. 

Fruit  Tree  Leaf  Roller 

ArcTiips  argyrospila  Walk 

Introduction 

Until  quite  recently  the  fruit  tree  leaf 
roller  (Archips  argyrospila  Walk)  has 
been  looked  upon  as  an  insect  of  only 
minor  importance  to  cultivated  crops. 
During  the  past  few  years,  however,  it 
has  become  unusually  abundant  and  has 
caused  considerable  loss  to  fruit  grow- 
ers in  certain  sections,  notably  in  Colo- 
rado and  New  Mexico  and  in  New  York 
state. 

The  damage  incurred  by  the  leaf  roller 
has  varied  from  25  to  90  per  cent  of  the 
entire  fruit  crop,  depending  on  the  meas- 
ures of  control  adopted,  the  abundance 
of  the  "worms,"  and  the  kind  or  variety 
of  fruit  attacked.     In  unsprayed  orchards 


522 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF   PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the  writer  has  seen  the  entire  fruit  crop 
ruined  by  the  larvae,  and  the  trees  com- 
pletely defoliated  so  that  not  a  green  leaf 
could  be  noticed.  When  trees  are  so  de- 
foliated it  is  hardly  possible  for  them  to 
produce  fruit  buds  for  the  following  sea- 
son. 

Distribution 

The  fruit  tree  leaf  roller  is  generally 
distributed  throughout  the  United  States. 
Stedman,  in  Bulletin  No.  71  of  the  Mis- 
souri Experiment  Station,  page  7.  states 
that  "this  insect  is  found  in  damaging 
numbers  practically  all  over  the  United 
States  from  Maine  to  the  Gulf  and  west- 
ward to  the  Pacific  coast  and  up  as  far  as 
Oregon." 

Food  Plants 

The  insect  is  a  very  general  feeder 
and  consequently  has  been  reported  on  a 
large  number  of  plants.  It  appears  at 
times  in  injurious  numbers  on  apple, 
pear,  plum,  cherry,  apricot,  quince,  peach, 
rose,  currant,  raspberry  and  gooseberry. 

Character  of  Injury 

As  the  manner  in  which  the  larvae  at- 
tack the  various  host  plants  differs  to  a 
certain  degree,  it  seems  advisable  to  give 
a  rather  full  discussion  of  the  more  im- 
portant injuries,  especially  those  occur- 
ring on  fruit  trees. 

In  the  spring,  just  as  the  buds  are 
bursting,  the  larvae  begin  to  gnaw  their 
way  out  of  the  eggshells  and  hard  pro- 
tective covering  of  the  egg  masses.  The 
young  caterpillars  at  once  migrate  to  the 
developing  buds  and  begin  feeding  on  the 
unfolding  leaves.  At  first  they  eat  small 
inconspicuous  holes  in  the  unfolded 
leaves,  and  at  this  time  the  average  or- 
chardist  is  not  aware  of  their  presence. 
After  feeding  in  this  manner  for  a  few 
days  the  larvae  become  quite  conspicu- 
ous as  they  begin  to  spin  fine  silken 
threads  from  leaf  to  leaf.  Eventually 
they  fold  or  roll  up  a  single  leaf  or  a 
cluster  of  leaves  and  here  they  feed  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  time,  though 
occasionally  straying  out  of  their  conceal- 
ment to  feed  in  the  open.  Before  the 
blossoms  are  fully  out,  or  even  before  the 
cluster  buds  have  separated,  the  "worms" 


can  be  observed  webbing  them  together 
and  feeding  voraciously.  Very  often  seri- 
ous injury  results  before  the  trees  come 
into  blossom.  Later  in  the  season  the 
webs  produced  by  the  larvae  are  often 
quite   conspicuous. 

As  soon  as  the  young  fruit  has  set  the 
larvae  cease  feeding  on  the  foliage  to 
a  large  extent,  and  now  fasten  one  or 
more  leaves  to  the  fruit  and  within  this 
protection  feed  greedily,  at  first  eating 
the  skin  only,  but  shortly  consuming  the 
pulp  and  the  seeds  or  stone,  depending 
on  the  kind  of  fruit  attacked.  Some- 
times young  apples  are  completely  de- 
voured except  for  the  stem  and  a  portion 
of  the  calyx  end.  Cases  have  been 
noticed  where  the  larvae  have  complete- 
ly gnawed  through  the  stems,  thus  caus- 
ing the  fruit  to  fall  to  the  ground  or  re- 
main suspended  within  the  feeding  nest. 
Damage  done  to  apples  as  well  as  other 
fruits  is  usually  so  severe  that  the  fruit 
can  not  outgrow  the  injury,  thus  caus- 
ing a  large  percentage  of  unmerchantable 
or  second-class  fruit  at  picking  time. 
Much  fruit  is  also  caused  to  fall  prema- 
turely on  account  of  the  serious  injury 
inflicted  on  it  when  young. 

Life  Habits 
The  Egg 

The  female  moth  deposits  her  eggs  in 
compact  oval  clusters  of  about  twenty- 
five  to  more  than  one  hundred,  anywhere 
upon  the  bark  of  the  fruit  trees  that  serve 
as  its  food  supply.  As  soon  as  the  egg 
mass  has  been  deposited,  the  female  moth 
smears  the  eggs  over  with  an  impervious 
material  which  is  thrown  out  from  the 
extremity  of  the  abdomen,  and  which  pro- 
tects the  eggs  from  the  inclemencies  of 
the  weather  and  the  attacks  of  predace- 
ous  Insects  for  nearly  ten  months,  or  un- 
til the  buds  begin  to  open  the  following 
year.  So  there  is  but  one  brood  of  the 
worms  each  summer. 

The  eggs  are  stuck  so  tightly  to  the 
bark  when  they  are  deposited  that  they 
often  remain  for  several  years.  The  old 
egg  patches  are  readily  recognized  by  the 
numerous  small  punctures  from  which  the 
larvae  or  worms  escaped. 


APPLE  PESTS 


52S 


The  Larvae  or  Woruis 

The  larvae  do  not  all  hatch  at  once, 
those  in  the  warmer  situations  being  the 
first  to  emerge,  and  those  coming  from  a 
single  egg  patch  usually  vary  several 
days  In  their  date  of  emergence. 

The  date  of  hatching  is  by  no  means  con- 
stant, but  is  determined  by  the  earliness 
or  lateness  of  the  season,  exactly  as  is  the 
time  for  the  opening  of  the  buds.  The 
earliest  of  the  larvae  emerge  with  the  first 
bursting  of  the  buds  of  the  apple  trees, 
and  when  the  blossom  buds  of  the  apple 
begin  to  show  their  pink  color  the  larvae 
of  the  leaf  roller  have  mostly  hatched. 
The  active  hatching  season  is  usually  dis- 
tributed over  about  one  week  to  ten  days, 
the  time  varying  with  the  temperature. 
If  the  days  and  nights  are  cool,  the  period 
lasts  longer  than  if  hatching  takes  place 
at  a  time  when  the  days  and  nights  are 
warm. 

At  first  the  larvae  are  very  small,  hard- 
ly one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and 
dull  greenish-yellow  in  color,  with  black 
heads.  As  they  feed  and  grow,  they  be- 
come deeper  green  in  color,  and  the  black 
head  and  first  segment  of  the  body  above 
become  quite  conspicuous. 

On  hatching,  the  little  larva  goes  at  once 
in  search  of  food,  and  may  eat  into  an 
unopened  bud  or  find  its  way  into  one  of 
the  folds  of  the  tender  unfolding  leaves, 
which  it  soon  ties  together  with  delicate 
silken  threads  of  its  own  manufacture. 
Thirty  days  of  feeding  are  sufficient  to 
mature  the  larva,  which  then  ceases  to 
feed,  and  in  a  few  days  more  changes  to 
the  third,  or  chrysalis  (pupal),  stage, 
usually  among  the  curled  leaves  which  It 
has  tied  together  with  the  silk  threads 
above  mentioned. 

The  Moth 

The  moths  measure  from  three- 
eighths  to  four-eighths  of  an  inch  in 
length  with  the  wings  closed;  the  ex- 
panse of  the  full-spread  wings  usually 
varies  between  eleven-sixteenths  and  one 
inch,  the  prevailing  color  is  a  rusty  brown, 
varying  in  typical  specimens  from  rather 
light  to  quite  dark,  and  there  is  always 
present    a    large    pale-yellow    to    almost 


white  diagonal  patch  on  the  front  margin 
of  the  wing  a  little  beyond  the  middle. 

Natural  Enemies 

The  fruit  tree  leaf  roller  has  numerous 
bird  and  insect  foes  which  tend  to  hold  it 
in  check.  The  various  bird  enemies  are 
the  blue  bird,  robin,  catbird,  red-winged 
blackbird,  oriole,  kingbird,  phoebe  and 
English  sparrow. 

The  fruit  tree  leaf  roller  in  the  larval 
stage  has  been  found  difficult  of  con- 
trol because  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
larvae  feed  on  the  foliage  and  fruit,  and 
also  on  account  of  the  fact  that  they  are 
very  resistant  to  poison  sprays.  Applica- 
tions of  arsenicals  alone  and  in  combina- 
tion with  40  per  cent  nicotine  solution 
have  greatly  reduced  the  amount  of  in- 
jury to  the  fruit  and  foliage,  but  these 
sprays  have  not  been  so  effective  as  is  de- 
sirable. 

A  series  of  experiments  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  egg  masses,  conducted  dur- 
ing the  dormant  season,  have  shown  the 
value  of  mineral  oils.  Kerosene  emul- 
sion, crude-petroleum  emulsion,  and  ml- 
scible  oils  have  been  tested.  The  last 
mentioned,  when  used  at  the  strength 
commonly  employed  against  the  San  Jose 
scale — that  is.  1  gallon  to  15  gallons  of 
water — will  prevent  most  of  the  eggs 
from  hatching.  From  93.23  to  96.21  per 
cent  of  the  egg  masses  were  destroyed  by 
this  material  on  the  experimental  plats. 
Good  results  also  were  obtained  by  the 
use  of  kerosene  and  crude-petroleum 
emulsions,  although  these  substances 
were,  on  the  whole,  not  quite  equal  to 
the  miscible  oils.  The  ease  with  which 
sprays  may  be  prepared  from  these  last 
commend  them  to  many  orchardists  al- 
though the  home  made  emulsions  are 
cheaper.  In  preparing  a  kerosene  or 
crude-petroleum  emulsion  care  is  neces- 
sary to  insure  a  thorough  and  stable 
emulsion. 

It  should  be  stated  that  injury  to  trees 
treated  with  oils  sometimes  follows,  al- 
though no  such  injury  was  noted  in  con- 
nection with  the  present  experiments.  No 
more  spray  should  be  used  than  is  neces- 
sary properly  to   treat  the  tree,  and   the 


524 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


puddling  of  oil  around  the  crown  should 
be   guarded    against. 

Lime-sulphur  solutions  proved  to  be 
a  decided  failure  as  a  destroyer  of  the 
egg  masses.  Strengths  ranging  from  1 
gallon  of  lime-sulphur  to  7  gallons  of 
water  to  1  gallon  of  lime-sulphur  to  10 
gallons  of  water  were  sprayed  on  apple 
trees  and  no  benefit  was  derived  from 
their  use. 

Eecoraniendations  for  Control 
Experimental  work  has  shown  that  the 
best  method  for  controlling  the  fruit  tree 
leaf  roller  is  by  a  very  thorough  applica- 
tion of  a  miscible  oil  at  the  rate  of  1  gal- 
lon to  1.5  gallons  of  water  during  the  dor- 
mant season.  It  must  be  understood  that 
by  thoroughness  of  application  is  meant 
the  use  of  enough  material  to  cover  all 
parts  of  the  tree,  from  the  tip  of  the 
highest  or  smallest  branch  to  the  very 
base  of  the  trunk.  In  order  to  do 
thorough  work  the  trees  must  necessarily 
be  sprayed  from  all  directions.  It  is  very 
often  the  case  that  the  top  branches  or 
those  around  the  inside  are  missed  by  the 
man  operating  the  rod.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  only  those  egg  masses 
actually  hit  or  covered  with  the  material 
will  tail  to  hatch  and  those  missed  will 
surely  hatch  out  "worms"  in  the  spring 
to  feed  upon  the  trees.  Orchardists 
should  realize  that  thorough  spraying 
v?ith  the  right  material  and  at  the  proper 
time  pays  well,  but  careless,  haphazard 
work  gives  disappointing  returns. 

All  plants  upon  which  eggs  have  been 
laid  should  be  sprayed.  Besides  fruit 
trees,  egg  masses  may  be  found  on  vari- 
ous shade  trees,  shrubs,  and  currant, 
gooseberry,  raspberry,  and  rose  bushes, 
etc.  Eggs  will  also  be  found  on  build- 
ings, spray  outfits,  wagons,  fences,  etc., 
and  it  is  recommended  that  these  egg 
masses  be  crushed  so  far  as  is  practicable. 
The  best  time  to  spray  is  just  before 
the  buds  burst  in  the  spring.  Late  spring 
is  preferable  to  early  spring,  as  weather 
conditions  are  usually  more  favorable. 
There  is  also  less  likelihood  of  injury  to 
the  trees  by  the  oil  after  the  sap  has  be- 
gun  to   flow   with   considerable   pressure. 


Spraying  should  not  be  done  during 
threatening  weather.  Orchardists  should 
bear  in  mind  that  the  strength  of  miscible 
oil  recommended  is  for  a  dormant  spray 
and  should  never  be  applied  to  trees 
in  foliage.  Spraying  should  be  completed 
in  the  spring  before  the  buds  have  ad- 
vanced so  far  as  to  have  the  green  tips 
exposed.  If  the  above  precautions  are 
carefully  followed  in  applying  the  miscible 
oil,  danger  of  injury  to  trees  will  be  re- 
duced  to  the  minimum. 

There  are  a  number  of  good  commercial 
brands  of  miscible  oil  on  the  market. 
These  miscible  or  soluble  oils  are  so  made 
that  they  mix  readily  with  water.  Noz- 
zles with  medium-sized  holes  or  apertures 
are  recommended. 

Miscible  oils  at  the  strength  recom- 
mended for  the  destruction  of  the  eggs 
of  the  fruit  tree  leaf  roller  are  valuable 
in  controlling  scale  insects  such  as  the 
San  Jose  scale,  Howard  scale,  etc.  Or- 
chards sprayed  with  the  oil  for  the  leaf 
rollers  will  not  require  the  usual  applica- 
tion of  lime-sulphur  for  the  San  Jose  or 
Howard  scales. 

In  conjunction  with  the  oil  treatment 
in  badly  infested  districts  it  is  recom- 
mended that  a  very  thorough  application 
of  arsenate  of  lead,  at  the  rate  of  3  pounds 
to  50  gallons  of  water,  be  applied  when 
the  larvae  are  emerging  from  the  eggs. 
The  larvae  will  be  found  to  be  hatching 
just  as  the  cluster  buds  on  early-blooming 
varieties  of  apple  are  beginning  to  sep- 
arate. The  necessity  for  making  this  ap- 
plication will  depend  largely  upon  the 
thoroughness  with  which  the  miscible 
oil  was  applied. 

From    Div.     Ents.    Circular    29,    Reissued. 

References 

Bureau  Entomology,  Bulletin  116. 
Colorado    Board    of    Horticulture.    1912 
Report. 

Cornell   Bulletin   311. 

Fruit  Tree  Leaf  Syneta 

Syneta  albida  Lee. 
H.  F.  Wilson 
Although   this  insect  has  been  doing 
quite  a  little  damage  for  some  time,  there 


APPLE  PESTS 


525 


Fig.   1.     The   Fruit  Tree  Leaf   Syneta  :      Pupa 
and   adult.      (Original) 

are  practically  no  published  notes  on  its 
habits  and  life  history. 

The  adults  suddenly  begin  to  appear  in 
the  spring  at  the  time  when  the  apple 
blossoms  are  opening  and  are  very  abund- 
ant for  a  few  weeks,  when  they  suddenly 
begin  to  disappear  and  in  a  few  days  can 
only  be  found  in  scattering  numbers. 

We  have  been  unable  to  locate  the  eggs 
but  suppose  they  are  deposited  in  the 
ground  upon  roots  of  some  kind.  During 
1912  larvae  dug  from  the  ground  beneath 
apple  trees  formed  into  pupae  and  later 
changed  to  the  adult  stage.  At  that 
time  it  was  impossible  to  tell  whether 
the  larvae  were  feeding  upon  the  roots  of 
apple  or  upon  the  roots  of  some  grass  or 
weed  as  the  roots  of  all  three  were  more 
or  less  intermingled.  A  number  of  lar- 
vae were  found  at  a  depth  of  fourteen 
inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  only  injury  which  we  are  acquaint- 
ed with  is  that  done  by  the  adults  and  at 
times  this  is  quite  serious.  When  the 
blossoms  are  opening  in  the  spring,  the 
adults  can  be  found  feeding  on  the 
petals  and  one  would  suppose  that  the 
fruit  would  suffer  as  a  result,  but  appar- 
ently the  principal  parts  of  the  flower  are 
left  uninjured.  Later  in  the  season  the 
leaves  of  apples  and  prunes  are  the  prin- 
cipal parts  eaten,  and  oftentimes  trees 
will  have  nearly  every  leaf  with  from 
one  to  several  holes  eaten  out.  The  worst 
and  most  serious  injury  is  done  to  young 
grafts,  especially  where  whole  orchards 
are  being  grafted  over.  These  grafts 
where  the  leaves  are  continually  eaten 
away  for  several  years  are  killed,  and 
consequently  the  tree  itself  is  lost. 

Remedies 

Such  remedies  as  have  been  tried  are 
more  or  less  unsatisfactorj'.     Arsenate  of 


lead  in  ordinary  strengths  fails  to  de- 
stroy the  beetles,  and  stronger  strengths 
seem  to  be  only  partially  successful.  With 
young  grafts  the  beetles  can  be  kept 
away  by  the  use  of  cheesecloth  sacks 
placed  over  the  grafts. 

Greedy  Scale 

Aspidiottts  cameJUae  Sign 
Aspidiotus  rapax  Comst. 

General  Appearance 

This  scale  greatly  resembles  the  San 
Jose  scale,  but  is  somewhat  lighter  in 
color,  larger,  much  more  convex,  being 
noticeably  high  and  with  exuvlse  near 
one  side.  The  shell  is  thin,  showing  the 
vellow  body  beneath. 


Fig.     1.     Greedy    Scale     (Aapidiotus    camelliae 
Sign.)  around  calyx  of  apple.   fCal.  Hort.  Com.) 

Distribution 

One  of  the  commonest  scale  insects  and 
found  in  wild  as  well  as  cultivated  areas 
throughout  the   state. 

Food  Plants 

This  species  attacks  a  very  large  list 
of  plants,  though  it  has  never  yet  be- 
come a  serious  pest  to  any  horticultural 
or  agricultural  product.  Among  the  food 
plants  reported  in  California  are  quince, 
eucalyptus,  fuchsia,  English  ivy,  moun- 
tain holly,  walnut,  myrtle,  olive,  cotton- 
wood,  almond,  cherry,  pomegranate,  pear, 
apple,  rose,  willow,  California  bay  or 
pepperwood  and  grape. 


526 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


?iatural  Enemies 

An  undetermined  Internal  parasite  has 
t)een  bred  from  this  species. 

E.  O.   EssiG 

Green  Apple  Aphis 

Aphis  ponii  or  Aphis  mali 

These  lice  lay  their  shiny  black  eggs 
in  October  and  November  in  crevices 
of  the  bark  and  in  scales  of  the  buds 
of  the  apple  trees.  After  the  first  brood 
hatches  in  the  spring  about  the  time  of 
the  unfolding  of  the  first  buds  and  until 
late  in  the  autumn  they  may  be  found 
at  all  times  on  the  apple  trees.  Their 
presence  in  the  spring  may  be  detected 
by  the  curling  of  the  tender  leaves  on 
the  under  side  of  which  the  aphids  make 
their   home. 

These  lice,  like  others  of  the  family. 
eat  more  than  they  can  assimilate  and 
the  excess  exudes  from  the  "honey  tubes" 
near  the  posterior  end  or  from  the  anal 
opening.      "This    liquid    is    highly    jirized 


by  the  ants,  which  are  nearly  always 
to  be  found  running  over  and  around 
the  aphis  colonies.  It  is  a  great  mistake 
to  suppose  that  ants  eat  the  aphis  or 
Injure  them  in  any  way;  on  the  other 
hand  ants  often  protect  and  aid  some 
species  of  lice  in  return  for  the  sweet 
liquid,  called  honey  dew,  of  which  they 
are   so   fond. 

*"The  honey  dew  is  directly  respon- 
sible for  the  black,  sooty  fungus  growth 
which  nearly  always  follows  the  appear- 
ance of  the  green  leaf  aphis.  The  fun- 
gus thrives  on  this  honey  dew,  and  soon 
clogs  the  breathing  pores  of  the  leaves, 
resulting  in  their  turning  brown,  wither- 
ing and  dying.  In  this  manner  it  may 
prove  quite  injurious  to  leaves  not  actu- 
ally infested  by  aphids  because  such  quan- 
tities of  honey  dew  drops  from  aphis 
colonies  to  the  leaves  beneath." 

The   first  two   or   three   generations   of 


•  R.    I.    Smith.    North    Carolina    Experiment 
Station.   Bulletin   206. 


Fig.  2.  Apple  Aphis.  A,  stem  mother  just  hatched  from  egg:  B,  winged  female  such  as 
migrate  from  tree  to  tree  during  summer  ;  C.  wingless  female  of  summer  form  :  D,  leaves 
curled  by  this  aphis :  E.  eggs  magnified :  F.  buds  just  opening,  showing  newly  hatched 
eggs;  G.twig  showing  eggs  as  they  appear  in  the  winter  time.  (Montana  Experiment  Sta- 
tion) 


APPLE  PESTS 


527 


this  aphid  give  birth  to  both  winged  and 
wingless  forms.  After  the  third  brood 
no  winged  generations  appear.  All 
broods  after  the  first  are  viviparous  fe- 
males, that  is.  they  give  birth  to  living 
young.  Each  "stem  mother"  gives  birth 
to  about  fifty  at  the  rate  of  eight  to  ten 
pel*  day,  each  new  generation  coming  to 
maturity  in  about  ten  days  or  less.  All 
this  time  no  males  have  been  present  in 
the  colony  but  some  appear  in  the  last 
brood  in  the  fall  and  with  this  genera- 
tion eggs  are  produced  which  preserve 
the   species   over   winter. 

Control 

For  remedies  see  end  of  general  article 
on  aphids. — Ed. 

Green  Fruit  Worm  or  Green  Apple  Worm 

Xylena  sp. 

The  green  fruit  worm  is  a  yellowish 
green,  naked  caterpillar,  which  eats  into 
the  sides  of  the  small  green  apple,  the 
results  of  which  are  shown  in  the  cut. 
It  also  eats  the  leaves.  When  fully  grown 
it  is  nearly  an  inch  and  a  half  long. 
Numerous  reports  from  the  Bitter  Root 
valley  indicate  that  considerable  damage 
is  done  by  them  there.  The  caterpillars 
often  make  only  small  openings  in  the 
skin  of  the  young  apples,  but  instead  of 
healing  smoothly  these  wounds  form  a 
rusty  or  corky  area,  which  has  often  been 
mistaken  for  the  true  apple  scab  by  per- 
sons who  have  not  seen  the  latter.  Sim- 
ilar injury  is  sometimes  done  to  the  pear. 

Other  Food  Plants 

Besides  the  apple  and  the  pear  a  con- 
siderable number  of  other  plants  are  fed 
upon  by  this  insect,  including  peach, 
plum,  quince,  currant,  oak,  wild  cherry, 
box  elder  and  rose.  It  is  probable  that 
other  plants,  at  present  unknown,  are  in- 
cluded in  the  diet  of  these  caterpillars. 
With  this  list  of  food  plants,  it  is  appar- 
ent that  we  cannot  hope  to  ever  approach 
eradication  and  that  our  efforts  should 
be  directed  merely  toward  reducing  the 
damage  in  the  orchards. 

Distribution 

The  exact  identity  of  the  parent  of 
these  fruit  worms  is  not  known,  but  it  is 


probable    that    the    species    concerned    is 
of  wide  distribution  in  the  United  States. 

Life   History 

This  species  belongs  to  the  same  fam- 
ily of  moths  as  the  ordinary  cut  worms 
and  the  parent  insect  is  a  dull,  night- 
flying  moth,  which  would  not  attract  at- 
tention if  it  were  to  be  seen  by  the  fruit 
grower.  The  details  of  its  life  history  are 
not  well  known.  It  is  probable  the  eggs 
are  laid  soon  after  the  leaf  buds  open 
and  the  young  worms  hatching  a  few  days 
later  feed  first  on  the  leaves  and  later 
on  the  fruits.  They  continue  their  feed- 
ing through  the  early  part  of  the  season 


Fig.    1.      -After  Effects  of  Green   Fruit  Worm. 
(OriKinall 

and  reach  full  size  about  the  time  the 
apples  are  an  inch  in  diameter,  when  they 
go  into  the  soil  and  pupate.  In  the  late 
summer  and  early  fall  the  moths  issue 
from  the  pupae  and  pass  the  winter  un- 
der any  favorable  shelter.  In  the  spring 
they  resume  activity  and  deposit  their 
eggs  on  the  trees  as  above  indicated. 

Control 

Clearly,  spraying  is  the  only  method 
by  which  we  may  expect  to  be  able  to 
destroy  these  worms  and,  from  the  fact 
that  they  feed  extensively  upon  the  fo- 
liage, it  would  appear  to  be  easy  to  get 
satisfactory  results. 


528 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.    1.      Gypsy    Moth.      1.   catfrpillar   feeding;    2.    caterpillars    climbing   a    tree;    3,    female 
moths  and  pupa;  4,  male  moth;  5,  female  laying  eggs.       (Mass.  Dept.  Agri.) 


APPLE  PESTS 


529 


Professor  Slingerland,  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, has  pointed  out  that  in  the  ex- 
perience of  some  of  his  correspondents,  it 
Is  very  difficult  to  kill  this  green  fruit 
worm  after  the  apples  are  large  enough 
to  furnish  food.  It  is  probable  that  an 
early  spraying  would  be  effective  and  we 
recommend  that  four  pounds  of  arsenate 
lead  be  aide!  to  every  oil  gallons  of  lime- 
sulphur  or  the  tobacco  extract  applied 
just  before  the  fruit  buds  open,  or  in 
water  at  the  same  time  or  a  little  earlier 
if  there  is  no  other  pest  requiring  treat- 
ment. 

R.    A.    COOLEY, 
Montana  Circular   No.    IT. 

Gypsy   Moth 

Porthetria  dispar  Linn. 

By  H.  F.  Wilson 

Like  many  other  of  our  most  serious 
pests  this  insect  was  imported  from 
Europe  and  has  been  the  cause  of  consid- 
erable trouble  in  this  country.  We  do 
not  as  yet  have  this  pest  in  the  North- 
west, but  everyone  is  warned  to  be  on 
the   lookout   for   it. 

The  eggs  are  deposited  in  masses  meas- 
uring three-fourths  by  one-half  inches 
and  containing  approximately  500  eggs. 
At  first  these  egg  masses  are  yellowish  in 
appearance  but  during  the  winter,  ex- 
posure to  the  weather  causes  them  to  be- 
come a  dingy  white.  The  individual  eggs 
are  about  the  size  of  a  pinhead,  and  when 
first  deposited  are  salmon  colored,  turning 
dark  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks. 

These  eggs  hatch  in  the  spring  and  each 
egg  mass  produces  a  mass  of  young  dark 
caterpillars,  which  become  full  grown  by 
midsummer.  The  caterpillars  are  decid- 
edly hairy  and  as  they  grow  older  as- 
sume a  varied  coloring  along  the  back. 
Starting  from  the  head,  which  appears 
mostly  yellow,  may  be  found  a  double 
row  of  five  pairs  of  blue  spots;  these  be- 
come very  distinct  on  the  larvae  as  they 
reach  maturity  and  as  the  larvae  are  en- 
tirely distinct  from  any  others  which  we 
have  in  the  Northwest,  they  should  be 
easily  recognized  if  one  meets  with  them. 

When  full  grown,  which  is  in  midsum- 
mer, the  caterpillar  spins  a  few  strands 
of  silk  for  support  and  changes  to  a  chry- 


salis, which  is  the  pupal  stage.  In  this 
stage  they  are  dark  reddish  in  color  and 
thinly  sprinkled  with  light  reddish  hairs. 
They  remain  in  this  stage  for  about  two 
weeks  and  then  change  to  the  adult  in- 
sect. The  female  moth  is  white  with  nu- 
merous black  markings,  is  quite  robust 
and  moves  about  very  sluggishly. 

The  male  is  brownish  yellow  with  some- 
times a  greenish  tinge.  They  fly  about 
during  the  day  and  after  mating  with  the 
females  live  but  a  very  short  time.  The 
males  measure  about  one  and  one-half 
inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing.  The  fe- 
males measure  about  two  inches  but  do 
not  fly  and  therefore  do  not  spread  as 
rapidly  as  they  might.  After  copulation 
takes  place  the  females  deposit  their  eggs 
and  die. 

This  pest  is  probably  mostly  distributed 
by  egg  masses  on  nursery  stock,  but  as 
the  larvae  have  a  habit  of  spinning  webs 
and  dropping  from  trees  they  are  often- 
times carried  on  automobiles  and  other 
vehicles  for  long  distances. 

The  gypsy  moth  caterpillar  will  attack 
all  fruit,  shade  and  woodland  trees.  Apple 
trees  seem  to  be  preferred  above  all 
others. 

There  are  many  natural  enemies  of 
the  gypsy  moth  and  in  Europe  these  are 
suflicient  to   keep   it  under   control. 

In  the  United  States  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  wage  combat  until  such  natural 
enemies  as  are  being  imported  can  in- 
crease to  numbers  corresponding  to  those 
of  the  gypsy  moth. 

Remedies 

The  most  effective  time  to  catch  this 
insect  is  in  the  egg  mass.  These  wher- 
ever accessible,  can  be  killed  by  soaking 
them  in  creosote.  When  the  caterpillars 
are  quite  small  they  can  be  poisoned 
with  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  10 
pounds  to  100  gallons  of  water.  This  can 
be  applied  with  any  of  the  common  force 
pumps. 

Natural  Enemies 

(The  numerous  parasites  which  the  en- 
tomologists of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture have  imported,  it  is  stated,  are  be- 
ginning to  control  this  pest. — Ed.) 


530 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Hag  Moth 

Phobt'triin  pitheciiim 

This  is  a  slug-like  caterpillar  of  very 
singular  form,  sometimes  found  upon  ap- 
ple, oak  and  wild  cherry.  It  reaches  a 
length  of  0.60  inch.  Extending  out  from 
each  side  of  its  body  are  four  long  ten- 
tacle-like curved  and  tapering  fleshy 
processes.  The  color  is  dark  brown.  The 
adult  is  a  purplish  brown  moth,  with  a 
stretch  of  front  wings  of  a  trifle  less  than 
one  inch. 

The  insect  pupates  in  a  papery  cocoon 
upon  the  outside  of  which  are  attached 
the  long  processes  from  the  body  of  the 
caterpillar.  These  bear  nettle-hairs  which 
have  been  thought  to  protect  the  enclosed 
pupa  from  enemies.  The  cocoons  are  at- 
tached to  twigs  and  bark. 

The  insect  is  interesting  chiefly  be- 
cause of  its  singular  appearance.  It  is 
never  common. 

Hickory  Tiger  Moth 

Halesidota  caryac 

So  called  because  of  the  color  and  spot- 
ting of  the  wings.  The  caterpillars  are 
about  one  and  one-half  inches  long  and 
have  a  row  of  eight  black  tufts  along  the 
back,  and  two  long  black  pencils,  each  on 
the  fourth  and  tenth  segments.  Orchards 
sprayed  for  codling  moth  will  not  be 
troubled. 

Ivy  or  Oleander  Scale 
Aspidiotus  hederae.  Vail. 

General  Appearance. — Circular  flat  scale, 
one-sixteenth  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  the  male  scales  being  very  much 
smaller.  The  color  varies  from  light  to 
dark  gray. 

The  life  history  is  the  same  as  the 
San  Jose  scale.  It  is  distributed  gener- 
ally throughout  the  country. 

Control. — Same  as  San  Jose  scale.  A 
small  chalcid  fly  works  effectively  on  this 
scale. 

E.  O.  Essici. 
Cal.   Hort.   Com. 

Lk.\f  Crujipler.— See  Apple  Leaf  Grum- 
pier, this  section. 

Leaf  Hopper.— See  Apple  Leaf  Hopper, 
this  section. 

Leaf  Miner.— See  Trumpet  Leaf  Miner, 
this  section. 


Leaf  Roller. — See  Oblique  Banded  Leaf 
Roller,  this  section. 

Leak  Sewkr.— See  Apple  Leaf  Sewer. 
this  section. 

Leaf  Stxeta. — See  Fruit  Tree  Leaf 
Syneta,  this  section. 

Lecanium. — See  European  Fruit  Lecan- 
ium,  this  section. 

Lesser  Apple  Leaf  Folder 

Acleri.'!  minula  Rob. 
This  leaf  folder  commences  work  with 
the  opening  of  the  leaves.  The  eggs  for 
the  spring  brood  are  laid  by  a  small  slate- 
gray  moth  and  hatch  into  small  green 
worms,  having  pale  brown  or  yellowish 
heads  with  white  markings.  The  oppo- 
site edges  of  the  young  leaves  are  drawn 
together  upwards  and  fastened  with  a 
silken  web,  thus  forming  a  roofed  cham- 
ber within  which  the  caterpillar  lives. 
Like  all  of  its  family,  when  alarmed,  it 
deftly  lowers  itself  to  the  ground  by 
means  of  a  silken  thread.  It  is  con- 
trolled  by   the   lime-sulphur   wash. 

H.  A.  Goss-ivRD 

Lesser  .Vpple  Worm 

Eiiarrnoiiia  prunivora  Walsh 

During  the  past  few  years  the  species 
known  as  Enarmonia  prunivora  has  been 
found  very  commonly  infesting  the  fruit 
of  the  apple  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States,  in  some  sections  so  abun- 
dantly as  to  cause  serious  loss  to  or- 
chardists,  the  insect  ranking  in  impor- 
tance as  an  apple  pest  close  to  the  codling 
moth. 

The  small,  fusiform,  flesh-colored  lar- 
vae, about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  long, 
injure  the  fruit  around  the  calyx  by  eat- 
ing out  shallow  cavities  or  boring  holes 
into  the  flesh  from  one-fourth  to  one-half 
inch  or  more  in  depth,  in  the  ripening 
fruit  occasionally  penetrating  to  the  seeds. 
The  surface  of  the  fruit,  especially  in 
the  calyx  basin,  is  also  injured,  the  lar- 
vae working  beneath  the  skin  and  eating 
out  galleries  or  large  blotch  mines,  fre- 
quently with  holes  or  borings  extending 
more  deeply  into  the  flesh.  The  work  of 
this  species  resembles  rather  closely  that 
of  the  codling  moth,  and  the  similarity 
of  the  larva  to  the  codling  moth  larva 
and  the  further  similarity  in  the  life  his- 


APPLE  PESTS 


531 


tory  and  habits  of  the  two  species  have 
doubtless  been  responsible  for  the  almost 
complete  oversight  in  the  United  States 
of  this  species  as  an  important  enemy  of 
the  apple. 

Control 
The  common  measures  used  against  the 
codling   moth    have   served   to   keep    this 
species  in  check. 

Lime  Tree  Winter  Moth 

Eranrus   tiUaria 

The  females  are  wingless  and  late  in 
October  or  early  in  November  may  be 
seen  ascending  the  trunks  of  trees.  They 
are  spider-like  creatures  with  yellowish 
white  bodies. 

Band  with  tree  tanglefoot  to  prevent 
their  ascent. 

Jlediterranean  Fruit  Fly 

Ceratitis  capitata  Wiedemann 
H.  F.  Wilson 
In  countries  where  this  pest  has  gained 
a  foothold  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  insect 
enemies  of  fruit  raising.  At  the  present 
time  it  is  believed  that  Brazil  is  its  na- 
tive home.  Adults  have  been  reared  from 
apricots,  peach,  pear,  plum,  apple,  fig, 
oranges,  lemons  and  a  number  of  other 
important  fruits. 

Means   of  Distribution 

From  evidence  gathered  in  various 
sources  the  pest  is  distributed  in  fruit. 
An  extract  from  bulletin  28  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  (South  Africa),  will  show  the  dang- 
er to  fruit  growing  in  the  United  States 
should  it  gain  a  foothold.  "It  is  no 
doubt  carried  into  distant  localities  in 
Infested  fruit.  Visit  almost  any  morn- 
ing market  in  the  Colony  after  apricots 
and  peaches  are  ripe  and  you  can  find 
maggots  and  puparia  in  abundance.  That 
this  fruit  is  purchased  and  shipped  to 
other  places,  or  carried  away  in  small 
lots  goes  without  saying.  While  visiting 
one  of  our  most  important  markets  on  a 
Saturday  morning  during  February,  1904, 
I  found  loads  of  infested  peaches.  There 
was  absolutely  no  sale  for  the  most  of 
them,  and  the  growers  in  disgust  dump- 
ed them  out  on  the  ground.  I  said  noth- 
ing, for,  in  the  first  place.  I  had  absolute- 


ly no  right  or  authority  in  the  matter, 
and  secondly,  I  wished  to  note  the  course 
of  events.  They  were  being  removed  by 
7  o'clock  Monday  morning,  but  the 
ground  for  yards  around  was  dotted  white 
with  maggots  trying  to  hide  away  for 
transformation,  and  puparia  could  be 
picked  up  by  the  hundred.  Under  such 
a  deplorable  state  of  affairs  it  is  quite 
possible  that  some  of  the  adults  would 
again  find  their  way  into  wagons  and  be 
carried  away  to  distant  farms." 

The  adult  fly  is  yellowish  with  black 
and  white  markings.  Both  wings  being 
banded  with  yellow  and  with  a  series  of 
black  lines  toward  the  base.  The  abdo- 
men is  yellow  and  is  crossed  with  two 
white  bands. 

The  larvae  or  maggots  resemble  those 
of  any  of  our  common  flies,  such  as  the 
cabbage   root  maggot. 

The  life  history  in  general  is  about  as 
follows:  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  the 
fruit  by  means  of  the  sharp  ovipositor 
with  which  each  female  is  furnished.  As 
soon  as  they  hatch,  the  young  larvae  at 
once  begin  to  feed  on  the  pulp  of  the  fruit. 
When  fully  developed,  which  usually  re- 
quires about  three  weeks,  they  leave  the 
fruit  and  enter  the  ground  where  they 
change  to  puparia  and  later  to  adults. 
The  adults  push  up  through  the  soil  and 
in  a  short  time  are  ready  for  work.  A 
very  efficient  remedy  has  been  found  for 
this  insect  in  South  Africa  which  pre- 
vents the  adults  from  depositing  their 
eggs. 

Mites. — Pee  Red  Spider,  this  section, 
and  Blister  Mite,  under  Pear. 

OI)li(jiie-Banded  Leaf  Roller 

Cacoeeia   rosana   Harris 

H.  F.  WiLsox 

Appearing  on  various  plants  through- 
out the  United  States  we  may  expect  to 
find  the  larvae  of  this  insect  working  on 
the  leaves  of  all  our  cultivated  pome,  bush 
and  small  fruits.  In  extreme  cases  some 
little  damage  may  be  done  to  apples  and 
pears.  In  these  cases  the  skin  of  the  fruit 
is  eaten  and  even  holes  are  made  in  the 
fruit  which  makes  it  unfit  for  sale 

The  adults  have  a  wing  expanse  of  about 
one   inch.     General   color  leather  colored 


532 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


brown  with  one  opaque  dusky  band,  be- 
ginning at  the  middle  of  the  anterior 
margin  and  extending  to  the  inner  angle 
of  the  wing. 

The  larvae  are  pale  green  to  reddish 
brown  in  color,  with  a  dark  brown  head 
and  a  few  sparse  hairs  rising  from  the 
head  and  body.  The  larvae  of  this  in- 
sect should  not  be  mistaken  for  that  of 
the  bud  moth,  which  is  a  very  abundant 
insect  in  Oregon  found  working  in  the 
buds.  The  larvae  of  this  insect  works 
on  the  leaves. 

Remedies 

Should  this  insect  become  abundant  at 
any  time  it  may  easily  be  controlled  by 
an  application  of  spray  as  used  for  the 
codling  moth. 

Oleander  Scale. — See  Ivy  ScaJe,  this 
section. 

Oyster  Shell  Scale 
Lepidosaphes  ulmi  Linn. 

H.  F.  Wilson 

Probably  as  widely  distributed  as  the 
San  Jose  scale,  this  insect  is  the  cause  of 
much  injury  to  fruit  trees  throughout  the 
United   States. 

It  is  not  supposed  to  be  as  serious  a 
pest  as  the  San  Jose  scale,  but  is  of  con- 
siderable economic  importance.  Entire 
trees  are  seldom  killed,  but  oftentimes 
single  branches  will  become  so  weakened 
from  their  attack  that  they  will  not  pro- 
duce fruit  and  may  die,  and  at  times  small 
trees  become  so  stunted  as  to  never  grow 
into  well  balanced  trees.  Besides  our  fruit 
trees  this  insect  infests  a  large  number 
of  shade  trees,  vines  and  bush  fruits.  The 
adult  scales  measure  about  one-eighth  inch 
ii  lenarth  and  are  dark  brown  in  color. 
In  early  spring  these  may  appear  grayish 
brown,  due  to  bleaching  by  the  winter 
rains.  When  present  in  large  numbers 
the  scales  will  overlap  and  assume  vari- 
ous curved  shapes.  Apparently  with  the 
beginning  of  fall  the  entire  abdomen  of 
the  female  develops  into  eggs  and  the 
insect  itself  shrivels  up  and  dies.  If 
during  the  winter  one  of  these  scales  be 
turned  over,  .50  to  100  small  white  oval 
eggs  will  be  exposed  to  view. 

These   eggs   hatch   about   the   time   the 
blossoms   of   the   apples   are   falling,   and 


the  young  crawl  from  under  the  scales 
and  settle  on  the  bark.  The  female  molts 
twice  in  her  growth  according  to  Quain- 
tance  and  Marlatt,  and  in  the  adult  con- 
dition is  entirely  without  legs  or  eyes, 
and  is  but  a  jelly-like  mass,  capable  only 
of  extracting  sap  from  the  tree  and  chang- 
ing it  into  eggs. 

The     adult     male     undergoes     similar 
changes  under  its  scale  but  later  assumes 


Fig. 


ESSIG 
Shell    Scale. 


legs,  wings  and  antennae,  and  emerging 
from  under  the  scale  flies  about  fertilizing 
females. 

In  its  distribution  from  orchard  to  or- 
chard, nursery  stock  probably  plays  the 
most  important  part,  although  other  in- 
sects, birds,  etc.,  may  and  do  aid  In  the 
distribution   from   tree   to   tree. 

Keniedies 

It  has  been  stated  that  lime  sulphur  will 
not  destroy  the  egg  of  this  pest  but  we 
have  observed  that  where  this  spray  is 
consistently  used  for  the  San  Jose  scale 
that  the  oyster  shell  scale  does  not  thrive 
and  no  extra  application  is  needed.  No 
doubt  but  that  the  eggs  are  very  tenacious 
of  life  and  hard  to  kill,  but  we  believe 
that  the  insect  can  be  held  in  check  with 
the  above  spray. 

Shade  trees  and  low-growing  plants,  as 
currant,  gooseberry,  etc.,  often  become  so 
badly  infested  that  it  seems  necessary  to 
apply   a   spray.     In   such   cases   kerosene 


APPLE  PESTS 


533 


emulsion  is  useJ,  and  is  applied  just  as 
the  eggs  are  hatching  in  the  spring.  Con- 
siderable difficulty  may  be  experienced 
here  as  the  young  are  at  that  time  con- 
siderably protected  by  the  foliage.  To 
secure  the  best  possible  results  a  high 
pressure  pump  should  be  used  by  means 
of  which  a  pressure  of  150  to  200  pounds 
can  be  secured.  Apply  spray  to  all  parts 
in  as  thorough  a  manner  as  possible.  (Use 
kerosene  emulsion  8  to  10  per  cent 
strength.)  For  preparation  of  kerosene 
emulsion  see  sprays  for  aphis. 

Pe.\k  Blight  Beetle. — See  Shot  Hole 
Borer,  under  Cherry. 

Periodical  Cicada 

Tihican  septendecim  Linn. 

H.  P.  Wllson 

There  are  probably  very  few  of  us  who 
are  not  acquainted  with  this  insect  in 
the  adult  stage  on  account  of  the  large 
numbers  which  appear  at  one  time  or  an- 
other in  various  sections  of  the  country. 
The  name  is  applied  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  the  adults  only  appear  at 
periods  of  every  17  or  13  years.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  United  States  it  is 
17,  in  the  south  13.  During  the  interven- 
ing time  they  live  in  the  ground  as 
nymphs  and  live  by  sucking  the  juices 
from  the  roots  of  trees.  Having  reached 
that  point  where  they  are  ready  to  become 
adults,  they  crawl  out  of  the  ground  and 
on  to  a  stone,  tree  trunk  or  anything 
above  ground,  and  shedding  the  skin  for 
the  last  time,  come  forth  as  adults. 

After  leaving  the  old  shell  they  are 
ready  to  fly  about  in  a  day  or  two,  and 
within  a  week  the  sexes  have  mated  and 
the  females  shortly  proceed  to  make  their 


I   * 


Fig.  1.  Periodical  Cicada  :  Egg  punctures  in 
twigs;  pupal  case  and  adult  insect.  (After 
Cordley. ) 


egg  punctures  and  deposit  eggs  here  and 
there  in  the  twigs. 

In  selecting  trees  for  egg  oviposition 
oaks  are  shown  a  preference  and  among 
fruit  trees  apples  seem  to  be  preferred. 
Almost  any  plant  may  be  attacked. 

The  part  of  the  plant  selected  is  almost 
invariably  the  twigs  of  the  previous  year's 
growth.  Occasionally  a  single  nest  or  two 
will  be  constructed  in  a  larger  limb. 

The  result  of  such  work  must  of  a 
necessity  be  quite  detrimental  to  the  trees 
as  the  twigs  are  often  so  weakened  that 
they  break  very  easily  and  an  excessive 
pruning  results.  In  the  nursery  consider- 
able damage  may  be  caused  by  the  after- 
effect, which  is  shown  in  the  deformities 
of  slow-healing  wounds.  These  wounds 
offer  excellent  entrance  ports  for  fungus 
diseases  and  other  insects.  The  woolly 
apple  aphis  oftentimes  locate  in  these 
scars  and  instead  of  healing  over  they 
become  more  deformed  and  susceptible  to 
the  attacks  of  fungus  and  insects. 

In  depositing  her  eggs  the  female  ci- 
cada passes  from  one  limb  to  another 
until  she  has  deposited  all  of  her  eggs, 
which  have  been  estimated  to  number 
from  400  to  600.  The  eggs  measure  about 
one-twelfth  inch  in  length.  They  hatch 
in  six  or  seven  weeks,  are  pearly  white 
in  appearance,  tapering  to  an  obtuse 
poirt  at  either  end  and  slightly  curved. 
Upon  hatching  from  the  eggs  the  young 
larvae  run  about  for  a  very  short  time, 
drop  to  the  ground  where  they  seek  out 
a  crevice  and  immediately  work  their 
way  into  the  soil  and  begin  their  long 
underground  existence. 

Remedies 

A  number  of  insecticides  are  quite  ef- 
fective against  this  species,  but  to  be  of 
real  value  must  be  applied  each  day  as 
long  as  the  insects  issue  in  numbers. 
Pyrethrum  powder  is  a  perfectly  satisfac- 
tory remedy  against  newly  transformed 
individuals.  This  should  be  applied  in 
the  morning,  before  the  insects  have 
gained  full  strength  and  while  the  plants 
are  wet  with  dew.  The  powder  may  be 
puffed  on  the  insects  while  clinging  to 
shrubbery  or  on  the  lower  branches  of 
trees.     This   powder  is  absolutely   worth- 


534 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


l^!^^ 


Fig.  2.  Periodical  Cicada  ;  Sectiuu  of  sud  witli 
pupal  gallery  extension  above  ground.  (Orig- 
inal.) 

less  against  the  pupae.  Some  experiments 
carried  on  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment show  that  newly  emerged  pupae 
may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  with  a  2 
per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  a  15 
per  cent  solution  of  acetic  acid. 

Coating  the  trees  with  whitewash  or 
spraying  with  a  strong  solution  of  lime- 
sulphur  offers  a  possible  protective  means 
against  egg  deposition,  as  it  has  been 
stated  that  the  cicadas  do  not  like  to  sit 
on  a  white  surface. 

Phenococcus 

P.   dearnessi 

The  immature  insects  hibernate  under 
the  rough  bark  of  apple  trees.  Eggs  are 
laid  in  early  summer,  the  young  migrat- 
ing to  the  under  side  of  leaves.  The  in- 
sect secretes  a  cottony  substance  as 
shown  in  the  illustration. 

The   usual   remedies  for  scale. 

Ralihits 

By  H.  F.  Wilson 
The  first  suggestion  would  be  to  remove 
all    brush    piles    and    thickets    and    other 
places  which  offer  hiding  places  or  may 
serve  as  breeding  places. 

Kcpollents 

Perhaps  the  easiest  to  apply  and  about 
as   efficient   as  any   repellent  is  the  com- 


mon lime-sulphur  spray  applied  to  the 
trunks  of  the  trees  so  as  to  drench  them. 

The  Arkansas  Experiment  Station  rec- 
ommends painting  the  trunks  of  trees  in 
the  fall  with  white  lead  and  linseed  oil. 
Mixed  paints  should  not  be  substituted 
for  the  above,  as  they  may  contain  oils 
which  would  injure  the  trees.  This  seem- 
ed to  give  very  satisfactory  results  and 
had  the  advantage  of  remaining  on  the 
trees  for  an  entire  season. 

The  Oklahoma  Station  recommends  the 
following  formula  which  they  found  very 
satisfactory:  "Water  one  gallon,  one 
pound  soap,  two  to  four  ounces  of  car- 
bolic acid."  Some  prefer  to  add  enough 
vermilion  red  to  give  the  mixture  a  good 
pink  color  and  the  consistency  of  cream. 
This  is  painted  on  the  trunk  of  the  trees 
in  the  fall  with  a  brush  or  swab  of  rags 
tied  to  a  stick. 

Tree  Protectors  and  Wrappers 

Wire  window  screen  and  fine  chicken 
fence  wire  may  be  used  with  success  in 
case  of  small  trees.  They  should  be  about 
two  feet  high  and  should  be  allowed  to 
stand  out  a  short  distance  from  the  tree. 
The  tubes  should  be  fastened  with  wire. 

Wooden  veneer  strips  or  some  of  the 
ready-made  protectors  may  be  used  with 


IMii'iuu-nccus    dcariif'ssi. 


APPLE  PESTS 


535 


success.  In  case  of  veneer  they  should 
be  soaked  in  water  before  attempting  to 
bend  them  around  the  trees.  Where  there 
are  only  a  few  trees,  as  around  the  home 
yard,  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  pro- 


HawKeye 


Fi?.  1.      Veneer  Strips  of  Ready-made  Protector. 

tection  is  to  wrap  them  with  papers; 
cornstalks,  burlap,  etc.,  may  be  used,  but 
these  must  be  removed  during  the  sum- 
mer as  they  furnish  a  harboring  place  for 
insects. 

Traps 
There  are  any  number  of  these  which 
are  very  easily  made  and  are  very  effect- 
ive.    This  method   is   not   as   economical 
as  poisoning  but  is  frequently  used. 

Poisons 

Poisons  have  the  advantage  of  being 
easy  to  make  and  place,  but  may  be  dan- 
gerous to  domesticated  animals.  Two  for- 
mulas are  included,  any  one  of  which 
will  do. 

1.  Sulphate  of  strychnine  one  part, 
borax  one-third  part,  white  syrup  one  part, 
water  ten  parts.  Put  the  mixture  into 
a  jar  or  large  bottle  and  mix  well.  Cut 
fresh  twigs,  water  sprouts  of  apple  are 
best,  and  with  a  small  brush  paint  them, 
especially  over  the  terminal  bud.  with  the 
above  preparation. 

2.  The  Western  Australia  Department 
of  Agriculture  recommends  a  similar  for- 
mula: Dissolve  one  and  one-half  ounces 
of   strychnine    in    one   quart    of   vinegar. 


dilute  with  five  gallons  of  water,  add  two 
pounds  of  flour  and  one  pound  of  sugar, 
stir  well  and  apply  to  twig  as  in  first 
poison. 

Railroad  W^orm. — See  Apple  Maggot, 
this  section. 

Red  Bug. — See  Apple  Red  Bug,  this 
section. 

Ked-Humped  Apple  Tree  Caterpillar 

Oedemasia  rnncinna  S.  &  A. 

H.    F.    Wilson 

As  yet  this  insect  has  not  reached  a 
very  important  status  as  a  pest,  but  it 
Is  more  or  less  generally  distributed  in 
fruit  growing  sections  of  the  United 
States.  At  times  they  may  get  into  an 
orchard  and  strip  a  great  many  branches, 
as  they  are  voracious  eaters,  feeding  on 
apple,  plum,  cherry,  rose,  thorn  pear, 
blackberry,  birch,  poplar,  etc. 

The  adults  are  moths  of  rather  a  mixed 
brown  color,  fore  wings  dark  brown  on 
the  inner  and  grayish  along  the  outer 
margin.  The  thorax  and  abdomen  are 
brown.  The  moths  appear  in  the  middle 
of  the  summer  and  deposit  their  eggs  in 
clusters  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 
From  these  soon  hatch  little  larvae  or 
worms,  which  feed  on  the  under  side  of 
the  leaf.  Later  as  they  grow  larger,  the 
whole  leaf  excepting  the  midrib,  is  de- 
voured. In  October  they  become  full 
grown,  descend  to  the  ground,  crawl  under 
leaves  or  rubbish,  where  they  construct  a 
clear  transparent  cocoon,  and  remain  un- 
til the  following  spring,  when  they  appear 
as  moths. 

The  full  grown  caterpillar  measures 
about  one  and  one-fourth  inches  in  length. 
It  is  marked  with  fine  longitudinal  stripes 
of  black,  white  and  yellow.  Head  bright 
red.  and  contracting  upward  and  back- 
ward. Body  covered  with  black  tubercles. 
which  on  the  dorsum  carry  black  spines. 


Fig.  1. 


The  Red-humped  Caterpillar.    (Much 
Enlarged,  i 


536 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


The  fourth  body  segment  is  raised  dor- 
sally  to  form  an  oval  red  hump  from 
which  the  insect  gets  its  common  name. 

Remedies 

Arsenicals  applied  to  the  leaves  are  ef 
ficient  and  probably  the  reason  that  we 
seldom  hear  of  this  pest  doing  serious 
damage  is  because  they  are  poisoned  by 
the  sprays  used  for  codling  moth,  etc. 

Red-Necked  Apple   Tree  Caterpillar 

Datana  ministra 

A  moderately  large  black  caterpillar, 
loosely  clothed  with  soft  hairs,  and 
marked  with  parallel  longitudinal  yellow 
stripes.  Disposed  to  be  social,  but  makes 
no  web.    Adult  a  reddish  brown  moth. 

Sometimes  attacks  a  tree  or  two  in  nur- 
sery or  orchard,  and  then  strips  whole 
branches,  or  the  greater  part  of  whole 
trees,  of  leaves.  The  caterpillar  when  at 
rest  elevates  both  head  and  hind  end  of 
the  body  and  has  a  habit  of  gathering  in 
large  masses  on  the  trunks  of  trees. 

The  species  passes  the  winter  in  the 
pupa  stage  in  the  soil  under  trees,  and 
comes  up  as  a  moth  in  late  spring  to  place 
its  eg.gs  on  the  leaves. 

Not  noted  in  the  Northwest. 

Burn  with  kerosene  torches  or  spray 
with  arsenate  of  lead. 

Red   or   Si.\-(S|)otted   Spider   or   Mite 

*Tetraiiychus    bimaculatus  Harv. 
Tetranychus  sexmaculatus  Riley 

General  Appearance 

This  species  (like  the  other  mites)  is 
exceedingly  small  and  individuals  are  sel- 
dom noticed  excepting  when  they  collect 
in  great  numbers.  The  color  is  red  with 
a  yellowish  tin,ge  and  usually  with  two 
darker  spots  on  each  side  of  the  body. 
The  young  greatly  resemble  the  adults 
but  have  six  rather  than  eight  legs. 

Life  History 

The  mites  usually  begin  to  appear 
after  the  first  warm  weather  in  the  spring, 
the  winter  having  been  spent  in  the 
ground.  They  spin  threads  so  as  to  con- 
ceal themselves,  their  eggs  and  young,  on 

•We  are  infuniipd  by  Pr.  II.  R.  Ewing  that 
the  onrrei't  name  of  this  species  is  Tetraniichus 
tcUlriuK   \A\\n. 


the  undersides  of  the  leaves  and  feed  di- 
rectly upon  the  tissues  of  the  plant  by 
sucking  which  gradually  stunts  and  kills 
the  latter.  The  common  red  mite  is  a 
serious  greenhouse  pest,  where,  under  fa- 
vorable conditions,  it  is  able  to  work 
throughout  the  entire  year. 

Distribution 

Though  of  foreign  origin  this  mite 
has  become  thoroughly  distributed  over 
the  entire  state  and  is  met  alike  in  field 
and  greenhouse. 

Food  Plants 

This  mite  is  an  omnivorous  feeder,  ap- 
parently without  any  favorite  food.  The 
plants  which  it  is  known  to  attack  are 
sugar  beets,  beans,  sage,  tomato,  egg- 
plant, pepper,  cucumber,  squash,  cowpea. 


Fig.  1.      Mite  Esgs  About  an  Apple  Bug. 

hops,  berries,  violet,  rose,  clematis,  mig- 
nonette, pink,  fuschia,  pelargonium,  go- 
detia,  passiflora,  feverfew,  thunbergia,  ver- 
bena, heliotrope,  moon-flower,  calla,  smilax 
and  easter  lily. 

Control 

Sulphur  and  dehydrated  lime  mixed  in 
equal  proportions  and  thoroughly  sprin- 
kled over  the  plants  are  recommended. 
Sprays  such  as  emulsions,  resin  wash  and 
soap  solutions  are  eificient  remedies,  but 
these  are  usually  too  destructive  to  the 
tender  leaves  of  the  food  plants  to  be  prac- 
ticable. The  flour  paste  spray  is  especially 
recommended  in  such  cases. 


APPLE  PESTS 


537 


>atiiral  Enemies 

The  minute  black  ladybird  beetles 
(Stethorus  vagaiis  and  Stethorus  picipes) 
and  the  larvae  of  the  syrphid  flies  prey 
upon  this  mite. 

E.  O.  EssiG 

Resplendent  Shield  Bearer 

Coptodisca   splendoriferella 

This  leaf  miner  attacks  apples,  quince, 
and  native  hawthorns.  When  the  larva 
is  ready  to  change  to  a  pupa,  it  cuts  out 
the  part  of  the  leaf  it  has  mined  and 
drags  it  away  to  the  twigs,  where  it  is 
secured  as  a  small  cocoon  about  one-eighth 
Inch  in  length,  and  remains  with  the  en- 
closed pupa  until  the  following  spring. 

The  larva  is  legless,  flattish,  the  head 
dark  brown,  the  body  lighter  brown  with 
a  darker  shade  along  the  middle  above 
and  beneath. 

The  adult  is  a  beautiful  little  moth,  the 
head  and  outer  half  of  the  front  wings 
golden,  the  bases  gray.  A  silvery  streak 
extends  inward  from  both  anterior  and 
posterior  margins  of  the  front  wing  to- 
ward the  tip,  but  they  do  not  meet. 

The  insect  is  not  very  common  and 
those  I  have  secured  have  been  badly  in- 
fested with  a  small  yellow  and  black 
Hymenopterous  parasite. 

H.  Gakmax 

Rosy  Apple  Aphis. — See  Aphirls. 

Saddle-Back  Caterpillar 

Sitine  stitnulea 

A  slug-like  caterpillar  with  four  con- 
spicuous horn-like  spiny  processes,  one 
at  each  side  near  the  front  end  of  the 
body  and  the  other  pair  near  the  hind 
end.  There  are  other  smaller  processes 
at  each  end.  Body  purple  in  front  and 
behind,  between,  pea-green,  with  an  oval, 
saddle-like  area  in  the  middle  of  the  back, 
the  green  surrounding  it  having  some  ap- 
pearance of  a  saddle  blanket.  Length 
about  one  inch. 

The  pupa  is  found  in  a  brown  papery 
cocoon,  formed  against  branches  or  other 
objects. 

The  adult  moth  e:;i;ands  about  1  44 
inch.  The  fore  wings  are  of  a  deep  red- 
dish brown  color;  hind  wings,  much  paler. 

The  insect  is  never  common  enough  to 


be  the  occasion  of  any  anxiety.  Besides 
apple,  it  feeds  upon  oak,  cherry,  corn, 
and  other  plants. 

The  San  Jose  Scale 

Aspidiotus   pernicious,   Comm. 

By  H.  F.  Wilson 

Xatiire  and  Extent  of  Injury 

One  can  hardly  fail  to  locate  this  insect 
where  it  is  present  in  unchecked  num- 
bers, for  the  appearance  of  its  host  will 
be  such  that  one  who  is  familiar  with  the 
resulting  Injury  can  readily  distinguish 
the  more  or  less  circular  ash-gray,  shield- 
like scales  on  bark,  leaves  or  fruit.  Owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  scales  closely  resemble 
the  bark  of  most  of  our  fruit  trees,  they 
may  be  working  on  a  tree  for  some  time 
before  their  presence  is  discovered. 
When  they  are  abundant,  the  fruit  will 
usually  be  infested  with  few  to  many 
scales;  this  is  the  first  Indication  that 
the  average  orchardist  will  notice.  When 
allowed  to  develop  unchecked,  they  soon 
cover  branches  and  limbs,  which,  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  injury,  die  in  one  or  more 
seasons;  following  this,  entire  trees  die 
from  lack  of  nourishment. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  San  Jose  scale 
is  the  only  scale  which  causes  the  redden- 
ing of  the  bark,  but  this  is  not  true  as 
the  same  effect  is  caused  by  other  scale 
insects.      This    is   quite    characteristic    of 


Fig.   1.      .San  .lose   Scale. 
(Eular.ged  \ 


538 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the  San  Jose  scale,  however,  and  fur- 
nishes a  fairly  sure  basis  for  identifica- 
tion in  the  orchard. 

The  condition  of  the  scales  can  readily 
be  ascertained  by  scraping  them  from  a 
branch:  if  they  are  dead,  the  scales  will 
rub  off  like  a  dry,  gray  scurf:  if  they  are 
alive,  the  crushed  bodies  will  produce  a 
yellow  oil-like  fluid  which  gives  the  bark 
a  greasy  appearance.  Wherever  a  scale 
has  settled  there  will  be  a  small  round 
spot  with  a  white  speck  in  the  middle; 
the  spot  is  formed  by  the  body  of  the 
scale  while  the  white  speck  is  where  the 
long  thread-like  piercing  apparatus,  or 
tongue,  was  Inserted  in  the  bark.  Often- 
times the  scales  will  completely  cover 
portions  of  limbs  and  overlap  on  each 
other  so  that  they  form  a  crust.  WTien 
so  badly  infested,  young  scales  will  crawl 
under  old  dead  scales  and  settle.  We 
have  found  as  many  as  four  young  scales 
fastened  side  by  side  under  one  old  scale. 
Fruit  infested  with  the  scale  becomes 
pitted  and  gnarled,  as  the  growth  is 
checked  at  the  point  where  the  scales 
have  their  beaks  inserted. 

"For  the  benefit  of  fruit  inspectors  in 
particular,  it  should  be  noted  that  reddish 
discolorations  upon  yellow  fruit  are  not 
always  caused  by  San  Jose  scale.  Upon 
yellow  apples  and  particularly  upon 
peaches  very  similar  spots  are  produced 
by  attacks  of  certain  minute  fungi.  Hence, 
such  spots  should  not  in  themselves  be 
taken  as  proof  of  infestation  by  the  scale. 
This  can  be  determined  definitely  only  by 
a  careful  examination  and  the  actual  de- 
tection of  the  scale.  The  presence  of  such 
blotches  may  well  arouse  suspicion  of  the 
presence  of  San  Jose  scale  and  should 
challenge  a  careful  examination  alike  by 
growers,  buyers  and  inspector;  so,  also, 
should  the  presence  of  dead  and  shriveled 
leaves  upon  the  trees  in  mid-winter  invite 
examination,  for,  although  their  presence 
is  not  proof  of  the  appearance  of  the 
scale,  it  is  evidence  that  the  vitality  of 
the  tree  has  been  seriously  impaired  by 
some  cause,  and  in  regions  where  San  Jose 
scale  is  prevalent  that  cause,  in  a  vast 
majority  of  instances,  is  the  scale."  (1) 

(1)  A.  B.  roidlev.  Bull.  88.  Ore.  Agi-'l  Ex. 
Sta..   p.   G.   March.   1906. 


Unlike  most  other  scale  insects,  it  de- 
velops and  hatches  its  eggs  within  the 
body,  so  that  the  young  are  born  alive. 
In  Jlay,  possibly  earlier,  under  favorable 
conditions,  the  females  begin  to  give  birth 
to  living  young  and  may  continue  to  pro- 
duce for  six  weeks  or  longer. 

General  Description 

The  young  are  minute,  light  orange 
yellow,  active  creatures  with  eyes,  bris- 
tle-like   mouth    parts,    two    antennae    or 


rig. 


San    .Tose    Scale    on    .\pple    I.imb. 
(Purdue    Bulletin    138.) 


APPLE  PESTS 


539 


feelers,  and  six  legs.  After  emerging 
from  under  the  protecting  scale  of  the 
parent,  each  wanders  over  the  surface  of 
bark,  fruit  or  leaf  until  a  suitable  situa- 
tion is  found,  when  the  legs  and  anten- 
nae are  folded  beneath  the  body,  the 
bristle-like  beak  is  slowly  worked 
through  the  outer  bark  into  the  living 
tissues  beneath,  from  which  it  draws  its 
sustenance.  At  any  time  during  the 
summer  months  hundreds  of  these  little 
pests  may  be  seen,  even  with  the  unaided 
eye,  as  they  crawl  about  over  the  bark  or 
fruit  of  infested  trees.  With  the  first 
molt,  all  appendages,  the  legs,  antennae, 
etc.,  except  the  beak,  are  lost. 

The  female  scales  when  mature  have 
a  more  or  less  circular  scale  formed  of 
a  number  of  concentric  rings,  which  cor- 
respond to  the  various  molts  made  during 
growth.  Under  a  strong  lens  these  ap- 
pear ash-gray  in  color  with  a  black  pro- 
tuberance or  raised  spot  in  the  middle. 

Remedies 

In  this  state  lime-sulphur  is  generally 
used  in  combating  the  San  Jose  scale. 
The  recommendations  from  this  station 
have  been  to  spray  the  trees  while  dor- 
mant either  in  the  late  fall  or  early 
spring. 

"During  the  past  four  years  we  have 
conclusively  demonstrated  that  the  lime- 
sulphur  spray,  which  has  long  been 
known  as  the  most  satisfactory  winter 
spray  for  San  Jose  scale,  has  fungicidal 
qualities  nearly  or  quite  equal  to  those 
of  Bordeaux.  We  have  also  conclusively 
demonstrated  that  it  may  be  used  in  com- 
bination with  arsenate  of  lead  without 
detracting  from  the  value  of  either,  and 
that  when  so  used  it  is  at  once  an  effici- 
ent contact  insecticide,  food  poison  spray 
and  fungicide."    (2) 

We  have  also  demonstrated  the  fact 
that  Black  Leaf  or  "Black  Leaf-40"  can 
be  combined  with  lime-sulphur,  in  con- 
trol of  plant  lice  without  destroying  the 
insecticidal  value  of  the  lime  sulphur. 
The  most  suitable  time  to  get  plant  lice 
is  in  the  spring,  just  as  the  buds  are 
turning  green.     At  that  time  a  very  large 


<2)      A.   B.   fordlev   and   H.    S.   .Tackson.   rii 
Bull.   No.   13,  Ore.   Agr'l   College,   1911. 


percentage  of  the  eggs  will  have  hatched 
and  the  young  lice  will  not  be  protected 
by  the  leaves.  The  lime-sulphur  is  equal- 
ly as  effective  in  the  control  of  the  scale 
when  applied  at  that  time  and  to  a  slight 
degree  may  be  effective  against  the  newly 
hatched  lice. 

General  Reconiraendatinns 

It  is  not  necessary  to  make  an  applica- 
tion of  lime-sulphur  for  the  San  Jose 
scale  alone.  If  lime-sulphur  is  used  at 
any  time  for  the  control  of  apple  scab 
or  anthracnose,  the  same  application  will 
suffice  for  the  control  of  the  scale. 

In  regions  where  neither  of  the  above 
diseases  exist,  spray  with  lime-sulphur, 
winter  strength,  just  as  the  buds  are 
opening,  and  if  the  plant  lice  (any  spe- 
cies) have  been  bad  during  past  seasons, 
add  "Black  Leaf-40"  at  the  rate  of  1  part 
to  900  parts  of  the  diluted  lime-sulphur 
spray. 

Scurfy  Scale 
Chionaspis  furfura  Fitch 

General   Appearance 

The  female  scale  is  irregular  and 
broadly  pear-shaped;  from  white  to  light 
gray  in  color.  The  exuviae  is  yellowish 
and  from  one-eighth  to  one-tenth  of  an 
inch  in  length.  The  male  scale  is  white, 
very  small,  long,  tricarinated  and  with 
yellow  exuviae  at  the  pointed  end. 

life  History 

The  winter  is  passed  by  the  females 
under  the  scales  where  the  purple  or  wine- 
colored  eggs  are  laid  and  hatch  in  the 
spring  shortly  after  blooming  time.  The 
young  begin  at  once  to  cover  their  bodies 
with  a  scale. 

This  insect  is  sometimes  confused  with 
the  oyster  shell  scale,  but  is  broader  and 
much  lighter  in  color,  having  dark  red 
eggs,  while  those  of  the  oyster  shell  scale 
are  yellowish-white. 

Food  Plants 

This  species  attacks  many  plants,  chief 
of  which  are  apple,  pear,  plum,  cherry, 
quince,  Japanese  quince,  currant,  moun- 
tain ash,  hawthorn,  peach,  poplar,  goose- 
berry, crabapple.  chokecherry,  black  wal- 
nut and  elm. 


540 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.   1.      Scurfy   Scale.      Purdue  Bulletin   U.S. 

t'onfrol 

Same  as  for  San  Jose  scale. 

E.  0.  EssiG 

Seventeex-Year  Locust. — See  Periodi- 
cal Cicada,  this  section. 

Six-Spotted  Spider. — See  Red  Spider. 
this  section. 

Synet.\. — See  Fruit  Tree  Leaf  Syneta. 
this  section. 

Tent  Caterpillars 

Malacasoma  erosa  Stretch. 

Malacasoma  pUrviaUs  Dyar. 

Malacasoma  roiistrirta  Stretch. 

By  H.  F.  WiLSox 

Tent  caterpillars,  so-called  because  they 

build  nests  wherein  they  usually  remain 

when  not  feeding.    These  nests  are  formed 


out  of  silken  threads  secreted  by  the  lar- 
vae and  serve  both  as  a  shelter  and  a 
protection   against  natural   enemies. 

Of  the  many  different  species  which 
exist  throughout  the  world  only  three  are 
at  all  serious  in  the  Northwest.  To  the 
casual  observer  there  is  little  difference 
lietween  the  larvae  and  adults  of  these 
species  when  looked  at  separately.  Taken 
side  by  side,  however,  the  full-grown  lar- 
vae may  be  easily  distinguished,  one 
species  from  the  other. 

*According  to  Professor  F.  L.  Wash- 
burn, a  former  entomologist  of  the  Oregon 
Agricultural  College,  of  the  three,  Malaca- 
soma erosa,  Malacosoma  pluvialis,  and 
Malacasoma  constricta,  the  first  named 
feeds  upon  almost  everything  but  the  pear, 
viz.:  apple,  quince,  cherry,  rose,  prune,  etc. 
The  second  has  about  the  same  food  plants 
as  the  first.  The  third  devastates  whole 
groves  of  oak,  particularly  Quercus  gar- 
ryana,  occasionally  migrating  to  the 
prune,  and  thereby  causing  considerable 
alarm  among  orchardists. 

During  the  past  two  or  three  years  M. 
pluvialis  has  been  extremely  abundant  in 
the  western  part  of  Oregon,  both  on  fruit 
and  forest  trees.  Numerous  reports  have 
come  in  from  about  Portland  and  I  have 
observed  the  larvae  over  many  square 
miles  of  woodland  in  Southern  Oregon. 

When  these  larvae  are  very  numerous 
they  can  entirely  strip  a  tree  of  its  fo- 
liage in  a  very  short  time.  When  first 
hatched  from  the  eggs  they  are  not  read- 
ily noticed,  but  as  they  grow  larger  they 
are  readily  distinguished  both  by  their 
size  and  by  the  tents  which  they  build. 
Toward  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  the 
summer  the  larvae  become  full  grown; 
they  then  seek  crevices  where  they  spin 
silken  cocoons  and  change  to  pupae.  After 
remaining  in  this  stage  a  short  time  they 
change  to  the  adult  insects  or  moths 
which  come  forth  and  deposit  the  eggs. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  in  masses  on  the 
small  branches  or  shoots,  and  in  the  case 
of  one  species,  where  the  eggs  are  laid 
on  new  shoots,  the  egg  mass  completely 
surrounds   the   twig.     These   are   covered 


♦F.    L.    W.ishluini.    Bullelin    33.    Oics.m    Ex- 
pn-iment    Stnii<;n.    1S04. 


APPLE  PESTS 


541 


Tent  Caterpillars.  1  and  4.  larvae  of  M.  erosa ;  2.  cocoon  of  M.  erosa;  3,  tent  of 
M.  erosa;  5,  egg  mass  and  nest  of  M.  pluvialis :  6,  cluster  of  caterpillars  on  trunk 
of  apple.  If.  erosa;  7,  adult  of  If.  erosa;  H.  egg  mass  of  Western  Apple  Tree  Tent 
Caterpillars. 


542 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


with  a  cement-like  substance  wtiicli  is  im- 
pervious to  water  and  climatic  conditions. 
This  gellatinous  substance,  besides  acting 
as  a  protection  to  the  eggs,  is  said  to 
constitute  the  first  food  of  the  newly 
hatched  larvae.  The  embryonic  larvae  in 
these  eggs  are  nearly  full  fledged  at  the 
beginning  of  winter  and  usually  come 
forth  from  the  egg  mass  early  in  the 
spring.  All  of  the  moths  do  not  emerge 
at  the  same  time,  so  that  we  may  find 
them  laying  their  eggs  until  late  in  the 
fall.  The  eggs  of  the  late  appearing 
moths  do  not  hatch  until  a  correspond- 
ingly late  period  in  the  summer;  there- 
fore, we  may  find  some  caterpillars  and 
nests  all  through  the  summer.  This 
might  seem  to  indicate  that  there  is  more 
than  one  generation  a  season  but  such  is 
not  the  case.  The  adult  moths  are  about 
one  inch  long  and  are  cream  colored  with 
indistinct  white  bands  on  the  wings. 

Nataral  Enemies 

Like  every  other  species  of  animal  life 
these  insects  have  their  natural  enemies. 
and  large  numbers  are  destroyed  each 
season.  Few  birds  feed  upon  hairy  cater- 
pillars, but  according  to  Professor  Wash- 
burn, the  Brewers'  Blackbird,  very  com- 
mon in  this  country,  is  very  fond  of  the 
pupae,  and  may  be  observed  tearing  open 
the  cocoons  and  feeding  on  them.  They 
are  also  attacked  by  a  fly,  which  lays 
eggs  on  the  larvae.  From  these  hatch 
minute  worms  which  bore  into  the  in- 
sects and  feed  on  the  tissues,  thus  even- 
tually killing  the  host.  There  is  a  fungus 
disease  prevalent  in  Oregon  which  is  very 
disastrous  to  the  insects  under  the  right 
condition.  This  is  induced  by  warm  wet 
weather  when  the  larvae  shrink  up  and 
die. 

Artificial  Methods  of  Control 

In  fruit  orchards,  spraying  with  arse- 
nate of  lead,  as  used  for  the  codling  moth, 
is  usually  sufficient.  As  the  egg  masses 
remain  over  the  winter  on  the  twigs  the 
majority  of  the  nests  can  be  destroyed 
at  the  time  of  winter  pruning.  If  these 
nests  are  not  located  in  the  winter  and 
the  caterpillars  form  tents  in  the  spring, 
the  tents  can  be  burned  out  with  a  torch. 
Shade  trees  may  be  protected  by  spraying 


with  arsenate  of  lead,  2  pounds  to  50  gal- 
lons of  water. 

TiNGis. — See  Apple  Tinyis,  this  section. 

Trumpet  Leaf  Miner  of  tlie  Apple 

Tischeria  malifoliella  Clemens(?) 

H.  F.  Wilson 

This  insect  is  of  little  economic  im- 
portance to  fruit  growers  in  the  North- 
west, but  sometimes  appears  very  numer- 
ous on  the  leaves  of  apple  and  is  often  in- 
quired about. 

Little  mines  are  made  in  the  leaves  by 
the  larvae,  which  begin  at  the  point  of 
egg  deposition  and  gradually  widen  out 
in  the  shape  of  a  trumpet.  Completed 
mines  vary  much  in  shape  and  size,  but 
will  average  perhaps  in  the  more  typi- 
cal examiiles  one-half  inch  long  by  one- 
fourth   inch   wide. 

The  larva  is  whitish  in  color  with  a 
brown  head,  and  measures  about  one- 
quarter  inch  in  length  at  the  time  of  pu- 
pation. The  adult  was  originally  de- 
scribed as  follows:  "The  head  and  an- 
tennae shining  dark  brown,  lace  ocher- 
ous.  Fore  wings  uniform  shining  dark 
brown  with  a  purplish  tinge,  slightly 
dusted  with  pale  ocherous  citio  of  the 
general  hue.  Hind  wings  dark  gray; 
cilia  with  a  rufus  tinge." 

When  excessively  abundant,  as  has 
been  the  case  in  several  localities  during 
the  past  two  or  three  years,  the  injury 
done  by  the  larvae  to  the  leaves  will  cause 
many  of  them  to  fall  prematurely,  thus 
interfering  with  the  proper  development 
of  the  fruit  and  the  health  of  the  tree. 
Its  control,  therefore,  becomes  a  matter 
of  importance.  This  can.  perhaps,  best  be 
accomplished  by  plowing  the  orchard  in 
the  spring,  covering  as  much  as  possible 
all  the  fallen  leaves  and  trash,  as  in  the 
former  the  pupae  pass  the  winter.  This 
having  been  done  it  is  practically  certain 
that  the  moths  will  not  be  able  to  make 
their  escape  from  the  soil.  This  should 
be  done  not  later  than  the  blooming  of 
the  trees. 

Tussock  Moth. — See  Western  Tussock 
Moth,  this  section. 

Twig  Borer. — See  Branch  and  Twig 
Borer,  this  section. 


APPLE  PESTS 


543 


Unicorn  rroniinent 

Schizura  unicornis 

During  August  and  September,  a  sin- 
gular caterpillar  is  occasionally  found 
feeding  on  apple  foliage.  It  is  reddish 
brown,  variegated  with  white  on  the  back, 
and  has  a  green  patch  on  each  side,  ex- 
tending over  the  second  and  third  seg- 
ments, while  from  the  top  of  the  fourth  a 
conspicuous  horn  is  projected.  It  eats  out 
a  notch  from  the  edge  of  the  leaf  and 
then  fits  itself  to  the  notch,  clasping  the 
eaten  edge  of  the  leaf  with  its  prolegs 
while  the  prominent  horn  is  made  to  ex- 
tend over  a  portion  of  the  vacant  space 
where  belonged  the  devoured  tissue.  The 
outline  of  the  back,  thus  simulating  the 
irregular  edge  of  the  leaf,  enables  the  cat- 
erpillar to  elude  the  sight  of  all  but  the 
most  searching  eyes.  This  caterpillar  is 
known  as  the  unicorn  prominent,  and 
though  interesting,  rarely,  if  ever,  be- 
comes sufficiently  numerous  to  be  troub- 
lesome. It  reaches  full  size  in  Septem- 
ber and  descends  to  the  ground,  where  a 
cocoon  is  constructed  under  the  fallen 
leaves  and  trash.  The  light-brown  moth 
does  not  appear  until  the  following  sum- 
mer. No  measures  against  this  insect 
are  needed  under  ordinary  circumstances. 
If  a.  midsummer  spraying  with  arsenate 
of  lead  Is  made  in  July  or  August,  these 
caterpillars  are  apt  to  be  thinned  down 
until  they  attract  no  notice. 

H.    A.    GOSSABD, 
Wooster.    Ohio. 
Weetil.— See   Bronze  Apple   Tree  Wee- 
vil, this  section. 

Western  Tussock  Moth 

Hemerocampa  vetusta  Boisd. 
H.  F.  Wilson 

The  distribution  of  this  insect  in  the 
United  States  is  at  present  limited  to  the 
Pacific  coast,  and  on  account  of  the  sim- 
ilarity of  its  work  to  that  of  the  tent 
caterpillars,  is  often  taken  for  one  of 
those  insects.  The  two  are  quite  differ- 
ent, however,  in  appearance,  both  in  the 
larval  and  adult  stages. 

The  eggs  begin  to  hatch  about  the  time 
the  leaves  are  spreading  out  in  the  spring, 
and  at  that  time  the  young  larvae  are 
almost  black.     For  a  few   days   they    re- 


Fig.  1.  Western  or  California  Tussock  Moth. 
(at  and  (b)  Adult  wingless  females.  (d) 
Cocoons.  le)  Egg  masses  attached  to  the 
cocoons,  (t)  Eggs,  (g)  Internal  parasite 
working   upon    cocoons.       ^Essig. ) 

main  clustered  about  the  egg  mass  and 
apparently  feed  on  the  substance  which 
covers  and  holds  the  latter  together. 
After  the  larvae  have  all  hatched  and 
have  broken  out  from  the  eggs,  the  egg 
mass  will  appear  as  if  riddled  with  holes. 
The  larvae  cut  these  in  escaping  from  the 
eggs. 

After  a  few  days  the  larvae  spread  on 
to  the  nearby  buds  and  leaves.  At  first 
the  damage  is  very  slight  and  consists  of 
minute  holes  in  leaves,  blossoms  and  fruit. 
Later  they  feed  entirely  on  the  leaves 
which  they  devour,  leaving  only  portions 
of  leaves  and  the  larger  veins. 

Unlike  the  larvae  of  the  tent  caterpil- 
lars, they  spread  out  over  the  tree  and 
do  not  collect  at  night  nor  do  they  build 
nests  or  tents.  They  are  somewhat  wan- 
dering in  their  habits  and  oftentimes  can 
be  seen  crawling  about  on  the  ground,  go- 
ing from  one  tree  to  another. 

The  original  description  of  the  larvae 
is  given  as  follows:  "Ground  color  vel- 
vety black.  Head  black,  rather  shining, 
with  yellow  line  in  front.  From  the  sec- 
ond segment  springs  two  bundles  of  long 
black  hairs.  The  space  between  these  is 
bright  vermilion  red:   at  the  base  of  each 


544 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRAdTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fis 


2.     Western    Tussock    Moth  :     Larva    feed- 
ing  on    Apple    Foliage.       (Original,  i 


segment  is  a  series  of  four  or  five  orange 
yellow  dots,  extended  to  the  sides:  third 
and  anterior  part  of  fourth  more  broadly 
and  distinctly  patched  with  orange.  From 
the  dorsum  of  fifth,  sixth,  seventh  and 
eighth  spring  bundles  of  long  silky  hairs, 
whitish  drab  at  their  base,  chestnut  to- 
wards their  tips.  Along  the  lateral  re- 
gion is  a  double  row  of  bright  red  tu- 
bercles, and  on  the  third,  fourth,  tenth, 
eleventh  and  twelfth,  these  extend  across 
the  body,  six  tubercles  appearing  on  each 
segment.  Out  of  these  spring  a  series  of 
long  yellowish  white  hairs,  sparsely  in- 
terspersed with  black,  and  becoming  more 
decidedly  yellow  laterally.  From  the  cen- 
ter of  twelfth  segment  a  bundle  of  long 
yellow  hairs,  tufted  with  black;  under 
side  blackish;  feet  and  pro-legs  orange 
yellow,  with  the  claws  black.  Length  one 
inch." 
When   mature   the   larvae   usually   seek 


some  protected  place  for  forming  their 
cocoons  and  in  such  a  place  collect  in 
large  numbers  if  very  abundant.  Occa- 
sionally they  will  gather  bunches  of  leaves 
at  the  tip  of  twigs  and  form  their  co- 
coons under  these;  this  takes  place  in 
early  June.  About  the  last  of  June  the 
females  and  males  emerge,  copulate;  and 
the  females  being  unable  to  fly,  remain 
hanging  to  the  old  cocoons.  The  males 
fiy  both  at  night  and  during  the  day: 
they  live  but  a  short  time  after  copula- 
tion. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  males  are 
attracted  to  the  females  by  their  odor 
and  that  they  will  go  long  distances  to 
find  them.  As  the  eggs  are  deposited  the 
females  secrete  a  cement-like  substance 
which  surrounds  the  eggs  and  forms  an 
excellent  protection  against  climatic  con- 
ditions and  enemies.  This  also  fastens 
them  very  securel}-  to  whatever  they  are 
laid  upon.  As  the  eggs  pass  from  the 
body  the  abdomen  contracts  until  the  fe- 
male Is  but  head  and  legs  with  but  a 
semblance  of  an  abdomen.  The  egg 
masses  are  grayish  brown  in  color,  nearly 
spherical  and  measure  about  one-fourth 
inch  in  diameter.  There  is  but  a  single 
brood  each  season  and  the  eggs  remain 
over  until  from  early  summer  to  early 
spring.  There  is  little  danger  that  this 
insect  will  ever  become  a  very  serious 
pest  but  it  is  at  all  times  annoying  and 
may  at  times  need  special  treatment. 
Remedies 

Our  most  common  spray  of  arsenate  of 
lead,  2  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water,  is 


Fig.     3.     Wliite    Mariied     Tussock     Moth.       An 
Eastern    relative    of    the    Western    species. 


Fig.  4.  Dead  Caterpillar  of  the  California  Tus- 
sock Moth  Moved  to  Show  the  Pupa  Cases 
of  Internal  I'arasltes.  Which  After  Killing 
it  Pupated  Indeineath  the  Dead  Body. 

(Essig) 


APPLE  PESTS 


545 


entirely  ineffective  and  Paris  green  is  not 
much  better.  Contact  sprays  seem  to  be 
inefficient  and  tliere  remain  but  two 
methods  that  offer  any  great  chance  of 
success:  one  is  to  collect  or  to  destroy  the 
egg  masses. 

Second,  by  placing  sticky  bands  on  the 
trees  and  then  jarring  the  trees.  These 
may  be  made  of  tangle  foot  or  some  tar 
compound.  Jarring  the  trees  will  cause 
the  larvae  to  drop  to  the  ground  and 
when  the  trees  are  banded  they  cannot 
get  past  the  bands  as  long  as  they  remain 
fresh. 

White   Dotted  .Vpple   Worm 
Balsa  malana 

In  early  fall  and  continuing  until  late 
autumn  may  sometimes  be  found  a  rather 
stout,  cylindrical,  light-green  worm,  about 
an  inch  long  and  marked  with  five  white 
longitudinal  lines  and  numerous  whitish 
dots.  These  worms  are  in  the  habit  of 
feeding  solitary  and  alone  on  the  under- 
side of  the  leaves,  from  the  margins  of 
which  they  eat  regular  notches  or  holes 
Into  the  middle.  This  caterpillar  is 
known  as  the  white  dotted  apple  worm. 
When  full  grown,  the  caterpillar  draws 
together  a  portion  of  the  leaf  with  silken 
threads  to  form  a  hollow  tube.  This  is 
lined  with  a  thin  layer  of  silk  and  the 
caterpillar  then  passes  into  the  pupal 
stage.  The  chrysalis  remains  in  the  fallen 
leaf  until  the  next  spring,  when  it  issues 
as  an  ashy  gray  moth  with  three  irregu- 
lar black  lines  crossing  the  front  wings. 
There  are  two  broods. 

H.    A.    GCSSARD, 
Wooster.    Ohio. 

Wii.T  BfG. — See  Apple  Wilt  Bug.  this 
section. 

Wnoii.v  ApHi.s. — See  Aphids. 

A  Japanese  Formula  for  Destroying  the 
TVoolly  .4phis 

Mr.  T.  Machida  of  Japan  has  recently 
found  a  very  satisfactory  wash  formula 
which  has  been  found  to  be  of  much  value 
in  the  control  of  the  woolly  apple  aphis. 
His  recommendations  for  the  various  in- 
gredients to  be  used  are  as  follows: 

Raoe-seed  oil  3  1/3  pints 

Sulphur    1  1/2  ounces 

Turpentine     7  1/3  ounces 


The  rape  seed  oil  should  be  boiled  alone 
for  a  very  short  time  followed  by  adding 
the  turpentine  slowly,  stirring  continually 
until  they  are  thoroughly  mixed.  Stir  in 
the  required  amount  of  well  crushed  sul- 
phur. Use  a  strong  fire  and  allow  to  cool, 
when  the  mixture  assumes  a  darkish 
color.  Paint  the  attacked  parts  of  fruit 
trees.  This  wash  can  also  be  recom- 
mended for  use  in  the  control  of  other 
aphids  and  the  destruction  of  their  eggs. 

S.   Nakayama. 

Stanford    University. 
California  Com.   Hort..   III.,    No.   2. 

Tellow-Necked  Datana 

D.  ministra 
Often  conspicuous  and  quite  injurious 
in  September.  Most  of  the  caterpillars  are 
well  grown  before  the  middle  of  the 
month  and  are  ravenous  feeders  upon  ap- 
ple and  other  orchard  and  forest  trees. 
The  full-grown  caterpillar  is  about  two 
inches  long  with  a  black  head  and  a  yel- 
low neck.  A  black  stripe  extends  down 
the  middle  of  the  back  and  three  stripes 
of  the  same  color,  alternating  with  four 
yellow  strips,  extend  along  each  side.  The 
body  is  quite  hairy.  The  caterpillars  are 
gregarious  and  collect  together  in  large 
numbers  out  towards  the  ends  of  the 
twigs.  If  the  branch  is  jarred  or  the  cat- 
erpillars are  in  any  way  disturbed,  they 
cling  for  support  with  their  four  middle 
pairs  of  legs,  and  elevate  both  ends  of 
their  bodies  in  the  air  at  right  angles  to 
their  support.  Some  time  in  Se|)tember, 
they  all  descend  to  the  earth  and  burrow 
beneath  the  surface  from  two  to  four 
inches,  where  they  pupate.  When  the  col- 
onies are  young,  they  are  confined  to  a 
single  small  branch,  which  may  be  cut  oft 
and  burned.  After  they  become  more  ma- 
ture, resort  to  hand-picking  or  spray  the 
trees  on  which  they  are  feeding,  if  not 
carrying  fruit,  with  arsenate  of  lead,  5 
pounds  in  50  gallons  of  water.  Kerosene 
emulsion  may  be  diluted  with  12  to  15 
parts  of  water  and  sprayed  directly  on 
them.  Make  oil  sprayings  only  on  dry, 
sunshiny  days  so  as  to  avoid  all  danger  of 
injury  to  the  foliage.  The  raincrows  or 
cuckoos  feed  quite  freely  on  these  hairy 


546 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


caterpillars,   which  are  shunned  by  most 
birds. 

H.    A.    GOSSARD. 
Wooster.  Ohio. 

Apricot 

The  apricot  is  related  to  the  peach, 
plum,  almond,  nectarine,  cherry  and 
prune.  It  is  generally  believed  to  have 
been  a  cross  between  the  peach  and  the 
plum;  but  this  has  been  disputed  on  the 
ground  that  it  grows  wild  in  Africa  and 
the  Caucasus  mountains.  In  some  parts 
of  the  Caucasus  mountains  the  hills  and 
mountainsides  are  covered  with  apricot 
trees,  and  in  China  also  it  grew  wild  at 
an  early  date.  Its  origin  is,  therefore,  in- 
volved in  mystery,  and  perhaps  with  our 
present  information,  cannot  be  definitely 
settled. 

In  growth,  habit  and  the  soil  to  which 
it  is  adapted,  it  is  much  like  the  peach; 
matures  its  fruit  about  the  same  time; 
the  tree  is  not  quite  so  tall;  blooms  a  few- 
days  earlier,  and  is  a  little  more  likely 
to  be  killed  by  frost.  In  shape  and  color 
it  resembles  the  peach;  but  in  te.xlure  and 
the  smoothness  of  its  skin,  it  is  more  like 
the  prune  and  plum.  The  bark  of  the 
tree  is  similar  to  that  of  certain  varieties 
of  cherry;  its  leaves  are  heart-shaped, 
bright  green  and  yellow.  It  i-equires 
about  the  same  kind  of  soil  and  cultiva- 
tion as  the  peach,  which  see. 

The  apricot  is  regarded  as  a  tenderer 
fruit  than  the  peach,  but  this  is  doubtless 
due  to  the  fact  that  it  blooms  earlier. 
It  is  not  so  profitable  commercially.  For 
this  reason  growers  have  not  made  such 
efforts  to  produce  late  blooming  varieties. 
The  peach  is  larger,  has  more  varieties 
of  flavor,  therefore  brings  a  better  price 
in  the  markets,  yet  apricots  are  appre- 
ciated for  canning  purposes. 

California  produces  more  apricots  than 
any  other  state  in  the  Union.  The  apricot 
was  introduced  into  California,  by  the 
Mission  Fathers,  where  it  was  found  in 
the  Santa  Clara  valley  in  1792.  The  vari- 
eties found  there  were  not  of  high  grade, 
generally  seedlings,  and  much  inferior  to 
those  introduced  later  by  gold  seekers 
from  England  and  France  in  1850  to  1860. 


The  Soil  Best  Adapted 

The  apricot  will  stand  more  humus,  or 
a  stronger  soil  than  the  peach.  In  the 
article  on  the  peach  it  has  been  observed 
that  this  fruit  will  not  endure  a  soil  very 
rich  in  barnyard  manure  or  other  fertil- 
izers. In  the  growing  of  cover  crops  in 
the  orchards,  it  has  been  discovered  that 
the  peach  is  injured  by  a  quantity  of 
nitrogen  and  humus,  that  will  give  health 
and  vigor  to  apples  and  pears.  The  apri- 
cot will  stand  more  of  these  fertilizers 
than  the  peach,  but  like  the  peach,  it  re- 
quires a  light  dry  soil,  and  a  mixture  of 
sand  and  gravel  is  beneficial. 

The  root  system  is  not  particularly 
strong,  therefore,  the  soil  should  be  loose 
and  deep  enough  so  that  the  roots  will 
penetrate  it  without  the  energy  necessary 
to  break  it  up.  It  requires  less  water 
than  apples  and  pears,  and,  therefore,  the 
water  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  on 
the  ground,  or  the  soil  to  water-log.  What 
we  have  said  applies  mostly  to  the  im- 
proved varieties,  rather  than  to  the  seed- 
lings which  grow  with  great  vigor,  and 
have  great  resisting  power.  These  seed- 
lings have  sometimes  a  fruit  of  fine  flavor, 
but  very  small  as  compared  with  the 
Moorpark  or  other  improved  varieties.  In 
this,  the  apricot  follows  a  general  rule, 
for  it  is  true  of  peaches,  apples  and  other 
fruits  that  the  trees  which  are  the  most 
hardy  and  resistant  to  injuries  generally 
produce  the  poorest  fruits. 

Apricot  trees  are  produced  by  budding 
on  peach  or  apricot  seedlings  during  the 
first  summer's  growth  in  the  nursery  row. 
These  seedlings  are  produced  either  from 
peach  or  apricot  seeds,  planted  during 
the  preceding  winter.  As  to  the  method 
of  planting,  see  article  on  the  peach.  The 
tree  is  a  vigorous  grower,  and  must  be 
carefully  pruned  to  shape  the  top  and  to 
prevent  the  dwarfing  of  the  fruit  by  an 
e.xtra  heavy  crop.  This  method  of  prun- 
ing will  also  lessen  the  work  of  hand 
thinning.  However,  where  the  fruit  is  so 
close  that  the  apricots  crowd  each  other, 
hand  thinning  is  necessary  to  the  produc- 
tion of  the  largest  and  most  profitable 
commercial  grades.  It  is  better  to  have  a 
certain  quantity,  say  100  pounds  or  four 


APRICOT 


547 


boxes,  of  large,  well-developed  and  well- 
formed  fruits,  than  to  have  the  same 
number  of  pounds  or  boxes  of  small 
fruits,  some  of  them  malformed  because 
of  crowding. 

Varieties 

The  best  variety  grown  in  the  North- 
west is  the  Moorpark.  In  all  the  Pacific 
coast  states,  as  California,  Oregon  and 
Washington,  the  Moorpark  takes  the  first 
place  and  brings  to  the  growers  the  most 
money  in  proportion  to  the  labor  and  ex- 
pense of  growing.  It  is  a  vigorous  grower, 
begins  to  bear  at  the  age  of  two  years,  is 
large,  well-flavored  and  much  in  demand. 

Apricots  are  used  mostly  for  canning 
and  for  drying.  For  special  information 
on  these  subjects,  see  articles  on  Canning 
and   Evaporating. 

Granville  Lowtiier 

Propagation  of  Apricots 

The  apricot  is  like  the  apple,  in  that 
it  will  not  come  true  from  the  seed,  and 
therefore  must  be  propagated  by  budding 
or  grafting,  the  former  being  almost  ex- 
clusively employed.  For  the  best  results, 
seeds  should  be  stratified  in  sand  and 
frozen  during  the  winter,  as  described  for 
apples.  Apricot  seed,  however,  being 
larger  and  more  able  to  meet  adverse  con- 
ditions than  the  apple,  are  sometimes 
planted  In  the  fall  in  well-prepared 
ground.  Here  they  freeze  and  come  up 
without  delay  in  the  spring.  If  stratified 
for  freezing  (see  Apple),  they  should  be 
planted  in  early  spring  before  they  have 
begun  to  sprout.  The  young  seedlings 
are  to  be  given  good  culture  during  the 
summer,  but  are  not  to  be  dug  up  in  the 
fall  like  apple  seedlings.     If  they  are  to 


be  budded,  the  work  should  be  done  about 
the  first  of  September,  during  the  first 
season's  growth.  If  it  is  desired  to  graft 
them,  the  seedlings  should  be  cleft- 
grafted  near  the  ground  in  early  spring, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  season's 
growth,  under  conditions  already  de- 
scribed for  the  apple.  If  buds  fail  to  take 
in  the  fall,  the  stock  may  be  grafted  the 
following  spring.  One  year's  growth,  after 
being  either  budded  or  grafted,  should 
make  sufficiently  large  plants  for  setting 
them  in  the  orchard.  For  details  of  bud- 
ding, see  discussion  under  the  peach. 

The  apricot  is  often  budded  upon  the 
peach,  as  the  latter  thrives  upon  a  greater 
variety  of  soils  than  the  apricot.  The 
common  plum  makes  an  excellent  stock 
for  the  apricot  where  it  is  grown  in  wet 
situations. 

W.  L.  Howard 

Varieties  of  Apricots  and  Synonyms 

Acme,  Chinese.  SJiense;  Alexander. 
Russian  Xo.  2;  Blenheim,  Shipless :  Ber- 
da,  Annas.  DeHoUande :  Cluster;  Early 
Golden,  Dubois:  Harris,  Harry  Hardy; 
Hem's  Kirke;  Large  Early,  Gos  Precoce; 
Moorpark,  De'Xaticy ;  Newcastle,  New- 
castle Early:  Orange,  Early  Orange: 
Peach,  Peach  Royal;  Russian;  St.  Am- 
broise;    Sheridan;    Surprise;   Tilton. 

The  very  early  varieties  are  the  Harris, 
Hem's  Kirke  and  Royal. 

The  early  varieties  are  the  Acme, 
Early  Golden,  Large  Early  and  Peach. 

The  Moorpark  is  one  of  the  best  vari- 
eties for  the  Northwest  and  is  medium 
early. 

Granville  Lowtheb 


548 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


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APRICOT   DISEASES 


549 


APRICOT  DISEASES 

Brown  Rot 

Sclerotinia  fructigena 
A  decay  of  the  fruit  while  still  on  the 
tree,  occurring  some  seasons  in  moist 
localities.  The  young  growth  as  well  as 
the  fruit  is  also  sometimes  affected,  the 
new  shoots  wilting  and  dying  back  from 
the  attacks  of  this  fungus.  This  is  the 
most  serious  obstacle  to  stone  fruit  pro- 
duction in  the  Eastern  states,  but  does 
not  find  sufficient  moisture  for  its  devel- 
opment in  the  arid  West,  except  on  early 
varieties  In  occasional  seasons  of  late 
rains  in  the  moister  localities. 

Spraying  with  self-boiled  lime-sulphur 
just  as  the  fruit  is  setting  and  again  with 
the  same  following  subsequent  rains  is 
recommended  for  trial. 

R.\LPH  E.  Smith, 

Berkeley.   Cal. 
Bnd  Blight 

Characterized  by  a  dying  of  the  buds 
during  the  early  winter  and  caused  very 
largely  by  the  fungus  responsible  for 
Peach   Blight. 

Similar  trouble  is  caused  more  or  less 
by  "Sour  Sap"  conditions. 

See  Blight  under  Peach. 

Fmit  Drop 

The  fruit  falls  to  the  ground  while  still 
very  small.  Partly  due  to  weather  condi- 
tions and  partly  to  lack  of  cross  pollina- 
tion, which  can  be  secured  by  mixing 
varieties  in  planting.  Seasonal  conditions 
such  as  heavy  rains  at  blossoming  time 
or  frosts  may  have  this  effect.  The 
cherry,  almond,  peach  and  pear  are  af- 
fected in  the  same  way. 

The  drop  may  not  occur  until  the  fruit 
reaches  some  size. 

See  general  article  on  Setti.ng  and 
Droppim;  of   Fkiits   under  Fruits. 

PBfiT  Spot.     See  Blight  under  Peach. 

GuMMosis.     See  Cherry. 

Scab 

Cladosporium  carpoph Hum 
Same  as  Peach   Scab,  which  see. 

Blossom  Rot 

Sclerotinia 
The  young  fruit  decays  while  still  very 
small  and  enclosed  by  the  calyx  or  outer 
cup  of  the  blossom.     The  trouble  occurs 


when  wet  rainy  weather  prevails  during 
the  time  of  fruit  setting.  It  commences 
in  a  rotting  of  the  calyx  cup,  which  is 
dead  and  susceptible  to  decay  by  sapro- 
phytic fungi,  which  decay  spreads  to  the 
young  fruit.  It  is  caused  by  various 
fungi,  of  which  perhaps  a  species  of  Scle- 
rotinia. apparently  .s'.  Ubertiana.  is  most 
common,  causing  a  decay  of  the  young 
fruit  on  the  tree.  When  such  fruit  is 
picked  and  placed  in  moist  chamber  it 
develops  an  abundant  cottony  mold  in 
which  black  sclerotia  soon  forms.  This 
appears  to  be  the  same  fungus  causing 
the  cottony  mold  or  wnite  rot  of  the 
lemon  storage.  Botrytis  vulgaris  is  also 
common  in  this  trouble.  Same  treatment 
as  brown  rot. 

Spraying    for   shot   hole    fungus    might 
also  be  of  some  benefit  in  this  trouble. 

Shot  Hole  and  Fruit  Spot 

Coryneum  beijerinckii 
This  fungus  is  the  same  as  that  caus- 
ing the  peach  blight  and  produces  in  the 
apricot  a  spotting  of  the  fruit,  shot  hole 
effect  in  the  leaves  and  killing  of  the 
buds. 

Spray    with    Bordeaux    mixture    during 
November   and    again    in    spring   just    as 
the  buds  open. 
See  Blight  under  Peach. 

Sonr  Sap  and  Seasonal  Effects 

The  apricot  is  particularly  sensitive  to 
sour  sap  and  other  seasonal  effects.  It  is 
a  tree  having  a  free  flow  of  sap,  quick 
to  respond  to  stimulating  influences  and 
one  having  the  characteristic  of  all  the 
stone  fruits  of  forming  an  abundance  of 
gum  when  injured  in  any  manner.  On 
this  account,  if  any  active  movement  from 
the  roots  is  .started  early  in  the  season  by 
warm  weather  or  an  abundance  of  moist- 
ure and  this  activity  be  checked  again  by 
less  stimulating  weather  conditions, 
trouble  is  very  apt  to  follow.  The  sap 
becomes  stagnant  in  the  tissues,  full  of 
sugars  and  other  easily  fermentable  sub- 
stances, gum  begins  to  form,  sunburn 
may  also  occur  and  very  often  severe  in- 
jury takes  place  in  the  tissues  of  the  sap 
wood   and  cambium   layer. 

Ralph  E.  Smith, 

Berkeley.   Cal. 


550 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


APRICOT  PESTvS 

The  apricot  is  not  the  particular  host 
of  a  large  number  ot  insects.  In  general 
its  enemies  are  those  common  to  other 
fruit  trees  ot  the  same  family. 

Black  Scale 

Saissetia  oleae  Bern. 

General  Appearance 

Black,  oval,  tough-skinned  scales  with 
a  distinct  "H"  on  the  back  of  half  and 
full  grown  females.  From  one-eighth  to 
one-fourth   of   an   inch   in   diameter.     The 


Fig.  1.  Full  Grown  Specimens  of  Blacli  Scale. 
Saissetia  olcae  (Bern.),  at  base  of  niKbtshade 
plant.  Man.y  of  tliese  were  under  tbe  sur- 
face of  tbe  soil.      (Essig.  P.  C.  Jr.  Ent. ) 


young  vary  from  light  yellow  to  brown. 
The  males  are  very  minute  and  scarcely 
ever  seen.  The  eggs  are  nearly  globular 
and   slightly   amber   in   color. 

Life  History 

The  females  deposit  from  50  to  300  eggs, 
covering  a  period  of  from  two  to  four 
weeks.  The  most  are  laid  during  the 
months  of  May,  June  and  first  half  of 
July,  though  in  some  sections  all  stages 
of  the  insect  may  be  found.  Young  half- 
grown  scales  are  most  abundant  from 
September  15th  to  December  15th  and  the 


full-grown  females  from  February  15th  to 
July  15th.  They  work  principally  upon 
the  leaves  of  the  trees,  when  they  are 
young,  but  later  are  found  almost  wholly 
on  the  limbs. 

Food  Plants 

All  citrus  trees,  olive,  apricot,  guava, 
honey  locust,  Irish  juniper,  pomegranate, 
Lombardy  poplar,  apple,  prune,  plum,  al- 
mond, pear,  sycamore,  oleander,  pepper 
(Schimis  molle),  sumach,  (Rhus),  moun- 
tain holly  or  Christmas  berry  (Hetero- 
meles  arbtitifoUa) .  Baccharis  viminea. 
rubber  tree,  Hahrothamnus,  Myoporum, 
Melaleuca,  laurel,  holly,  beech,  ash,  buck- 
thorn, maple,  GreviUea,  Ligustrum.  night- 
shade, Antidesma,  Duranta,  Grewia,  The- 
spesia.  Cajanus,  magnolia,  eucalyptus, 
grape,  camellia,  phlox,  watermelon  and 
asters. 

Control 

Fumigation:  On  citrus  trees  fumigate 
with  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  sched- 
ule No.  1,  between  September  1st  and 
.lanuai-y  1st.  If  the  hatch  is  very  even 
and  the  work  can  be  done  early,  the  one- 
half  schedule  is  sufficient,  but  for  ordi- 
nary work  three-fourths  of  the  schedule 
is  required. 

Sprays:  On  deciduous  fruit  and  olive 
trees  the  following  sprays  may  be  used 
when  the  scales  are  not  more  than  half 
grown:  Water  distillate  caustic  soda 
mechanical  mixture  and  distillate  emul- 
sion. 

Natural  Enemies 

The  ladybird  beetles,  Rhiznhius  ven- 
tralis,  steel  blue  {Orcus  chalybeiis),  OUa 
plagiata  and  Axion  plagiatus  work  on  the 
young  scales;  the  parasites.  Scutellista 
cyanea  and  Tomocera  californica  Haw.,  on 
the  eggs  and  the  internal  parasite,  Aphy- 
ciis  flavus  How.,  on  the  male  scale. 

E.  O.  Essio 

Common  Termite 

Termes  lucifugus  Rossi. 
General  Appearance 

The  workers  of  this  species  are  rather 
small,  being  shown  as  natural  size  in  Fig. 
1.  They  are  transparently  white  in  color, 
the  contents  of  the  alimentary  canal  giv- 


APRICOT  PESTS 


551 


Fig.    1.      Termvf!    Iticifittitts    Rossi.    Working    on' 
Roots  of  Nectarine  Tree.      (Original.) 


ing  a  yellowish  or  brownish  cast.  The 
head  is  darker  yellow  and  mandibles 
brown.  The  soldier  ants  have  large  brown 
heads,  comprising  at  least  one-third  ot 
their  entire  bodies.  The  queen  ant  is 
much  larger  than  the  other  forms,  while 
the  males  are  small.  It  is  claimed  that 
there  are  no  less  than  15  kinds  of  in- 
dividuals in  this  species. 

Life  History 

These  termites  usually  live  in  dead  or 
decaying  wood  but  often  work  into  the 
living  and  growing  tissues.  They  make 
very  extensive  galleries  through  all  parts 
and  thus  often  destroy  buildings, 
fences,  etc.,  as  well  as  fruit  trees.  The 
queen  gives  rise  to  all  the  young,  which 
appear  in  great  numbers,  especially  dur- 
ing the  summer  months.  In  the  fall  or 
autumn  winged  or  migratory  forms  ap- 
pear and  often  fly  by  thousands  on  dark 
days  and  towards  evening.  In  habits  and 
life  history  they  greatly  resemble  true 
ants  and  bees. 


General. 


Disfribntioii 


Food  Plants 


As  previously  stated,  these  termites 
usually  work  upon  dead  or  decaying 
wood,  but  then  usually  only  in  the  pres- 
ence of  moisture.  These  insects  often  be- 
come destructive  to  fruit  trees,  working 
upon  the  roots  underground  and  making 
galleries  up  the  trunk.  No  doubt  they 
usually  begin  to  work  in  the  decaying 
tissues     but     often     continue     into     the 


healthy  portions  of  the  tree.  Nectarines, 
peaches  and  apricots  seem  to  suffer  most, 
while  citrus  and  other  trees  and  plants 
are  also  attacked. 

Control 

Due  to  their  secluded  work  the  damage 
is  usually  done  before  their  presence  is 
known  and  too  late  to  effect  a  remedy. 
However,  if  close  observations  are  made 
in  infested  districts  and  their  work  dis- 
covered the  colony  may  be  almost  entirely 
exterminated  by  the  use  of  a  liberal  dose 
of  carbon  bisulfid  applied  in  cotton  or  a 
sponge  directly  within  their  burrows  or 
under  the  base  of  the  tree. 

E.  O.  EssiG 

Brown  Apuicot  Scale  (Eulecanium 
armeniacum  Craw.)  (Lecanium  comi 
Bouche).  See  European  Fruit  Scale  un- 
der Apple. 

C.\XKER  WoKMS.    See  under  Apple. 

EuROPE.AX  Fruit  Scale.  See  under 
Apple. 


Fifr.   ].      Imraatui'e    Specimens    of    the    Frosted 
Scale  on   Loganberr.T  Cane.     (OriBinal. ) 


552 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Frosted  Scale 

Eulecanium   pruinosum   Coq. 

General  Appearance 

This  is  one  of  the  largest  unarmored 
scales,  often  one-half  inch  in  length  and 
three-fourths  inch  wide.  The  full  grown 
scales  are  nearly  hemispherical  in  shape, 
while  the  young  and  half-grown  forms 
are  very  flat.  (Fig.  1,  p.  551.)  The  surface 
is  covered  with  white  frost-like  wax, 
which  readily  distinguishes  it  from  all 
other  common  species. 

Life  History 

Eggs  are  white  to  yellowish  in  color  and 
are  deposited  in  the  early  summer 
months.  The  species  is  not  as  prolific  as 
many  of  the  others  of  this  genus,  and  be- 
cause of  parasites  scarcely  does  any  dam- 
age. 

Distribution 

Throughout  the  central  and  southern 
parts  of  California. 

Food  Plants 

Apricot,  prune,  peach,  plum,  cherry, 
pear,  apple,  walnut,  laurel,  ash,  birch, 
sycamore,  cork-elm,  grape,  rose,  orange, 
loganberry  and  hawthorn.  The  branches 
are  usually  the  parts  attacked. 

Control 

Same  as  for  European  fruit  scale  (Le- 
caiiiiim  corni).     See  Apple. 

Natural  Enemies 

Comys  fiisca  and  at  least  two  other  in- 
ternal parasites  were  bred  from  this 
species,  and  keep  it  in  complete  subjec- 
tion. 

E.  O.   Essie. 

Mealy  Plum  Louse.    See  under  Phim. 

PE.\cn  Borer.     See  under  Peach. 

Peak  Tiirips.     See  under  Pear. 

Plum  Curculio.  See  CurcuUu  under 
Apple. 

Shot  Hole  Borer.     See  under  Cherry. 

Tek.mite.  See  Common  Termite,  this 
section. 

White  Peach  Scale.    See  under  Peach. 


Arkansas 

Arkansas  has  a  good  soil,  a  humid  cli- 
mate, and  many  natural  sources  of  wealth. 
It  is  adapted  to  the  growing  of  nearly  all 
the  varieties  of  fruits  generally  grown  in 
the  temperate  climates,  such  as  apples, 
peaches,  pears,  strawberries,  grapes  and 
small  fruits,  all  of  which,  with  proper 
care,  bring  profitable  returns. 

The  mean  elevation  is  650  feet.  The 
eastern  part,  for  30  to  100  miles  west  of 
the  Mississippi  river,  is  generally  low  and 
subject  to  inundations  from  numerous 
overflowing  bayous,  lakes  and  swamps, 
caused  by  the  overflow  of  the  Mississippi 
river.  In  this  region  there  are  a  few  high 
places,  rising  generally  toward  the  table 
land  and  the  high  hills  of  the  west.  In 
the  northwest  part  are  the  Ozark  and 
Boston  mountains,  which,  while  they  do 
not  reach  the  height  of  mountains,  yet  are 
rugged,  picturesque  and,  as  compared  with 
the  country  about  them,  are  of  sufficient 
height  to  justify  the  name.  These  hills 
or  mountains  continue  westward  into 
Oklahoma  and  northward  into  Missouri. 
Here  Arkansas  grows  its  best  apples, 
peaches  and  strawberries,  and  these  fruits 
have  made  the  state  famous.  Nature  has 
done  much  for  Arkansas:  but  the  fruit 
growers  are  not  as  a  rule  making  the  most 
of  their  natural  advantages;  for  they  in- 
cline to  plant  the  trees  and,  without  much 
care  or  the  application  of  modern  meth- 
ods, permit  Nature  to  do  the  rest. 

The  state  is  divided,  geologically, 
into  two  parts  by  a  line  drawn  from  Tex- 
arkana  in  the  southwest  corner,  to  Miller 
county,  running  northeasterly  through 
Little  Rock,  to  Pawhatan  in  Lawrence 
county  in  the  northeast.  The  northwest- 
ern division  is  hilly  and  underlaid  with 
heavy  paleozoic  rocks,  and  the  southeast 
corner  with  cretaceous  rocks.  The  south- 
eastern part  is  mostly  alluvial  soil,  some 
of  it  requiring  drainage,  and  is  very  fer- 
tile, therefore  adapted  to  the  growing  of 
vegetables,  strawberries  and  other  small 
fruits;  but  cotton,  corn,  wheat,  oats,  rye, 
hay.  potatoes  and  tobacco  are  the  main 
crops.  For  further  information  see  Ozarks. 
Granville  Lowtiier 


ARKANSAS— ARIZONA 
Frost  and  Precipitation 


553 


Station 


Frost 


Average  Date  of 


Date  of 


1st  Killing 
in  Autumn 


Last  in 
Spring 


Favetteville 
DoddCity.. 
Pocahontas. 
Fort  Smith. 

Conway 

Little  Rock. 

Helena 

Dallas 

Pine  Bluff... 

Camden 

Warren 


Oct.  19 

Oct.  18 

Oct.  23 

Nov.  4 

Oct.  27 

Nov.  9 

Nov.  1 

Nov.  4 

Nov.  6 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  4 


April  10 
April  13 
April  3 
Mar.  24 
Mar.  23 
Mar.  21 
Mar.  25 
April  4 
Mar.  27 
Mar.  24 
Mar.    30 


Earliest 
in  Autumn 


Latest 
in  Spring 


Sept.  29 

Sept.  29 

Oct.  8 

Oct.  15 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  22 

Oct.  21 

Oct.  7 

Oct.  19 

Oct.  8 

Oct.  10 


April  30 

May  1 

Mav  2 

April  6 

April  12 

April  14 

April  6 

May  1 

April  19 

April  12 
April 


8 


Precipita- 
tion 


Annual 
Inches 


44 

47 

43 

41 

45 

49 

55 

51.0 

48.8 

49.2 

49.0 


Arizona 

Arizona  has  an  area  of  113,020  square 
miles.  In  the  northern  part,  the  state  is 
a  dry  plateau,  arid  and  of  little  value 
without  irrigation.  In  the  south  it  is 
mountainous,  the  valleys  are  broad,  some- 
times 20  to  30  miles  in  width.  The  prin- 
cipal mountain  masses  are  Castle  Dome, 
Big  Horn,  Eagle  Tail.  Chocolate.  Dome 
Rock,  Palomas  Harquahala.  San  Fran- 
cisco and  Black  in  the  north  central;  Car- 
rizo,  Lukakukia  and  Tunica  in  the  north- 
east: Zuna,  White  Mogollon  and  Catalena 
in  the  southeast  and  south.  San  Fran- 
cisco mountain,  above  Flagstaff,  is  the 
highest,  rising  12,794  feet  above  the  sea. 
To  the  south  the  surface  falls  sharply  to 
low  ridges,  mostly  of  volcanic  origin, 
thence  by  terraced  mesas  down  to  the 
great  desert  plain  little  above  sea  level. 
This  plain  is  cut  by  gullied  stream  beds 
in  which  the  surface  water  from  the  occa- 
sional rainfall  flows  into  the  broad  Gila 
valley.  At  Flagstaff  the  rainfall  is  24.65 
inches:  at  Yuma.  2.84  inches. 

The  sandy  regions  of  the  southwest  are 
the  hottest  portions  of  the  continent.  It 
is  common  for  the  mercury  to  rise  to  120 
degrees  Fahrenheit  in  the  shade  during 
July  and  August,  but  the  atmosphere  is 
so  clear  that,  while  the  sun  is  scorching 
in  its  heat,  it  is  said  not  to  be  oppressive, 
and  the  winter  climate  is  excellent. 


The  drainage  system  is  the  Colorado 
river  with  its  tributaries,  the  principal  of 
which  is  the  Gila. 

There  can  be  but  little  fruit  grown  in 
Arizona  without  irrigation.  In  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  state  the  Colorado  river 
is  the  principal  stream,  but  it  runs  in  a 
deep  canon,  and  at  the  present  time  there 
is  no  method  provided  that  seems  prac- 
tical for  diverting  or  lifting  the  water 
from  this  deep  bed  for  the  purposes  of 
irrigation.  The  rivers  of  Arizona  draw 
moisture  from  the  mountains,  but  these 
mountains  are  not  covered  with  snow  dur- 
ing July  and  August,  the  season  when  the 
moisture  is  most  needed  for  irrigating 
purposes.  The  habit  of  flooding  the  land 
several  times  during  the  season  when  the 
snows  are  melting  in  the  mountains,  then 
cultivating  intensively  during  the  dry 
season,  forming  a  dust  mulch  to  conserve 
the  moisture,  has  been  successful  for  the 
growing  of  certain  kinds  of  fruits  and 
vegetables.  This  system  is  practiced 
largely  in  many  sections  of  the  state. 

The  Temperature 

One  of  the  principal  difficulties  in  grow- 
ing fruit  in  Arizona  is  the  extreme  heat. 
The  sun  is  so  hot,  and  the  air  so  dry, 
that  the  evaporation  is  very  rapid,  and 
even  where  there  is  plenty  of  water  in 
the  earth,  the  plant  often  fails  to  take  it 
up  as  fast  as  the  sun  evaporates  it  from 


554 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTL^RE 


the  leaf,  and  the  plant  withers.  In  order 
to  obviate  this  in  the  growing  of  apples, 
peaches  and  other  fruits  of  this  character, 
the  stem  is  headed  very  low,  so  that  it 
may  be  shaded  and  the  bark  not  be  in- 
jured by  the  sun.  Further,  there  is  a 
more  rapid  supply  of  moisture  where  trees 
are  headed  near  the  ground  than  where 
they  lift  the  water  to  a  greater  height. 
At  Tuscon,  the  evaporation  is  said  to  be 
78  inches  per  annum;  which  makes  an 
abundant  supply  of  water  necessary  for 
the  growth  of  fruits. 

The  varieties  of  fruits  best  adapted  to 
such  a  climate  are  those  with  thick  leaves, 
small  evaporating  surface,  or  with  few 
pores  that  admit  of  rapid  transpiration. 

From  the  survey  of  the  Salt  River  val- 
ley, made  by  Thomas  H.  Means,  we  quote 
as  follows: 

Fruit  Farming 

"Figs  are  grown,  but  the  cost  of  labor 
in  handling  them  and  the  freight  rates, 
make  the  industry  a  financial  failure.  The 
growing  of  stone  fruits  is  another  indus- 
try held  down  by  the  cost  of  labor  and 
freight  rates.  Excellent  fruits  of  this 
kind  are  grown,  but  the  trade  is  largely 
within  the  state.  Almonds,  when  they 
escape  the  late  frosts,  and  olives,  which 
are  weighty  in  pi-oportion  to  their  value, 
may  prove  a  success  financially. 

"Grapes  are  grown  successfully,  and  the 
warm  dry  climate  is  eminently  suited  to 
the  growing  of  raisins  and  wine  grapes. 

Oranges 

"The  orange  industry  of  the  Salt  River 
valley  is  as  yet  in  its  infancy.  Only  a 
few  orchards  of  any  size  are  in  bearing, 
but  the  success  obtained  by  these  has 
started  a  rapid  development,  and  orange 
groves  are  rapidly  being  set  out.  The 
district  considered  most  favorable  for 
oranges  lies  along  the  base  of  Camelback 
mountain  and  the  Phoenix  mountains. 
Here  the  frost  is  least  and  the  daily  range 
of  temperature  the  smallest.  No  complete 
losses  have  ever  been  experienced  from 
frost,  for  the  fruit  ripens  early  and  is  off 
the  trees  before  the  frost  comes,  yet  on 
two  occasions  the  trees  have  been  dam- 
aged. 


"One  great  advantage  which  orange 
groves  here  have  over  Southern  California 
orange  groves  is  the  date  of  ripening. 
Arizona  oranges  ripen  in  time  for  the 
Thanksgiving  market  and  for  this  reason 
have  the  advantage  of  high  prices.  The 
larger  part  of  the  fruit  is  marketed  by 
Christmas. 

"The  orange  belt  is  no  doubt  capable  of 
extension  over  a  much  larger  area  than 
is  at  present  supposed  to  be  orange  terri- 
tory. Great  care  should  be  given  to  the 
selection  of  orange  lands,  for  there  are 
certain  areas  not  suited  to  orange  cul- 
ture." 

Fruits  Best  Adapted 

It  would  not  be  possible  to  grow  com- 
mercial fruits  successfully  in  Arizona, 
without  carefully  studying  the  varieties 
best  suited  to  the  soil  and  climatic  con- 
ditions. In  some  parts  the  soil  is  adobe, 
some  is  strong  in  alkali  and  other  salts, 
and  all  of  it  is  subject  to  a  hot  sun  and 
rapid  evaporation.  What  varieties  to 
choose  and  how  to  treat  them  under  the 
conditions,  is  the  problem  that  confronts 
the  fruit  grower. 

In  the  New  Cyclopedia  of  American 
Horticulture,  J.  W.  Toumey  gives  a  list 
of  fruits  and  varieties  that  was  collected 
as  a  result  of  60  letters  sent  to  the  lead- 
ing orchardists  of  the  state.  This  list, 
with  those  recommended  by  the  Ameri- 
can Pomological  Society*  and  the  advice 
of  the  directors  of  the  experiment  station, 
will  enable  any  one  without  experience  to 
decide  with  considerable  accuracy.  The 
following  is  Mr.  Toumey 's  list. 

Almonds — Ne  Plus  Ultra,  IXL. 

Apples — Early  Harvest.  Early  Straw- 
berry, Red  Astrachan. 

Apricots,  Early — Bennett's  Early,  New- 
castle, Peach,  Pringle. 

Apricots,  Late — Moorpark,  Royal,  St. 
Ambroise,  Smith's  Triumph. 

Blackberries  —  Lawton's  Early,  Cran- 
dall's  Early,  Early  Harvest. 

Dewberries — May's. 

Grapes — Thompson's  Seedless.  Sultana 
Seedless,  Rose  of  Peru,  Salem,  Muscat, 
Rogers'  No.  9. 


•  TI.  S.  Department  of  AKrlcultm'e.  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industr.v.  Bulletin  151,  "Fruits  Kecom- 
mended  for  Cultivation." 


ARIZONA— ARTICHOKE 


555 


Grape  Fruit — Triumph,  Walter.  Bowin. 

Lemons — Villa  Franca,  Sicily. 

Mulberries — Downing,  Russian. 

Olives — Manzanillo,  Nevadillo,  Blanco, 
Mission. 

Oranges — Ruby  Blood,  Jaffa,  Parson's 
Brown,  Mediterranean  Sweet,  Bahia 
(Washington  Naval). 

Peaches,  Early — Early  Crawford,  Par- 
son's Early,  Triumph,  Sneed,  Strawberry. 

Peaches,  Late — Globe,  Salway,  Oldmix- 
on,  Heath's  Freestone.  Muir,  December 
Cling. 

Pears,  Early  —  Brandywine,  Bartlett, 
Wilder. 


Pears,   Late — Winter  Nelis,   Pia   Berry. 

Plums — Wickson,  Kelsey.  Botan  White, 
Royal  Native. 

Pomegranates — Ruby,  Sweet,  Golden, 
Papershell. 

Quinces — Champion,  Portugal,  Orange. 

Strawberries — Arizona   Everbearing. 

Arizona  is  still  an  undeveloped  state, 
and  just  what  is  possible  has  not  yet  been 
determined:  but  it  seems  sure  that  when 
experiments  have  proven  the  products 
best  adapted,  and  the  best  methods  have 
been  employed,  that  it  will  be  far  more 
productive  than  at  present. 

Granville   Lowther 


Frost  and  Precipitation 


STATION 


FROST 


Average  Date  of 


First 

Killing  in 

Autumn 


Latest 

Killing  in 

Spring 


Date  of 


Earliest 

Killing  in 

Autumn 


Precipita- 
tion 


Fort  Defiance. 


Sept.  23 


Mohave Dec 

Holebrook Oct.     15 

Signal Nov.   15 

Prescott .  Oct.    20 

Phoenix Dec. 

Fort  Apache.  Oct. 

Yuma 

Dudley  villc  Nov.   13 

Oracle Dec.     4 

Fort  Grant Nov.   26 

Tuscon I  Nov.   22 

Fort  Huachuca I  Nov.   28 


3 
13 


June  2 

Feb.  23 

Mar.  8 

Mar.  13 

Mar.  20 

Feb.  23 

May  10 


Sept.  11 
Nov.  23 
Sept.  17 
Oct.  30 
Sept.  15 
Nov.  9 
Sept.  22 


Mar.  30 

Mar.  29 

April  1 

Mar.  26 

April  5 


Oct.  16 

Nov.  12 

Nov.  2 

Oct.  16 

Oct.  30 


Artichoke 

The  artichoke  is  a  thistle-like  plant  of 
the  aster  family,  probably  a  native  of 
Southern  Europe,  but  now  widely  culti- 
vated. The  fleshy  bases  of  the  scales  on 
its  globular  head,  together  with  the  re- 
ceptacle, are  edible  while  immature.  The 
Jerusalem  artichoke  is  cultivated  for  its 
edible   tubers.     W.   R.   Seattle   says: 

Artichoke,  Globe 

"Deep,  rich  sandy  loam,  with  a  liberal 
supply  of  well-rotted  manure,  is  best 
suited  for  growing  artichokes.  Plant  the 
seeds  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  warm  in  the 


spring,  and  when  the  plants  have  formed 
three  or  four  leaves  they  may  be  trans- 
planted to  rows  three  feet  apart  and  two 
feet  apart  in  the  row.  The  plants  do  not  pro- 
duce until  the  second  season,  and  in  cold 
localities  some  form  of  covering  will  be 
necessary  during  the  winter.  This  crop 
is  not  suited  for  cultivation  north  of  the 
line  of  zero  temperature. 

"After  the  bed  is  once  established  the 
plants  may  be  reset  each  year  by  using 
the  side  shoots  from  the  base  of  the  old 
plants.  If  not  reset  the  bed  will  continue 
to  produce  for  several  years,  but  the  burs 
will  not  be  so  large  as  from  new  plants. 


556 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


The  bur,  or  flower  bud,  is  the  part  used. 
and  the  burs  should  be  gathered  before 
the  blossom  part  appears.  If  they  are 
removed  and  no  seed  is  allowed  to  form, 
the  plants  will  continue  to  produce  until 
the  end  of  the  season. 

"The  heads,  or  burs,  of  the  French  arti- 
choke are  prepared  for  the  table  by  boil- 
ing, and  served  with  melted  butter  or 
with  cream   dressing. 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem 

"The  Jerusalem  artichoke  will  grow  in 
any  good  garden  soil,  and  should  be  plant- 
ed three  to  four  feet  apart  each  way,  with 
three  or  four  small  tubers  in  a  hill.  If 
large  tubers  are  used  for  planting  they 
should  be  cut  the  same  as  Irish  potatoes. 
Plant  as  soon  as  the  ground  becomes 
warm  in  the  spring  and  cultivate  as  for 
corn.  A  pint  of  tubers  cut  to  eyes  will 
plant  about  30  hills.  The  tubers  will  be 
ready  for  use  in  October,  but  may  remain 
in  the  ground  and  be  dug  at  any  time 
during  the  winter. 

"The  tubers  are  prepared  by  boiling 
until  soft,  and  are  served  with  butter  or 
creamed.  They  are  also  used  for  salads 
and  pickles. 

"The  Jerusalem  artichoke  is  not  of 
great  importance  as  a  garden  vegetable, 
and  the  plant  has  a  tendency  to  become 
a  weed." 

Ashes.  Woon.  See  Apple  Orchard,  Fer- 
tilization of. 

Aspau'agus 

Asparagus  belongs  to  a  genus  of  plant 
containing  more  than  100  species.  It  was 
introduced  into  America  from  Europe  and 
has  become  in  this  country  an  important 
article  of  food.  Several  of  the  climbing 
species  are  grown  in  greenhouses  for 
their  delicate  feathery  branches  and  are 
valuable  for  cuttings  and  decorations. 

The  young  shoots  of  the  species  Aspar- 
agus officinalis  have  from  very  early 
times  been  much  prized  for  food,  owing 
to  their  pleasant  flavor  and  slightly  laxa- 
tive properties.  This  species  is  a  native 
of  the  north  temperate  zone  of  the  old 
world,  and  grows  wild  on  the  south  coast 
of  England.  On  the  waste  steppes  of  Rus- 
sia it  is  so  abundant  that  it  is  eaten  by 
cattle  like  grass. 


In  some  sections  of  the  country,  aspar- 
agus is  grown  largely  for  the  markets.  It 
is  also  grown  in  very  many  private  gar- 
dens for  home  use.  It  is  very  hardy,  is  a 
vigorous  grower,  and  heavy  feeder;  there- 
fore will  succeed  best  on  a  very  rich  soil. 
It  can  be  grown  in  sections  strong  in 
mineral  salts,  such  as  alkali,  or  in  deep 
alluvial  and  peaty  soils.  Where  the  na- 
tive soil  is  not  adapted,  it  can  be  made 
adaptable  by  the  digging  of  trenches,  and 
filling  in  with  barnyard  manure,  sand 
(where  the  soil  is  a  heavy  clay),  muck, 
rotten  leaves  or  other  fertilizers.  For 
commercial  purposes,  asparagus  is  planted 
in  rows,  about  the  width  of  corn  rows, 
three  to  four  feet  apart,  and  the  roots 
are  planted  in  hills  about  the  same  dis- 
tance apart,  or  sometimes  not  more  than 
two  feet  apart.  Some  growers  plant  so 
that  the  stalks  will  row  both  ways,  and 
the  ground  can  be  cultivated  both  length- 
wise and  across  the  field.  For  home  use, 
however,  it  requires  but  few  stalks  and 
it  is  generally  planted  in  trenches,  or  in 
beds. 

Propii^ation  from  Seeds 

Seeds  should  be  sown  in  rows  three  to 
four  feet  apart,  so  as  to  admit  of  cultiva- 
tion. The  seeds  should  be  jilanted  two  to 
four  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  and  kept 
free  from  weeds.  The  time  of  planting 
is  about  that  of  any  other  spring  crop, 
but  may  be  earlier,  because  asparagus  is 
not  easily  injured  by  spring  frosts.  These 
are  termed  nursery  plants,  and  may  be 
removed  the  following  autumn  or  spring, 
and  set  in  permanent  beds,  or  rows,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

Transplanting: 

Not  all  the  plants  grown  should  be 
transplanted  to  the  field  or  bed.  There 
is  great  variety  of  tenderness  or  tough- 
ness in  the  plants,  and  only  the  tender 
plants  are  good  for  food  or  for  market. 
The  tender  plants  lengthen  rapidly,  pro- 
duce a  straight  succulent  needlelike 
stem,  and  do  not  branch  near  the  ground; 
while  the  tough  plants  lengthen  more 
slowly  and  tend  to  branch  near  the 
ground.  Further,  the  tender  plants  are 
usually  straight-grained  smooth  and  blunt 
at  the  tips.     When  the  plants  are  but  few 


ASPARAGUS 


557 


inches  in  height  It  is  easy  to  tell  the  dif- 
ference between  the  tender  and  tough  va- 
rieties. The  smaller  seedlings  with  a 
tendency  to  show  woody  fibre  or  a  tough 
gnarled  appearance  should  be  weeded  out. 


Fip.   1.       Asparasrus    Crown.    Roots.    Buds    and 
Spear.       ( Redrawn    and    reduced  ;    from    plate 
113     of    Thome's     Flora     von     Deutschland. ) 
— Farmers    BitUcliil    61. 

Propagation  from  Roots 

An  asparagus  plant  has  a  very  broad 
spreading  crown,  with  a  good  many  buds. 
Any  plant  which  shows  unusual  merit  in 
the  spring  when  it  starts  into  growth  may 
have  this  crown  divided.  Often  a  half 
dozen  plants  may  be  started  from  the 
same  crown.  It  is  better  to  dig  up  the 
entire  root,  or  as  nearly  so  as  it  is  con- 
venient to  handle;   then  divide  the  plant 


into  sections  at  the  joints,  so  that  each 
piece  possesses  a  few  buds  and  some  roots 
attached.  These  roots  may  be  planted  as 
individual  plants,  and  when  they  become 
established  will  produce  the  same  as  the 
parent  plant  from  which  they  were  sepa- 
rated. 

The  roots  may  be  set  in  autumn  or 
early  spring,  in  deep  rich  soil,  and  gen- 
erally the  crown  should  be  covered  from 
four  to  six  inches.  In  a  light  mellow 
soil  the  depth  of  setting  may  be  greater 
than  in  a  heavy  compact  soil.  They 
should  be  well  cultivated,  especially  for 
the  first  year  or  two,  but  after  they  are 
fully  established  they  are  such  vigorous 
growers  that  they  are  generally  neg- 
lected; but  even  then,  good  cultivation 
pays,  for  it  produces  a  larger  number  of 
vigorous,  succulent  young  stalks  for  the 
market. 


Fis 


Knife    for    Cutting    Asparagus. 


Cutting:  Asparagus 

It  is  never  best  to  cut  plants  for  the 
table  or  for  market  until  the  roots  have 
been  planted  two  years,  or,  in  poor  soils, 
three  years.  After  the  age  for  cutting, 
all  sprouts  should  be  kept  cut,  whether 
they  are  big  enough  for  the  market  or 
not.  If  the  smaller  stems  are  allowed  to 
appear,  the  plant  ceases  to  produce  more 
sprouts.  Ordinarily  one  may  continue  to 
cut  for  the  market  as  long  as  the  sprouts 
are  succulent  and  desirable.  In  cutting, 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  injure  the 
root,  but  cut  as  close  to  the  root  as  pos- 
sible without  injury.  When  preparing  for 
the  markets,  the  sprouts  should  be  washed 
in  clean  water,  bunched  and  tied  in  neat 
small  bundles. 

Varieties 

Among  the  best  varieties  are  Conover's 
Colossal,  which  has  very  large  stems, 
starts  early  in  the  spring  and  has  a  pro- 
nounced flavor.  The  Palmetto  and  Mam- 
moth are  sweeter,  have  a  less  pronounced 
flavor,  and  are  preferred  by  many  per- 
sons. Late  in  the  autumn  the  tops 
should  be  mowed  close  to  the  ground  and 
the  field  given  a  heavy  coating  of  manure. 


558 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.   3.      Asparacus  Bunchpr  and  Bunch   of 
Spears    Ready    to    Be   Tied. 

— Farmers   Bulletin    61. 

Cost  of  an  Asparagrns  Bed 

The  cost  of  establishing  and  maintain- 
ing an  asparagus  bed  is  so  dependent 
upon  the  value  of  land,  the  cost  of  labor, 
the  kind  and  amount  of  manure  used,  and 
the  method  of  securing  plants,  etc.,  that 
no  definite  figures  can  be  given,  but  can 
be  best  estimated  by  the  farmer  himself, 
remembering  that  it  is  only  once  in  1.5 
or  20  years  that  this  has  to  be  met. 

A  prominent  and  successful  New  Jer- 
sey grower  says: 

"I  cannot  give  the  cost  in  detail  of  es- 
tablishing asparagus  beds,  as  so  much 
would  depend  upon  whether  one  had  roots 
to  buy,  and  upon  other  matters.  Where 
growers  usually  grow  roots  for  their  own 
planting  the  cost  is  principally  the  labor, 
manure,  and  loss  of  use  of  land  for  two 
years,  upon  which,  however,  a  half  crop 
can  be  had. 

"The  cost  of  maintaining  a  bed  I  can 
only  estimate,  as  at  times  all  the  men  on 
the  farm  may  be  at  work  at  the  aspara- 
gus, and  at  other  times  none  at  all,  and 
I  do  not  keep  an  account  of  the  time  put 
in  at  the  asparagus.  I  should  estimate 
the  cost  per  acre  as  follows: 

Manure    (applied  in  the  sprinRi $  L'." 

P'ertilizer    (applied    after   cuttingi ir> 

Labor,    plowing,    cultivation,    hoeing,    etc.  20 

CuttiQg    and    bunching 40 

Total     $100 

"A  bed  well  established,  say  five  years 
after  planting,  when  well  cared  for  should 
for  the  next  10  or  15  years  yield  from 
1,800  to  2,000  bunches  per  annum,  or  at 
10  cents  per- bunch  (factory  price),  $180 
or  $200." 


This  agrees  very  closely  with  the  ac- 
tual figures  of  the  yield  and  receipts  of 
another  New  Jersey  grower  who  in  1896 
cut  22,584  bunches  from  12  acres,  all  of 
which  were  not  in  full  bearing,  or  1,882 
bunches  per  acre,  and  received  $2,611  net 
returns  from  commission  houses,  or  -a 
fraction  over  11  cents  per  bunch.  Of 
course  those  getting  higher  prices  or 
larger  yields  will  exceed  this,  but  it  is  a 
fair  average  for  those  who  sell  on  com- 
mission or  to  canneries. 

The  cost  of  good  one-year-old  plants 
ought  not  to  be  over  $4  per  thousand,  and 
it  requires  from  1,800  to  3,600  to  fill  an 
acre,  depending  upon  the  distance  between 
plants:  perhaps  2,500  would  be  a  fair 
number,  allowing  surplus  plants  to  fill 
missing  hills,  or  $10  per  acre.  The  plants 
can  be  grown  from  the  seed  for  half  that 
sum.  if  that  plan  be  preferred. 

The  cost  of  establishing  a  bed  can  be 
somewhat  reduced  by  planting  for  the 
first  two  or  three  years  some  early  gar- 
den crop  between  the  rows,  such  as  pota- 
toes, peas,  beets,  onions,  strawberries, 
etc.,  for  as  the  roots  are  as  yet  not  oc- 
cupying all  the  ground  there  will  be  no 
injury  to  the  plants,  and  the  manure  and 
cultivation  necessary  for  the  young  aspar- 
agus will  be  sufficient  for  the  other  crop, 
hence  the  receipts  for  it  will  be  almost 
entirely  net,  and  yield  at  least  the  re- 
turns of  "a  half  crop." 

The  estimate  above  calls  for  an  annual 
expenditure  of  $40  per  acre  for  fertilizer 
and  manure,  which  is  a  liberal  allowance; 
another  estimate  requires  2,000  pounds 
per  acre  of  a  mixture  containing  400 
pounds  of  muriate  of  potash,  1,100 
pounds  acid  phosphate,  and  500  pounds  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  which  at  market  prices 
can  be  secured  for  less  than  the  above 
sum. 

R.   B.   Handy. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Asparagus 

(Adapted  to  Southern  Conditions) 
This  is  one  of  the  best  paying  crops  of 
the  garden  and  can  be  grown  anywhere 
in  the  temperate  regions.  Any  land  that 
will  grow  corn  will  grow  asi)aragus  but  it 
is  a  crop  that  responds  readily  to  inten- 


ASPARAGUS 


559 


sive  culture.  Asparagus  is  the  first  green 
vegetable  of  the  spring  and  therefore  is 
in  great  demand  for  home  use  and  for 
maTket. 

To  prepare  a  permanent  bed  of  aspara- 
gus the  land  should  be  heavily  manured 
(at  least  10  to  15  tons)  and  broken  deeply 
in  the  fall.  In  early  spring  the  land  is 
replowed,  disced  both  ways  and  thorough- 
ly harrowed.  This  thorough  preparation 
incorporates  the  manure  with  the  soil. 

The  best  time  to  plant  asparagus  in  the 
South  is  in  late  .January  or  early  in 
February  but  in  the  North  plantings  can 
be  made  as  late  as  November,  provided 
the  land  has  been  thoroughly  prepared 
some  time  in  advance  so  that  the  manure 
is  well  decomposed. 

Only  strong  one-year-old  plants  should 
be  used,  though  seed  can  be  sown  in  the 
row  and  the  plants  can  be  thinned  out 
to  the  desired  distance.  Plants  can  be 
secured  from  any  reliable  seed  dealer. 

The  distance  that  the  plants  should  be 
set  varies  with  different  growers  but  for 
most  purposes  the  best  plan  is  to  plant 
five  feet  between  the  rows  and  place  the 
plants  three  feet  apart  in  the  row. 

The  land  at  planting  time  should  be 
checked  off  with  the  plow  both  ways, 
running  one  way  twice  to  make  a  deep 
furrow.  The  plants  are  set  in  these 
checks  allowing  a  space  of  from  6  to  8 
inches  between  the  top  of  the  crown  and 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  plants 
should  not  be  entirely  covered  with  soil 
at  the  time  of  planting;  the  upper  three 
or  four  inches  of  space  will  be  gradually 
filled  In  by  the  subsequent  cultivation  as 
the  plant  grows  through   the  soil. 

During  the  first  season  the  land  should 
be  kept  well  cultivated  to  maintain  a 
soil  mulch  and  also  keep  down  weeds. 
Cultivation  should  continue  until  the  tops 
have  matured. 

When  the  berries  on  the  plants  have 
turned  red  the  tops  should  be  cut  down 
and  left  in  the  field  to  dry  thoroughly. 
On  a  windy  day  the  patch  can  be  burned 
over  thus  destroying  the  rubbish  and 
troublesome  insects.     After  the  patch  has 


been  burned  over  spread  a  coating  of 
manure  over  it  and  allow  this  to  remain 
as  a  mulch  until  spring. 

Early  in  the  spring  of  the  second  year 
the  rough  manure  should  be  raked  off  and 
the  ground  should  be  worked.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  plow  furrows  in  both  direc- 
tions over  the  row  thus  leaving  a  ridge 
on  the  row  and  a  dead  furrow  between 
the  rows.  After  plowing  use  a  spike 
toothed  harrow  or  cultivator  and  level 
down  the  beds. 

Cultivation  should  be  given  as  outlined 
for  the  fir.st  season.  Cut  down  the  tops, 
burn  over  the  patch  and  top  dress  with 
manure  as  before.  An  application  of  a 
high  grade  fertilizer  in  early  summer  will 
produce  a  good  strong  growth  that  forms 
a  good   root  system. 

The  patch  can  be  cut  the  third  season 
but  this  cutting  should  be  rather  light. 
The  bed  should  be  worked  as  outlined  for 
the  previous  seasons  but  early  in  the 
spring  an  application  of  from  75  to  100 
pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  per  acre  should 
be  made  as  a  top  dressing  near  the  plants. 
This  fertilizer  is  readily  available  and 
will  give  results  in  the  crop  to  be  cut. 
When  cutting  has  ceased  or  about  May 
1st,  the  patch  should  receive  an  applica- 
tion of  l.OOO  pounds  of  fertilizer  made 
up  as  follows: 

Acid   phosphate    400  lbs. 

Nitrate   of   soda    100  lbs. 

Cotton  seed  meal    .350  lbs. 

Muriate  of  potash    150  lbs. 

Total     1,000  lbs. 

The  above  is  a  7-4-8  goods  and  it  should 
be  broadcasted  and  disced  in  running  the 
disc  across  the  rows.  Cultivation  should 
then  be  kept  up  as  in  previous  years. 

When  cutting  the  asparagus  select 
those  stalks  which  are  about  6  inches 
long  and  run  the  knife  about  2  inches 
down  under  ground.  Care  must  be  taken 
in  cutting  not  to  injure  the  shoots  which 
are  just  pushing  up  through  the  soil. 
Every  stalk  whether  it  is  thin  or  fleshy 
should  be  cut  at  each  cutting  as  this  pre- 
vents insects  from  laying  eggs  on  the 
old  shoots  that  are  left  and  it  also  con- 
serves the  strength  of  the  plants.  As 
soon    as    the    asparagus    stalks    are    cut 


560 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


they  should  be  carried  to  a  shady  place 
where  they  are  sorted  and  packed  in 
bunches.  These  bunches  are  made  uni- 
form by  using  wooden  boxes  open  at  the 
top  and  at  one  end  and  of  the  desired 
length.  The  stems  are  then  cut  to  an 
even  length  with  the  asparagus  knives 
and  the  bunch  is  tied  with  raffia.  These 
hunches  usually  weigh  about  one  pound. 
All  small,  tough,  withered  stalks  should 
be  discarded.  To  keep  the  bunches  fresh 
for  the  local  market  the  bunches  should 
be  set  upright  in  pans  containing  about 
an  inch  of  water.  All  cutting  should  be 
done  bright  and  early  in  the  morning  be- 
fore the  dew  is  off  the  plants. 

The  bunches  are  packed  in  crates  hold- 
ing two  dozen  bunches  and  the  bases  of 
the  bunches  are  set  on  a  layer  of  damp 
moss.  The  crates  are  made  of  4  slats 
31/0x22  inches,  2  slats  6i4x22  inches  and 
2  pieces  614x9  inches,  the  latter  for  the 
heads. 

If  bleached  grass  is  desired,  hill  up  the 
rows  and  cut  the  stalks  5  inches  below 
the  surface. 

If  the  plants  are  to  be  raised  from 
seed  a  good  sunny,  well  drained  slope 
should  be  selected  and  the  land  should  be 
prepared  as  for  the  permanent  bed.  Sow 
the  seed  in  February  and  after  the 
plants  come  up  keep  them  well  cultivated 
and  fertilized.  The  plants  are  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  seed  rows  for  one  year 
and  are  then  transplanted  to  the  perma- 
nent bed.  One  ounce  of  seed  will  sow 
about  50  feet  of  drill  and  this  will  make 
about  200  plants. 

It  requires  2,900  plants  for  an  acre,  and 
if  the  plants  are  purchased  they  will 
cost  $5.00  to  $6.00  per  1,000,  the  cost  for 
the  acre  being  about  $15.00. 

A  good  patch  of  asparagus  that  has 
been  well  cared  for  should  last  25  years 
and  a  good  average  yield  per  season 
should  be  150  crates.  If  asparagus  is  de- 
sired very  early  in  the  spring  the  site  for 
the  patch  should  be  selected  on  a  sandy 
southern  slope. 

Varieties  to  be  recommended  are  Palm- 
etto, Conover's  Colossal  and  Argenteuil. 

\V.  P.  Williams 


ASPARAGl S  DISEASES 

Antliracnose 

Colletotrichiim   sp. 

Is  said  to  have  appeared  in  New  Jer- 
sey and  Ohio,  but  seems  not  to  have 
spread  destructively.  It  appears  as  small 
specks  upon  the  stem. 

Bust 

Puccinia  asparagi 

Causes  premature  death  of  the  bushy 
tops  which  grow  up  after  the  cutting  sea- 
son, thus  injuring  the  vitality  of  the 
plants.  The  fungus  causing  the  rust 
shows  three  different  stages,  the  spring 
rust,  appearing  in  the  form  of  elliptical 
patches  on  the  stems  of  plants  which 
are  allowed  to  grow  up  early  in  the  sea- 
son, the  summer  or  red  rust,  which  covers 
the  tops  with  a  reddish,  dusty  powder 
of  spores  during  the  summer,  causing 
their  death,  and  the  black  rust  stage, 
which  appears  on  the  tops  in  the  form 
of  numerous  black  pustules  following 
the  red  rust. 

During  the  cutting  season  allow  no 
wild  asparagus  to  grow  up. 

Keep  the  fields  well  irrigated  and  cul- 
tivated during  the  summer  and  fall  after 
cutting  stops.  Dust  the  tops  thoroughly 
with  flowers  of  sulphur  about  three  weeks 
after  the  cutting  season  ends  and  repeat 
this  two  or  three  times  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  season. 

Select  seed  for  planting  from  the  most 
rust-resistant  plants. 

R.\LPH   E.   Smith 

Berkele.v,  Cal. 


(The  Palmetto  variety  is  said  to  be  more  rust 
resistant  than  others. — Ed.  1 

Dampins:  OlT,  Rhizoetonia,  Root  Rot 
Fiingns,  Stem  Rot  Fungns 

Corticnnn  vagum  B.  &  C. 

This  fungus  attacks  a  variety  of 
garden  plants  and  causes  a  wet  rot  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground. 

The  disease  is  difficult  of  control  as  it 
seems  to  live  indefinitely  in  the  soil. 

General  sanitary  measures,  good  sur- 
face drainage  and  lime  on  acid  soils  is 
suggested. 

Tendency  to  Variation 

We  give  herewith  an  illustration  of 
an  asparagus  stem,  which  represents  the 


ASPARAGUS   DISEASES— ASPARAGUS   PESTS 


561 


Fi"    J.     Asparagus  Stalk  Four  Feet  Long.  Four 
Inches  Wide  and  One  Inch  Thick. 

tendency  under  certain  conditions,  to 
vary  from  the  normal.  The  stalk  which 
this  figure  represents  was  about  four 
feet  long,  four  inches  wide,  and  one  inch 
thick. 

ASPARAGUS  PESTS 

Asparagus  Miner 

Agromyza  simplex  Loew 

General  Appearance 

The  adult  flies  have  a  wing  expanse  of 
about  one-si.xth  of  an  inch  and  are  metal- 
lic-black in  color.  The  maggots  are  one- 
fifth  of  an  inch  long  and  white.  The 
puparia  are  one-seventh  of  an  inch  long 
and  red. 

Life  History 

The  first  adult  insects  appear  early  in 
the  spring,  other  broods  appearing  later. 
The  larvae  mine  beneath  the  epidermis 
of  the  stalks  near  the  bases  and  may 
penetrate  eight  inches  underground.  The 
injury  is  often  so  severe  as  to  completely 
girdle  the  stems  and  thus  do  much  dam- 
age. The  puparia  are  formed  in  the  bur- 
rows, especially  on  the  roots  and  bases 
of  the  stalks.  There  are  at  least  two 
generations  each  year. 

Distribution 

This  fly  has  been  reported  from  New 
England  to  Tennessee  and  in  California. 

Food  Plant 

This  pest  works  only  upon  asparagus 
plants. 

Control 

The  control  of  the  fly  is  somewhat  dif- 
ficult and  consists  in  the  use  of  trap 
crops  early   in  the  spring,   which  should 


be  removed,  roots  and  all,  and  burned 
in  June.  Other  traps  should  be  allowed 
to  grow  up  immediately  and  similarly 
destroyed  in  the  fall. 

Cutting  out  all  infested  stalks  as  often 
as   they   appear   is   also   advisable. 

E.  O.  EssiG 

Common  .Vsparagns  Beetle 

Crioceris  asparagi  Linn. 

General  Appearance 

The  adult  beetles  are  slightly  less  than 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length  and 
very  slender.  The  color  is  metallic  blu- 
ish-black with  red  thorax  marked  with 
black  dots.  The  reddish-yellow  or  cream 
colored  wing  covers  are  marked  with 
black.  The  eggs  are  elongate,  about  one- 
tenth  of  an  inch  long,  dark  brown  or 
black  and  stuck  to  the  shoots  by  one 
end.  The  larvae  are  shiny  olive  gray 
with  black  head  and  legs.  The  pupal 
stage  is  passed  in  the  ground  in  a  thin 
cocoon,  the  pupae  being  yellowish  in 
color. 

Life  History 

The  adults  hibernate  during  the  winter 
under  any  protective  covering  and  appear 
in  the  spring  about  the  time  the  young 
asparagus  shoots  are  coming  through  the 
ground.  The  adults  immediately  begin  to 
feed  upon  the  tender  sprouts  and  to  lay 
their  eggs  upon  them.  The  eggs  hatch  in 
about  a  week  and  the  grubs  begin  to  feed 
upon  the  sprouts.  The  broods  continue 
to  work  throughout  the  summer  eating 
all  parts  of  the  asparagus  plants.  After 
about  two  weeks  the  larvae  are  ready  to 
pupate.  They  then  leave  the  plant  and 
work  into  the  soil  where  |)upation  takes 
place  and  within  eight  or  nine  days 
they  emerge  as  adults.  The  entire  life 
cycle  requires  one  month  but  there  are 
many  overlapping  generations  each  year. 

Distribntion 

New  England,  south  and  west  to  the 
Mississippi,  and  in  California. 

Food  Plant 

So  far  as  known,  the  pest  feeds  only 
upon  asparagus,  attacking  principally  the 
tender  shoots  but  also  working  upon  the 
rind  and  stems  of  the  older  seed  plants. 


562 


ENCiXLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Control 

The  control  of  this  pest  is  not  so  dif- 
ficult as  it  would  seem  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  arsenical  sprays  cannot  be  used 
upon  the  tender  marketable  shoots  be- 
cause of  the  poisonous  effects  to  the  con- 
sumers. 

In  the  spring  when  harvesting  the 
shoots  it  is  advisable  to  leave  some  of 
them  for  the  beetles  to  lay  their  eggs 
upon;  cutting  and  burning  these  before 
the  eggs  hatch.  Another  practice  is  to 
keep  all  the  seedlings  except  a  few  for 
traps,  cut  down.  Upon  those  left  the 
beetles  will  collect  in  great  numbers  and 
may  be  easily  killed.  In  the  spring  or 
after  they  are  covered  with  eggs  the 
plants  should  be  cut  down  and  burned. 

As  soon  as  the  crop  is  harvested  the 
seedlings  and  feathery  plants  should  be 
thoroughly  sprayed  with  arsenical  sprays, 
which  will  serve  to  kill  many  of  the  ma- 
ture beetles  before  they  go  into  winter 
quarters.  One  pound  of  lead  arsenate  to 
sixteen  gallons  of  water  has  given  excel- 
lent results. 

Dusting  air-slacked  lime  of  pyrethrum 
upon  the  larvae  or  spraying  plants  infest- 
ed by  them  with  kerosene  emulsion  or 
tobacco  extract  are  exceedingly  effective 
as  the  larvae  are  very  delicate.  Brushing 
to  the  ground  also  destroys  large  num- 
bers of  them.  Burning  the  rubbish  in  the 
winter  destroys  many  of  the  hibernating 
beetles. 

>'atnral  Enemies 

The  young  of  the  ladybird  beetles,  Me- 
■giUa  maculata  and Hippodamia  convergens, 
prey  upon  the  young  larvae.  In  the  east 
the  spined  soldier-bug  (Podisus  macu- 
livejitris  Say)  and  the  bordered  soldier- 
l3ug  (Stiretrus  anchorago  Fab.)  as  well 
as  certain  other  insects  also  feed  upon 
the  larvae. 

E.  O.  EssiG 

Twelve-Spotted  Asparagus  Beetle 

Crioceris  12-pujictaIa  L. 

Description 

A  trifle  larger  and  stouter  than  the 
common  species,  uniformly  reddish  in 
color,  with  12  black  spots  on  the  wing 
covers.     Eggs  are  attached  by  their  sides 


instead  of  ends,  usually  on  old  plants  in- 
stead of  young  shoots  if  such  are  avail- 
able. 

Character  of  Injury 
Hibernated  beetles  feed  on  shoots  in 
spring.  Later  beetles  and  larvae  prefer 
the  berries.  Larvae  seem  to  feed  almost 
exclusively  on  the  berries.  Cut  all  plants 
down  to  the  ground  in  early  spring,  and 
cut  new  shoots  before  eggs  hatch.  Allow 
some  shoots  scattered  over  the  field  to 
grow  larger  than  others  and  most  of  the 
eggs  will  be  deposited  on  these.  When 
they  are  well  covered  with  eggs  cut  and 
burn  and  allow  other  shoots  to  grow 
for  same  purpose.  Spray  with  arsenate 
of  lead  late  in  the  season  when  cutting 
period  is  over.  Chickens  and  ducks  will 
devour  many  if  given  the  run  of  the 
sarden.  ^   ^    Gossard, 

Wnoster,  Ohio. 

Australia 

Orchards  and  Frnit  Gardens 

Fruit  growing  has  made  rapid  progress 
in  Australia  during  recent  years,  the 
area  devoted  thereto  having  increased  in 
the  past  ten  years  by  no  less  than  56.936 
acres.  The  states  in  which  the  increase 
was  most  marked  were;  Tasmania,  17,- 
900  acres;  Victoria,  12,731  acres;  Western 
Australia.  12,668  acres;  and  South  Aus- 
tralia, 6.529  acres.  During  the  same 
jieriod  the  Queensland  fruit-growing  area 
increased  5,738  acres,  while  in  New  South 
Wales  a  slight  increase  of  1,310  acres  was 
exhibited. 

The  varieties  of  fruit  grown  differ  ma- 
terially in  various  parts  of  the  several 
states,  and  range  between  such  fruits  as 
the  pineapple,  paw-paw,  mango,  and 
guava  of  the  tropics,  and  the  strawberry, 
the  raspberry,  and  the  currant  of  the  cold- 
er parts  of  the  temperate  zone.  The  prin- 
cipal varieties  grown  in  Victoria  are  the 
apple,  pear,  peach,  apricot,  plum,  and 
cherry.  In  New  South  Wales  citrus  fruits 
(orange,  lemon,  etc.)  occupy  the  leading 
positions,  although  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
cherries,  plums,  and  apricots  are  also  ex- 
tensively grown.  In  Queensland  the 
bananas,  oranges,  pineapples,  peaches,  ap- 
ples, mangoes,  and  plums  are  most  large- 


AUSTRALIA— BACTERIA 


563 


ly  grown.  In  South  Australia,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  apple,  pear,  peach,  apricot, 
plum,  orange  and  lemon,  the  almond  and 
the  olive  are  also  largely  grown.  In 
Western  Australia,  the  apple,  orange, 
peach,  pear,  plum  and  fig  are  the  sorts 
chiefly    grown,    while    in    Tasmania,    al- 


though the  apple  represents  four-fltths  of 
the  area  in  that  state  devoted  to  fruit 
growing,  small  fruits,  such  as  the  currant, 
raspberry,  and  gooseberry,  are  very  ex- 
tensively grown,  and  {he  balance  of  the 
area  is  mainly  occupied  with  the  pear, 
plum,  apricot,  peach  and  cherry. 


Area  Under  Fruit  in  tlie  Commonwealtli,  Year  Ending  March  31st,  1918 

N.  S.  W.     Victoria  Queensland  S.  A.  W.  A.  Tasmania  C'wealth 

Fruits    49,389          63.209  18,.'556  29,005  19,.540  30,575       205,174 

Vines— Wine     : 8,103          24,579  1,428  25,208  3,010              fi2,388 

Vines — Table     3,893            2,624  1,046  2,194  1,891  ....          11,648 

Market    gardens    9,836          10,414  2,386  2,857  3,664  1,458          30.676 

Melons 4,174            2,632  6,122              731              13,662 

Hops     131  5              1,247            1,383 

Acres     75,455        103,589  29,538  60,169  28,836  33,280       324,931 

Valne  of  Fmlt  (Eng:Usli  Pounds)  in  the  Commonwealtli,  Year  Ending  March  31,  1913 

N.  S.  W.      Victoria  Queensland  S.  A.  W.  A.  Tasmania  C'wealth 
Fruits     (not     including 

vines)     832,472       880.657  365,177  393,433  210.531  384,877    3,067,147 

Hops    10,421  100              104.031        114.552 

Pumpkins,    melons    74,805          25,000  61,758  ....  5,751  ....        167,354 

Market    gardens    369,069       286,385  64,265  106,736  121.874  12,295       962,535 

1,276,346    1,202,463  491,200  500,269  338,156  501,203    4,311,588 


Baisins  and  Currants  Dried  1912-1913 

Victoria,  12,283,824  acres;  New  South 
Wales,  494,704  acres;  South  Australia, 
3,947,776;  Western  Australia.  176,400 
acres. 

For  the  statistical  year  ending  March 
31,  1913,  there  were  in  the  jam  manufac- 
turing business  133  factories  working  in 
the  Commonwealth;  total  number  of  em- 
ployees was  4,499;  the  wages  paid 
amounted  to  £275,138.  The  total  value 
of  the  output  reached  £1,884,045,  and 
the  amount  of  material  used  was  £1,276,- 
180.— From  the  Fruit  World.  March  1, 
1914. 

Babylonia,  Iebigation  in.  See  Irriga- 
tion. 

Bacteria 

The  subject  of  bacteria  is  treated  here 
only  so  far  as  is  necessary  to  give  the 
reader  some  facts  which  will  enable  him 
to  understand  the  references  to  the  sub- 
ject which  are  made  in  other  parts  of  the 
work. 

These  minute  organisms  are  sometimes 
called  microbes,  micro-organisms,  micro- 
phytes, bacilli,  microcci,  etc.  All  of  these 
terms  are  more  or  less  limited   in  their 


meaning  and  the  term  "bacteria"   is  the 
one  in  most  common  use. 

Early  in  the  history  of  the  subject 
these  minute  organisms,  of  which  there 
are  now  known  perhaps  a  quarter  of  a 
million  species,  were  called  by  the  gen- 
eral name  of  animalculae.  The  term 
implies  what  was  believed  to  be  the  case 
that  these  organisms  were  animals,  but 
the  classification  was  later  discovered  to 
include  plants  as  well  as  animals.  In  the 
unicellular  forms  it  is  often  impossible 
to  determine  which  is  animal  and  which 
plant  and  in  this  discussion  it  is  not  im- 
portant to  do  so.  In  general,  bacteria 
are  defined  as  minute  organisms,  devoid 
of  chlorophyl,  unicellular,  spherical,  ob- 
long, cylindrical  or  filamentous,  and  mul- 
tiplying by  division. 

Distribution 

Bacteria  exist  practically  everywhere; 
in  ponds,  ditches,  streams,  seas,  refuse, 
meat,  milk,  beer,  fruits,  vegetables,  soils, 
and  enter  into  all  putrifactive  processes. 

Nitrifjing  Bacteria 

The  bacteria  in  which  the  farmer  is 
most  interested  are  the  various  soil  bac- 
teria and  the  nitrifying  or  nitrogen  gath- 
ering bacteria  in  particular.     It  has  been 


564 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


discovered  that  certain  forms  of  bacteria 
are  capable  of  fixing  free  nitrogen.  These 
are  found  most  often  on  the  leguminous 
plants  where  they  collect  in  nodules.  The 
physical  action  of  these  colonies  is  to 
break  up  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil 
and,  through  the  action  of  certain  acid 
by-products,  the  inorganic  as  well.  They 
thus  render  soluble  the  various  elements 
in  the  soil  which  are  necessary  for  plant 
food.  In  addition  they  seem  capable  of 
utilizing  free  nitrogen  from  the  air  in 
such  a  way  as  to  increase  the  quantity 
of  this  element  in  the  soil.  Thus  the 
nitrogenous  or  leguminous  plants  such 
as  clover,  vetch,  alfalfa,  beans,  peas, 
etc.,  tend  to  improve  the  quality  of  a 
soil  which  is  in  need  of  nitrogen. 

Prof.  H.  Marshall  Ward,  University  of 
Cambridge,  says: 

"These  bacteria  can  build  up  organic 
matter  from  purely  mineral  sources  by 
assimilating  carbon  from  carbon-dioxide 
in  the  dark,  and  by  obtaining  their  nitro- 
gen from  ammonia.  The  energy  liberated 
during  the  oxidation  of  the  nitrogen  is 
regarded  as  splitting  the  carbon-dioxide 
molecule — in  green  plants,  this  work  is 
done  by  the  solar  rays.  Since  the  supply 
of  free  oxygen  is  dependent  on  the  ac- 
tivity of  green  plants,  the  process  is  indi- 
rectly dependent  on  energy  derived  from 
the  sun,  but  it  is  nevertheless  an  astound- 
ing process  and  outside  the  limits  of  our 
previous  generalizations." 

Important  results  often  occur,  in  the 
fact  that  these  bacteria  tend  to  disin- 
tegi'ate  stone,  rot  sand  particles,  rust  iron 
and  copper,  rendering  their  particles 
.soluble. 

Saprophytic  and  Parasitic   Bacteria 

Saprophytic  bacteria  are  those  which 
live  in  dead  matter  whether  animal  or 
vegetable.  They  are  associated  with 
most  decomposing  processes. 

Prof.  A.  C.  Abbott,  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  says: 

"The  saprophytic  group  comprehends 
many  species  used  in  the  fine  arts  and 
industries — such  for  instance  as  those 
concerned  in  the  production  of  certain  or- 
ganic acids;  those  employed  in  the  manu- 


facture of  indigo  by  the  fermentation  pro- 
cess and  in  the  preparation  of  hemp;  and 
in  those  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
cheese  and  butter.  In  the  study  of  this 
large  group,  one  constantly  encounters 
other  species  presenting  most  engaging 
characteristics.  Some  of  these  varieties 
have  the  property  of  producing,  during 
the  course  of  their  growth,  pigments  of 
great  beauty — brilliant  reds,  delicate 
pinks,  rich  purples,  yellows  ranging  from 
the  palest  lemon  to  the  deepest  orange. 
In  another  group,  we  meet  with  species 
having  the  emission  of  light  as  their  most 
singular  peculiarity.  When  growing, 
these  forms  glow  with  a  peculiar  phos- 
phorescence, and  it  is  significant  to  note 
that  these  luminous  varieties  have  been 
most  frequently  encountered  in  the  sea, 
and  upon  articles  from  the  sea.  The 
evil  odors  of  putrefaction  are  the  results 
of  saprophytic  bacterial  development. 

"In  the  parasitic  group  of  bacteria,  we 
encounter  those  species  that  exist  always 
at  the  expense  of  a  living  host,  either 
animal  or  vegetable,  and  in  doing  so  not 
only  appropriate  materials  necessary  to 
life,  but  give  off  in  return  waste  products 
that  may  act  as  direct  poisons  to  the  host. 
Fortunately  this  is  a  much  smaller  group 
than  the  saprophytic.  In  no  particulars, 
save  for  their  ability  to  exist  at  the  ex- 
pense of  a  living  host  and  cause  disease, 
are  the  disease  producing  bacteria  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  innocent  varieties. 
The  essential  difference  between  the 
disease  producing  and  the  innocent  bac- 
teria, is  that  the  foi-mer  possess  as  their 
most  striking  physiological  peculiarity, 
the  power  of  elaborating  toxins  or  pois- 
ons, that  have  a  direct  effect,  or  destruc- 
tive action  upon  the  tissue  of  their  host." 

H.  Marshall  Ward  says:  "A  long  list 
of  plant  diseases  has  of  late  years  been 
attributed  to  bacterial  action.  Some,  e.  g. 
the  Sereh  disease  of  the  sugar  cane,  the 
slime  fluxes  in  oaks  and  other  trees,  are 
not  only  very  doubtful  cases,  in  which 
yeast  and  other  organisms  such  as  fungi 
play  their  parts,  but  it  may  be  regarded 
as  extremely  improbable  that  the  bacteria 
are  the  primary  agents  at  all.  They  are 
doubtless    saprophytic    forms,    that    have 


BACTERIA 


665 


gained  access  to  rotting  tissues,  injured 
by  other  agents. 

"Saprophytic  bacteria  can  readily  make 
their  way  down  the  dead  hyph  (branch) 
of  an  invading  fungus,  or  into  the  punc- 
tures made  by  insects,  and  aphides  have 
been  accredited  with  the  bacterial  infec- 
tion of  carnations,  though  more  recent 
researches  by  Woods  go  to  show  the  cor- 
rectness of  his  conclusions  that  aphides 
alone  are  responsible  for  the  carnation 
disease.  On  the  other  hand,  recent  in- 
vestigations have  brought  to  light  cases 
in  which  bacteria  are  certainly  the  prim- 
ary agents  in  the  diseases  of  plants.  The 
principal  features  are  the  stoppage  of  the 
vessels,  and  the  consequent  wilting  of  the 
shoots:  as  a  rule,  the  cut  vessels  on  the 
transverse  sections  of  the  shoots  appear 
brown  and  choked  with  a  dark  yellowish 
slime  in  which  bacteria  may  be  detected; 
examples  in  cabbages,  cucumbers  and  po- 
tatoes." 

A  familiar  example  is  that  of  the  com- 
mon blight  of  apple  and  pear.  See  article 
on  this  subject  under  Pear. 

Prof.  Ward  observes  further: 

"In  the  carnation  disease  and  in  certain 
diseases  of  tobacco  and  other  plants  the 
seat  of  bacterial  action  appears  to  be  the 
parenchyma,  and  it  may  be  that  aphides 
and  other  piercing  insects  infect  the 
plants,  much  as  insects  convey  pollen 
from  plant  to  plant,  or  (though  in  a  dif- 
ferent way)  as  mosquitoes  infect  man 
with  malaria.  If  the  recent  work  on 
cabbage  diseases  may  be  accepted,  the 
bacteria  make  their  entry  at  the  water 
pores  at  the  margins  of  the  leaf,  and 
thence  by  way  of  the  glandular  cells  of 
the  tracheids.  Little  is  known  of  the 
mode  of  action  of  bacteria  on  these 
plants,  but  it  may  be  assumed  with  great 
confidence  that  they  excrete  enzymes  and 
poisons,  (toxins)  which  diffuse  into  the 
cells  and  kill  them,  and  that  the  effects 
are  in  principle  the  same  as  those  of 
parasitic  fungi.  Support  is  found  for 
this  opinion  in  Beyerinck's  discovery  that 
the  juices  of  tobacco  plants  affected  with 
a  disease  known  as  'leaf  mosaic,'  will 
induce  this  disease  after  filtration 
through  porcelain." 


Method  of  Study  and  Discovery 

How  to  discover  the  specific  cause  of 
any  disease,  is  a  question  of  the  greatest 
importance.  This  is  done  generally  by 
three  steps; 

First.  The  discovery  of  disease  in  the 
affected  tissues. 

Second.  Obtaining  the  bacterium  of 
this  disease,  in  pure  culture. 

Third.  The  production  of  the  disease, 
by  inoculation,  with  a  pure  culture. 

By  means  of  microscopic  examination 
more  than  one  organism  may  sometimes 
be  observed  in  the  tissues,  but  one  single 
organism  by  its  constant  presence  and 
special  relation  to  tissue  changes,  can 
usually  be  selected  as  the  probable  cause 
of  the  disease,  and  attempts  towards  its 
cultivation  can  then  be  made. 

In  cultivating  bacteria,  outside  the 
body  from  which  it  is  originally  taken, 
the  food  material  in  which  it  is  cultivat- 
ed, must  first  of  all  be  sterilized  by  heat. 
This  food  material  should  be  as  nearly 
like  that  of  the  body  from  which  it  is 
taken,  as  possible.  The  media  are  used 
either  in  a  fluid  or  solid  condition,  and 
are  placed  in  glass  tubes  or  flasks  plugged 
with  cotton-wool. 

InornlatJon 

In  testing  the  effects  of  bacteria  by  in- 
oculation, young  and  vigorous  cultures 
must  be  used,  and  in  the  case  of  plants, 
injected  into  the  sap  at  some  point  where 
the  cells  are  vigorous,  or  in  the  case  of 
animals,  by  means  of  a  hypodermic 
syringe  into  the  subcutaneous  tissue  into 
the  vein,  into  one  of  the  serus  sacs,  or 
more  rarely  into  some  special  part  of  the 
body. 

Imiuiinity 

By  immunity  from  disease,  we  mean, 
non-susceptibility;  or  not  being  suscept- 
ible by  means  of  infection,  contagion  or 
inoculation.  The  entrance  of  a  bacter- 
ium or  any  number  of  bacteria  into  the 
tissues,  does  not  mean  disease,  necessari- 
ly. Even  though  the  bacteria  be  virulent 
or  poisonous,  the  plant  or  the  person  may 
have  resisting  power  sufficient  to  neutral- 
ize its  effects.  With  regard  to  diseases 
in  persons,  it  has  been  shown  that  cer- 
tain  races   are   practically   Immune   from 


566 


KNCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


certain  diseases,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Negro  in  relation  to  malarial  diseases. 
In  certain  physical  conditions,  persons 
and  plants  are  more  susceptible  than 
others,  as  in  the  case  of  fatigue,  starva- 
tion, exposure  to  cold  and  whatever  would 
tend  to  lower  the  vitality.  This  has  been 
observed  to  be  true  in  plants  as  well  as 
in  animals.  A  tree  that  is  not  proper- 
ly nourished,  is  susceptible  to  manj-  forms 
of  disease,  to  which  the  healthy  tree  is 
immune.  On  this  general  subject.  Pro- 
fessor Muir,  of  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow, says: 

"In  this  way  conditions  formerly  be- 
lieved to  be  the  causes  of  disease,  are 
now  recognized  as  playing  their  part  in 
predisposing  to  the  action  of  the  true 
causal  agent,  viz.:  the  bacterium.  In 
health  the  blood  and  internal  tissues,  are 
bacterium  free;  after  death,  they  offer 
a  most  suitable  pabulum  for  various  bac- 
teria; but  between  these  two  extreme 
states  are  conditions  of  varying  liability 
to  infection.  It  is  also  probable  that  in 
a  state  of  health,  organisms  do  gain  en- 
trance to  the  blood  from  time  to  time 
and  are  rapidly  killed  off.  Immunity  is 
generally  spoken  of  under  three  distinct 
heads: 

"First.     Natural  immunity. 
"Second.     Active  immunity. 
"Third.    Passive  immunity. 
"Natural    immunity   may   depend    upon 
lack   of  sensitiveness  to   the   bacteria   or 
its  toxins:   as  in  the  case  of  pear  blight, 
which     might     enter     the     tips     of     the 
branches   or   the    flowers,    but   could    not 
enter  where  the  bark  is  thick,  unless  in- 
jected by  some  insect  or  instrument. 

"Active  immunity  is  illustrated  in  the 
case  of  persons  who  after  recovering 
from  an  attack  of  certain  infective  dis- 
ease, such  as  smallpox,  are  not  suscept- 
ible to  subsequent  attacks.  Or,  it  may  be 
illustrated  again,  by  persons  who  have 
been  inoculated  with  bacteria,  that  pro- 
duce a  modified  attack  of  the  disease  as 
a  prevention  from  attack  in  its  more 
virulent  form.  Sometimes  the  injections 
are  small  at  first,  and  are  increased  from 
time  to  time,  and  in  this  manner  per- 
sons have  been  rendered  free  from  snakes. 


scorpions  and  certain  vegetable  toxins. 
It  is  noted  that  the  stings  of  bees,  which 
to  some  persons  are  very  poisonous,  are 
not  so  to  the  same  persons,  after  having 
been  stung  a  number  of  times. 

"Passive  immunity  is  secured  by  giving 
anti-toxins  or  anti-sera." 

Granville  Lowtiier 

B.\LAXCED  Soils.     See  Soil. 

Banana 

The  fruit  of  the  banana  plant  Musa 
sapientum  grows  in  clusters  of  large 
finger-like  forms,  upon  a  very  large  spike 
or  stem,  containing,  within  a  red  or 
yellow  rind,  a  nutritious  pulp.  This 
pulp  is  usually  seedless  and  constitutes 
an  important  article  of  food.  In  some 
of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  it  is  a  staple 
article  of  diet  for  the  natives. 

Scientists  have  recognized  and  classi- 
fied as  many  as  40  different  species,  rang- 
ing from  the  ornamental  groups  that  do 
not  develop  fruit,  to  the  giant  bananas, 
the  Platano  of  the  Spaniards. 

The  red  banana  is  not  common  in  the 
American  markets.  "There  is  a  reason." 
In  the  United  States  it  is  used  only  to 
"dress"  fancy  baskets  of  fruit,  but  in  the 
tropical  countries  it  is  quite  a  favorite. 
The  individual  banana  is  large,  but  the 
stalk  does  not  carry  as  many  "hands"  as 
the  yellow  varieties,  so  as  it  does  not 
bring  as  large  a  price  to  the  grower  and 
wholesaler,  its  extensive  cultivation  is 
not  encouraged. 

Banana  culture  is  one  of  the  oldest  of 
industries.  It  has  been  known  since  the 
origin  of  the  human  race.  Long  before 
the  dawn  of  history  in  the  Old  World, 
perhaps  long  before  the  Old  World  rose 
from  the  waters,  man  lived  on  the  fruit 
of  the  Miisas.  The  banana  was  generally 
considered  a  native  of  Southern  Asia  and 
to  have  been  carried  into  America  by 
Europeans,  until  Humboldt  threw  doubt 
upon  its  purely  Asiatic  origin,  quoting 
early  authors  who  asserted  that  the 
banana  was  cultivated  in  America  long 
before  the  Conquest.  It  is  claimed  that 
at  the  time  of  the  Incas  in  Peru,  bana- 
nas formed  one  of  the  staple  foods  of  the 
natives  of  the  warm  and   temperate   reg- 


BANANA 


567 


ions  of  the  Montana.  In  spite  of  the  un- 
certainty as  to  just  which  country  may 
claim  the  fruit  as  indigenous,  all  tropical 
lands  assert  their  right  to  it. 

The  first  importation  of  bananas  to  the 
United  States  occurred  in  1804,  when  the 
schooner  Reynard,  on  a  voyage  from 
Cuba,  brought  into  New  York,  as  a  com- 
mercial venture,  a  consignment  of  30 
bunches:  but  the  real  beginning  of  the 
trade  dates  back  to  1866.  when  Mr.  Charles 
Frank  undertook  the  importation  of  fruit 
from  Colon  to  New  York.  Previous  to 
that  venture  small  cargoes  consisting 
mainly  of  the  red  banana  had  been  re- 
ceived at  irregular  intervals  from  Cuba. 
In  1870,  Captain  Baker,  an  owner  of  a 
Cape  Cod  schooner,  took  a  charter  to  car- 
ry gold  miners  and  machinery  300  miles 
up  to  Orinoco  river  in  Venezuela.  After 
discharging  his  cargo,  Captain  Baker  ran 
into  Jamaica  to  secure  some  cocoanuts 
as  ballast  to  New  York,  carrying  a  few 
bunches  of  bananas  on  the  deck  as  an  ex- 
periment. The  result  promised  a  great 
future  for  the  industry  on  that  island, 
which  has  been  fulfilled,  the  exports  last 
year  reaching   $4,000,000. 

On  the  American  continent,  bananas  are 
successfully  growni  through  50  degrees  of 
latitude,  from  Tampico,  Mexico,  25  degrees 
north,  to  Asuncion  in  Paraguay,  in  the 
Tropic  of  Capricorn,  25  degrees  south — a 
belt  over  3,000  miles'  in  width.  Cultiva- 
tion of  the  fruit  is  practically  restricted 
to  the  eastern  coast  line,  for  the  banana 
is  one  of  the  thirstiest  of  plants,  and  can 
not  be  expected  to  produce  its  maximum 
amount  of  fruit  in  districts  where  there 
are  less  than  100  inches  of  annual  rain- 
fall. Unfortunately  for  humanity,  great 
areas  of  the  land  lying  within  this  belt 
are  high,  dry,  and  sterile,  while  others 
are  sandy  or  rocky,  so  only  a  small  frac- 
tion is  so  located  that  banana  growing 
can  be  made  profitable.  The  altitude 
must  not  invite  danger  of  frost,  and 
high  temperature  is  necessary  for  the 
growth.  The  southern  coast  of  the  Mexi- 
can Gulf,  the  Puerto  Barrios  section  of 
Gautemala,  the  Puerto  Cortes  district  of 
Honduras,  the  Puerto  Limon  district  of 
Costa  Rica,  the  Bluefields  district  of 
Nicaragua,  the  Bocas  del  Torro  region  of 


Panama,  the  Colombian  province  of  San- 
ta Marta,  and  certain  portions  of  Cuba, 
.Jamaica,  the  Dominican  Republic,  Haiti, 
and  Dutch  Guiana,  all  combine  the  favor- 
ed elements  of  soil  and  climate. 

The  plant  has  two  natural  enemies — 
the  gopher  and  the  wind  storm — but 
against  almost  all  other  tropical  condi- 
tions its  hardihood  is  remarkable.  It  is 
practicall.y  immune  from  insect  pests,  and 
a  worm-eaten  banana  or  the  stalk  of  a 
bunch  practically  destroyed  by  any  of 
the  boring  insects  of  the  tropics  is  un- 
known. The  damage  from  high  winds 
can  be  avoided  or  minimized  either  by 
planting  in  locations  protected  from 
storms  or  by  leaving  unfelled  strips  of 
native  forest  as  protective  screens.  Where 
the  gopher  interferes,  it  can  be  fought  by 
the  use  of  carbon  bisulphite.  There  is. 
however,  a  "witch  broom"  disease  which 
has  affected  the  Gros  Michel  variety  in 
Dutch  Guiana,  and  a  "Panama"  sickness 
which  has  attacked  certain  other  vari- 
eties. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation 
that  the  banana  is  absolutely  seedless, 
cultivation  through  innumerable  genera- 
tions having  led  to  a  vegetable  method  of 
propagation.  Some  of  the  primitive  seed- 
bearing  varieties  are  still  said  to  exist  in 
isolated  regions  of  the  Far  East. 

riearinpr  the  Land 

The  first  step  toward  cultivation  is  the 
clearing  of  the  land.  Into  the  tangle 
of  shrubs  and  vines  and  the  thick  snarl 
of  tropical  vegetation  the  laborer  comes 
with  an  ax  and  "machete"  and  cuts  low 
everything  but  the  giant  trees.  When 
all  of  the  small  timber  and  brush  has 
been  felled   planting  is  commenced. 

Planting: 

Young  shoots  are  obtained  from  a 
plantation  already  in  bearing,  and  these 
are  placed  in  rows  about  12  feet  apart. 
When  the  planting  is  finished,  the  only 
labor  necessary  is  to  keep  down  the  weeds 
and  carefully  clean  the  ground  about  the 
root  of  each  stalk. 

Growth 

The  banana  plant  will  grow  with  won- 
derful rapidity  under  favorable  circum- 
stances.   In  fact,  the  development  from  a 


568 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


newly-planted  sucker  to  the  plant  in  full 
bearing  is  simply  short  of  marvelous. 
Within  a  space  of  six  or  seven  weeks  the 
2  or  3  foot  plant  has  more  than  doubled 
in  size,  and  a  month  or  so  later  the 
leaves  cease  to  unfold  and  a  spike  ap- 
pears out  of  the  center  of  the  crown. 
This  is  the  future  stalk  of  the  bunch  and 
carries  a  huge  red  blossom  at  the  end.  It 
develops  rapidly,  continually  bending 
more  and  more  until  in  a  short  time  it 
has  turned  completely  upon  itself,  so  that 
the  bananas  grow  end  up  or  in  a  position 
the  reverse  of  which  they  are  usually 
hung.  From  7  to  12  months  after  the 
blossom  appears  the  fruit  is  ready  for  the 
gatherer.  At  irregular  intervals  along  the 
entire  stalk,  and  only  extending  part  of 
the  way  round  at  any  one  place,  the 
bracts  break  forth  tiny  ridges  of  flow- 
ers— which  are  almost  immediately  re- 
placed by  9  to  12  embryo  bananas.  These 
are  the  future  "hands"  of  the  bunch,  so 
called  on  account  of  their  resemblance  to 
those  members  when  held  in  a  certain 
position. 

It  is  by  means  of  these  hands  that  the 
fruit  is  classified  for  shipping.  A  bunch 
of  9  hands  or  over  (the  average  being 
10  to  12)  constitute  a  "first;"  between 
7  and  9,  a  "second."  Anything  under 
this  minimum  is  discarded  by  an  in- 
spector at  the  wharf.  Bunches  of  17 
hands  are  exceptional,  and  those  of  this 
abnormal  size  are  usually  not  shipped, 
owing  to  the  inconvenience  of  storing  in 
the  steamer's  hold. 

PropaKatiou 

The  banana  has  a  curious  and  prodigal 
method  of  propagation,  for  before  the 
parent  stalk  and  fruit  have  matured  new 
ones  spring  up.  These  are  offshoots  that 
grow  from  the  root  of  the  original  plant- 
ing, resembling  the  sprouts  from  the 
"eyes"  of  a  potato,  and  each  in  turn  be- 
comes a  parent  stalk  with  its  fruit.  It 
follows  that  unless  most  of  the  continual- 
ly appearing  new  plants  are  cut  out 
(which  is  the  practice)  the  first  stalk  in 
a  few  years  will  become  the  center  of  a 
miniature  jungle.  The  plants  grow  to  a 
height  of  from  15  to  35  feet,  spreading  in 
all  directions,  until  the  soil  is  overbur- 
dened   with   an   enormous   mass   of   stalk 


and  leaf  growth,  and  stunted  fruit  is  pro- 
duced. 

In  cultivation,  four  suckers  (which  is 
another  name  for  the  shoots)  are  usually 
allowed  to  grow  In  one  hill,  and  their 
graduation  is  so  arranged  that  while  the 
oldest  is  bearing  fruit  the  next  is  in  blos- 
som, the  third  is  half  grown,  and  the 
last  is  just  coming  forth  from  the  ground. 
The  banana  plantation  yields  a  contin- 
uous harvest  for  years  without  replant- 
ing. Some  that  are  fifty  years  old  are 
yielding  today  as  prolifically  as  in  their 
third  or  fourth  year,  but  these  are  located 
in  exceptionally  fertile  districts.  The  ro- 
tation of  crops  is  unknown,  and  unless 
the  land  is  subject  to  overflow  it  can 
hardly  be  profitable  after  ten  years'  work- 
ing. 

Planting 

In  planting  for  the  market  about  200 
hills  are  allowed  to  the  acre.  Sometimes 
the  number  can  be  safely  increased  to 
225,  in  which  case  there  will  be  900  stalks. 
However,  after  one  year  all  of  these  stalks 
do  not  produce  a  marketable  bunch  of 
bananas,  and  the  average  yield  is  not 
over  300  full  bunches  to  the  acre  per  an- 
num. Fr.\nklin  Ad.\m.s. 
Pan-American  Union 

Banana  Flour 

During  the  past  two  or  three  years 
many  popular  statements  have  appeared 
concerning  banana  flour  or  meal.  Little 
reliable  information,  however,  has  ap- 
parently been  available  on  this  subject. 
Banana  flour  is  prepared  by  cutting  the 
fruit  into  suitable  pieces,  drying,  and 
grinding.  Several  years  ago  the  Royal 
Gardens,  Kew  (England),  published  a 
somewhat  extended  discussion  of  the  food 
value  of  bananas  and  banana  flour  and 
stated  that  the  latter  article,  acconling 
to  the  testimony  of  travelers,  had  been 
prepared  by  native  inhabitants  of  tropi- 
cal countries  since  early  times.  The  Con- 
necticut State  Station  recently  published 
analyses  of  banana  flour  made  from  three 
sorts  of  bananas.  In  the  following  table 
the  composition  of  these  samples  is 
shown.  For  purposes  of  comparison,  the 
composition  of  fresh  bananas,  wheat  flour, 
rice,  and  fresh  and  dried  apples  is  also 
included. 


BANANA 


569 


Composition  of  Banana  Flour  and  Other  Foods 


Water 


BaDana   flour : 

From   Porto   Rico  fruit    

From  Florida    fruit    

From   Honduras    fruit    

Bananas,  fresli.  edible  portion 

Apples,   fresh,   edible  portion 

Apples,    dried     

Wheat  flour,  patent  roller  process... 
Rice 


i  Per  cent. 


Dried  ground  bananas  are  seen  to  con- 
tain in  the  same  built  more  nutritive  ma- 
terial than  the  fresh.  This  -nould  natur- 
ally be  the  case,  since  a  large  part  of  the 
water  in  them  was  removed  in  drying. 
Fresh  bananas  and  apples  are  somewhat 
similar  in  chemical  composition  and  the 
same  is  true  of  the  dried  products.  The 
dried  apples  contain  somewhat  more  wat- 
er and  hence  less  nutritive  material  than 
the  dried  and  ground  bananas.  Banana 
flour  contains  much  less  protein  than 
wheat  flour. 


As  pointed  out  by  the  Connecticut  State 
Station,  the  three  samples  of  banana 
flour  analyzed  are  quite  alike  in  com- 
position. They  contain  less  than  halt 
as  much  protein  as  rice.  Their  nutritive 
value  rests  almost  wholly  in  the  materials 
which  constitute  nitrogen-free  extract. 
In  those  countries  where  banana  flour 
is  prepared  in  considerable  quantity,  it 
is  used  in  combination  with  milk,  sugar, 
etc.,  in  the  preparation  of  custards,  cakes 
and  similar  articles. 

C.  F.  Langwortht 


Imports  of  Bananas — Tears  Ending  Jnne  30,  1909-1913 


Imported    from 


1909 


North    America  :  Bunches 

British    Honduras    413.300 

Canada     3.91.S 

Central  American  States — 

Costa   Rica    5.912.200 

Guatemala     6.i8.300 

Honduras     .5.024,807 

Nioarasua     1,171.800 

Panama     3. 772. -561 

Salvador    

Mexico     212,214 

West  Indies — - 
British — 

Barbados    1 

.Tamaica    y 

Trin.    and    Tobago.  .  (  14,70.5,454 

Other   British    J 

Cuba     2.407,918 

Dutch     

Santo    Domingo    140,000 

South  America  : 

Brazil     S0.4S1 

Colombia    1,492,692 

Guiana — Dutch    407,939 

Total      36,973.584 

RECAPITULAIION. 

North     America 35.022,472 

South     America 1,951,112 


1910 

BANAXAS   (Free) 

Bunches 
416.218 
2,047 


1911 


8.193.800 
755.600 
5. .164. 831 
1.286.581 
3.402,500 

'  24i',324 


14.380,498 
2,223,210 
'  218.666 


1,012.564 
659,486 

38,156,659 


36.484.609 
1,672,050 


Bunches 

549,060 
9,626 

7.387,700 
1,458,500 
6,901,895 
2.130,732 
4,043,000 

'  584,842 


r  

J  15,322,867 


L      636 

2,670,200 

17,000 

509,308 


2,540.583 
564,273 


44,699,222 


41,594.366 
3.104. 856 


1912 


Bunches 

557,160 
10.299 

7.053.664 
2,017,650 
7,151,178 
2.270.100 
4.581,500 
352 
817,006 


15,467,918 


6,595 

2.478,581 


304.000 


1,542.988 
261,548 


44,520,539 


42.716,003 
1,804,536 


1913 


Bunches 
651,064 
4,398 

6,973,684 
2,359.250 
7,983,591 
1,681.944 
4.438,300 

i.'sVi.soi 


11,163,269 

'l',62.5 
2.213,733 

475,566 


2,684,749 
184,498 

42,357,109 


39.487,862 
2,869,247 


570 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Imports  of  Bananas — Years  Ending  June  30,  li)()9-19i;i — Continued 


Imported    frtim 
North   America  : 

British    Honduras    

Canada     

Central  American  States — 

Costa   Rica    

Guatemala     

Honduras     

Nicaragua     

Panama     

Salvador     

Mexico     

West  Indies — 
British — 

Barbados     1 

Jamaica     

Trin.  and  Tobago. 
Other   British    .  .  . 

Cuba    

Dutch    

Santo   Domingo    .... 
South  America  : 

Bi-azil     

Colombia     

Guiana — Dutch   


1000 
Dollars 
101,0.30 
5,316 

2,186,.543 
108,82.T 

1,7,'!1,51.'5 
•J07,061 
958,117 


35,180 

4,153,139 

891.773 

70,666 


Total 


12,538 

362,248 

.       127,013 

.11,012.100 


RECAPITULATION. 

North    America 10,510,301 

South     America 501,799 


1010 
Dollars 
101,741 
2,048 

3,031,556 
192,363 

1,524,843 
222,858 
918,331 

52,567 

4,240,343 

841,327 

'  '109,666 


243,905 

161,871 

11,642,693 


11,236.917 
405,776 


1011 
Dollars 
137,405 
7,660 

2,785,758 
363,690 

2,039,472 
395,612 

1,784,495 

'  116,766 


4,564,680 

iii 

897,314 

5,100 

252,928 


887,928 
136,126 

14,375,075 


13,351,021 
1,024,054 


1012 
Dollars 
130.703 
6,936 

2.713.532 
509,017 

2,199,890 
415,389 

2,137,890 

88 

226.836 


4,403,341 


1,893 
942,481 


152,003 


453,271 
66.060 

14.368.330 


13.848.990 
519,331 


1913 
Dollars 
163,249 
4,111 

2,744.813 
600.041 

2,435,000 
348.004 

2,082,502 

"  413,315 


3,488,498 


466 
834,206 


222,626 


1,107,429 
39.932 

14,484,238 


13.336.897 
1,147,361 


World  Production  and  Consumption  of 
Bananas 

A  report  upon  the  world  production  and 
consumption  of  bananas,  from  Consul 
Julius  D.  Dreher,  Port  Antonio,  Jamaica, 
was  published  in  the  Daily  Consular  and 
Trade  Reports  of  December  26,  1912.  Ac- 
cording to  this  report  Jamaica  was  far 
ahead  of  all  other  countries  in  the  ex- 
portation of  bananas  during  the  calendar 
year  1911,  having  shipped  a  total  of  16,- 
497,385  bunches,  valued  by  colonial  of- 
ficials at  $7,088,451,  or  more  than  one- 
half  of  the  total  value  of  all  exports 
from  the  island  in  that  year.  Costa  Rica 
ranked  second,  with  exports  of  9,309,586 
bunches,  and  then  came  Honduras  with 
6,500,000  bunches,  Colombia,  4,901,894; 
Panama,  4,261,500;  Canary  Islands,  2,- 
648,378;  Cuba,  2,500,000;  Nicaragua,  2,- 
250,000;  Gautemala,  1,755,704;  Mexico, 
750,000;  British  Honduras,  525,000;  San- 
to Domingo.  400,000;  Dutch  Guiana,  387,- 
516.  and  other  countries,  250,000,  making 
a  grand  total  of  52,936,96.'',  bunches  of 
bananas  exported.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  world's  actual  production 
of  bananas  is  far  greater  than  the  amount 
exported,  since  there  are  many  isolated 
regions,  like  the  numerous  island  groups 
of  the  Pacific  ocean,  that  have  no  for- 
eign market  tor  their  abundant  crops  of 


this  fruit,  and  in  the  countries  which  ex- 
port bananas  the  home  consumption  is 
enormous.  In  Jamaica,  as  in  other  coun- 
tries, the  natives  not  only  eat  ripe  bana- 
nas as  a  fruit,  but  they  boil  the  green 
fruit  and  eat  it  as  a  vegetable  and  also 
use  it  in  this  form  to  fatten  pigs. 

As  Jamaica  is  officially  reported  as  hav- 
ing had  82,436  acres  in  bananas  last 
year,  when  the  exports  amounted  to  16,- 
497,385  bunches,  it  appears  that  the  aver- 
age number  of  exportable  bunches  pro- 
duced per  acre  was  200;  and  as  the  aver- 
age market  price  as  shown  by  American 
consular  invoices  issued  to  shippers  was 
2714  cents  a  bunch,  the  average  gross 
yield  for  the  island  was  $55  an  acre.  In 
Panama  and  Costa  Rica,  where  the  land 
is  very  fertile  and  the  plants  are  set  farth- 
er apart,  the  average  exportable  crop  is 
140  to  150  bunches  an  acre;  in  Colombia 
it  is  nearly  200. 

While  .Jamaica  exported  nearly  twice  as 
many  bananas  last  year  as  any  other 
country,  the  United  States  imported 
more  than  five  times  as  many  as  any  other 
country.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June 
30,  1912,  the  bananas  imported  into  the 
United  States  reached  the  enormous  total 
of  44,520,539  bunches,  valued  at  $14,368.- 
330,  an  average  of  32.3  cents  a  bunch,  as 
the  market  value  shown  in  America  con- 


BANANA— BEANS 


571 


sular  invoices  certified  at  the  shipping 
ports.  Great  Britain  imported  during  the 
calendar  year  1911  a  total  of  6.714,479 
bunches,  value  $8,943,099,  an  average  of 
$1.33  a  bunch,  the  value  fixed  at  the  im- 
porting ports.  During  the  same  year  the 
value  of  bananas  (including  banana  food 
products)  imported  into  Germany  amount- 
ed to  $1,974,046.  It  should  be  stated  that 
some  of  the  bananas  imported  into  Great 
Britain  are  sent  to  Germany  and  other 
countries  of  Northern  Europe,  and  that 
Hamburg,  which  is  a  great  distributing 
center,  ships  bananas  arriving  at  that 
port  to  Scandinavia  and  elsewhere. 
France  and  other  countries  of  Southern 
Europe  receive  very  few  bananas. 

The  banana  supply  of  the  United  State.s 
was  received  from  the  following  coun- 
tries: Jamaica,  15,467,918  bunches;  Hon- 
duras, 7,151,178;  Costa  Rica,  7,053,664; 
Panama,  4,581,500;  Cuba,  2,478,581;  Nic- 
aragua. 2,270,100;  Gautemala,  2,017,650; 
Colombia,  1,542,988;  Mexico,  817,006; 
British  Honduras,  557,160:  Dominican  Re- 
public, 304,000;  Dutch  Guiana,  261,548; 
and  other  countries,  17,246  bunches.  Es- 
timating the  average  number  of  bananas 
at  140  to  the  bunch,  it  appears  that  the 
people  of  the  United  States  consume  over 
6,000,000,000  bananas  a  year,  or  more 
than  5  dozen  for  every  man,  woman,  and 
child  in  the  United  States,  including 
Alaska  and  Hawaii. 

The  increasing  consumption  of  bananas 
in  a  number  of  countries  naturally  raises 
the  question  of  an  adequate  supply  to  meet 
the  coming  demand.  In  Jamaica,  where 
the  immense  banana  crop  is  produced  on 
about  3  per  cent  of  the  total  acreage  of 
the  island,  there  is  yet  plenty  of  suit- 
able land  available.  In  Mexico,  Central 
America,  Panama  and  Colombia,  not  to 
mention  the  large  possibilities  of  Haiti 
and  the  Dominican  Republic,  there  are 
vast  tracts  of  land  where  a  fertile  soil,  a 
warm  climate,  and  abundant  rainfall 
favor  the  production  of  bananas  on  a 
large  scale.  Not  only  is  there  land 
enough,  but  the  profits  of  the  crop  are 
sufficiently  remunerative  to  attract  the  in- 
vestment of  ample  capital  to  meet  the 
world's  demand. 

Beam  Tree.     See  Apple,  Botany  of. 


Beans 

The  bean  Is  one  of  the  most  widely 
cultivated  of  garden  plants,  and  includes 
several  varieties,  among  which  are  the 
following:  Bunch  bean,  kidney  bean,  pole 
bean,  string  bean,  butter  bean,  lima  bean, 
haricot  bean.  French  bean,  and  Carolina 
bean. 

The  following  are  not  in  common  use, 
but  are  of  historical  interest.  Carob 
bean,  the  fruit  of  the  carob  tree  that  grew 
in  Palestine,  the  pod  of  which  had  a 
sweetish  taste;    same  as  locust  tree. 

Buck  bean,  a  bog  herb  of  the  gentian 
family. 

Brazilian  bean,  the  fruit  of  a  tree  of  the 
laurel   family. 

Calabar  bean,  the  highly  poisonous  seed 
of  an  African  climber.  It  is  used  chiefly 
for  contracting  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  oc- 
casionally for  tetanus,  epilepsy  and  other 
nervous  disorders.  With  the  natives  of 
old  Calabar,  it  was  a  test  for  crime,  witch- 
craft, etc ,  whence  it  came  to  be  called 
the  ordeal  bean. 

Egj-ptian,  Pythagorean,  or  sacred  bean, 
the  fruit  of  the  lotus. 

Florida  bean,  the  fruit  of  a  West  India, 
leguminous  climber  often  washed  up  on 
the  coast  of  Florida. 

Sea  bean,  the  fruit  of  a  climbing  shrub 
growing  in  tropical  America. 

Goa  bean,  the  edible  seed  of  an  Indian 
plant. 

St.  Ignatius  bean,  the  seeds  of  the  lo- 
gania  family  which  yield  strychnin. 

Indian  bean,  the  catalpa. 

Scarlet  bean  or  Spanish  bean,  cultivat- 
ed for  its  scarlet  flowers. 

Tonqua  bean,  the  fragrant  seed  of  a 
large  tree  of  the  bean  family. 

The  bean,  usually  cultivated  for  its 
food,  is  an  annual,  and  is  horticulturally 
divided  into  bush  and  pole  varieties.  Un- 
der the  bush  varieties,  may  be  included 
all  those  that  have  stout,  erect,  or  slight- 
ly twining  stem.  Under  pole  varieties  are 
included  those  that  have  twining  stems, 
and  are  benefited  by  having  some  kind  of 
support,  around  which  they  may  entwine. 
Certain  varieties  are  often  planted  with 
corn,  entwining  around  the  stalk,  and  are 
familiarly  known  as  "corn  beans." 


572 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Jiajy  Bean 

The  navy  bean  is  a  small  white  bean 
generally  sown  in  drills  about  18  inches 
apart  between  the  drills,  and  about  two  to 
four  inches  apart  in  the  row.  This  give3 
room  for  cultivation  with  a  small  plow. 
Sometimes  they  are  sown  broadcast,  gath- 
ered in  the  autumn  and  threshed  like 
wheat  or  oats.  Sometimes  the  thresh- 
ing is  done  with  a  flail,  or  by  treading 
with  horses. 

Bnnch  Beans  or  Bush  Beans 

Bunch  beans  are  planted  in  the  garden, 
generally  for  home  use,  or  for  sale  while 
green  in  the  form  known  as  "string 
beans."  Included  in  the  varieties  of 
bush  beans  are  White  Marrow.  Burling- 
hame.  Medium  and  Snow  Flake. 

Lima  Beans 

Among  the  varieties  of  Lima  beans, 
are  the  dwarf  Lima  and  the  pole  Limas. 
The  dwarf  varieties  are  growing  into  fav- 
or, because  they  require  less  work  than 
the  pole  Limas.  If  the  pole  varieties 
are  planted,  as  soon  as  the  beans  be- 
gin to  vine,  poles  six  to  eight  feet  lon.g 
should  be  set,  one  for  each  hill  of  beans, 
and  the  vines  allowed  to  entwine  about 
them. 

The  Soil 

Unlike  most  other  vegetables,  the  bean 
does  not  require  a  rich  soil.  If  the  soil 
is  rich,  it  produces  heavy  vines,  and  not 
a  heavy  crop  of  beans.  It  is  possible 
therefore,  to  grow  beans  successfully  on 
soil  too  poor  for  ordinary  crops.  The 
bean  is  also  a  leguminous  vegetable,  gath- 
ering nitrogen  and  improving  the  soil 
conditions. 

Varieties 

Improved  Prolific  Black  Wax,  Extra 
Early  Refugee,  Bismark  Black  Wax  Pro- 
lific, Dwarf  Horticultural,  Stringless 
Green  Pod,  Early  Warwick. 

GR.\NVir,LE    LOWTHEB 

Bean  Growing  in  Eastern  Wasliington  and 
Oregon,  and  Northern  Idaho 

Lee  W.  FLun.iRTT. 

Assistant  Ag-riciMurist, 

Office   of  Farm,  Management 

The  arable  land  of  Eastern  Washington, 

Eastern  Oregon,  and  Northern  Idaho  has 


been  devoted  almost  exclusively  to  the 
production  of  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  for 
more  than   30  years. 

While  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  are  the 
crops  most  universally  grown,  a  small 
portion  of  the  wheat  belt  of  Washington, 
Oregon,  and  Idaho  is  well  adapted  to  the 
production  of  beans.  The  area  best  suit- 
ed to  this  crop  lies  along  the  foothills 
of  the  Blue  mountains  in  Umatilla  coun- 
ty, Oregon,  Walla  Walla,  Columbia,  Gar- 
field, and  Asotin  counties,  Washington, 
and  along  the  foothills  of  the  Craig  moun- 
tains and  adjacent  to  the  canyons  of  the 
Clearwater  and  Potlatch  rivers  in  Nez 
Perce,  Lewis,  and  Latah  counties,  Idaho. 
A  few  districts  are  in  Whitman,  Spokane 
and  Stevens  counties,  Washington,  where 
the  climatic  conditions  are  favorable  for 
bean  culture.  While  it  is  true  that  only 
a  limited  area  is  adapted  to  this  crop  a 
careful  study  of  all  the  details  of  its 
production  shows  that  thousands  of  acres 
now  lying  idle  each  year  as  summer  fal- 
low may  be  used  for  growing  beans  as  an 
intertilled  crop.  This  crop  has  been 
grown  in  parts  of  Nez  Perce  and  Latah 
counties.  Idaho,  for  the  past  15  years, 
and  the  bean  hullers  make  their  regular 
fall  runs  the  same  as  the  grain  thrashers. 
The  crop  has  also  been  grown  in  a  more 
limited  way  near  Weston,  Oregon,  for  15 
years.  The  production  of  field  beans  in 
this  territory  is  therefore  past  the  ex- 
perimental stage.  A  few  days  spent  in 
the  vicinity  of  Kendrick,  Idaho,  visit- 
ing bean  growers  during  the  months  of 
July  and  August  will  convince  the 
skeptical  of  this  fact. 

Limiting  Factors  of  Bean  Production 

Two  factors  largely  determine  whether 
beans  may  be  grown  successfully:  (1) 
The  annual  precipitation  must  be  suffi- 
cient to  produce  a  crop  each  year  and  (2) 
the  growing  season  from  May  10  to  Sep- 
tember 15  must  be  approximately  free 
from  frosts.  Owing  to  their  proximity 
to  the  mountains  the  districts  previous- 
ly mentioned  receive  sufficient  precipita- 
tion for  growing  beans  when  proper  cul- 
tural methods  are  employed. 

The  deep  ravines  leading  down  from 
the  mountains  in  these  regions  give  pro- 


BEANS 


573 


tection  from  frosts  during  the  growing 
season  by  furnishing  excellent  air  drain- 
age. While  the  danger  from  frosts  in- 
creases with  the  elevation,  air  drainage 
Is  the  principal  regulating  factor.  In 
parts  of  Nez  Perce  county.  Idaho,  where 
the  deep  canyons  furnish  good  air  drain- 
age, beans  are  being  grown  successfully 
at  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet.  In  other 
parts  of  the  same  county  having  a  low- 
er elevation  but  poor  air  drainage,  this 
crop  can  not  be  grown  on  account  of  the 
late  spring  and  early  autumn  frosts. 

The  success  of  the  bean  crop  also  de- 
pends upon  the  quantity  of  moisture 
stored  in  the  soil  at  the  time  of  planting 
and  upon  the  cultural  methods  employed 
In  growing  and  harvesting  the  crop. 

Cultural  Methods  Used  in  Bean 
Production 

Experience  has  demonstrated  that  the 
success  of  the  bean  crop  depends  largely 
upon  the  thorough  preparation  of  the 
seed  bed.  While  it  is  not  the  general 
practice,  the  work  of  preparation  should 
begin  in  the  early  autumn.  The  most 
successful  growers  work  the  grain  stub- 
ble into  the  soil  with  a  sharp  disk  har- 
row soon  after  the  coming  of  the  first 
fall  rains.  When  the  ground  is  plowed 
after  such  treatment  the  stubble  is  even- 
ly distributed  throughout  the  soil,  where 
it  quickly  decays  and  prevents  packing. 
It  is  not  always  possible  to  disk  the 
stubble  in  the  fall  on  account  of  the  rush 
of  work  at  that  season.  If,  however,  the 
plowing  is  delayed  until  the  following 
spring,  fall  disking  is  very  necessary. 

Planting  the  Bean  Crop 

Time  to  plant. — The  time  of  planting 
varies  from  May  10  to  June  5,  according 
as  the  season  is  early  or  late.  When 
planted  too  early,  cold  weather,  together 
with  an  excessive  quantity  of  moisture 
in  the  soil,  often  causes  the  seed  to  de- 
cay before  germination  begins.  Even 
if  a  good  stand  is  secured  under  such 
unfavorable  conditions  the  crop  usually 
develops   and    ripens   very   unevenly. 

Method  of  planting. — The  double-row 
bean  and  corn  planter  is  used  almost  ex- 
clusively for  planting  the  crop.     An   ex- 


cellent type  of  planter  is  now  in  use. 
This  planter  may  be  adjusted  to  plant  in 
rows  from  28  to  44  inches  apart.  By 
using  a  special  30-inch  wire  it  will  also 
plant  the  hills  in  30-inch  cross  checks. 
The  feed  plates  may  be  made  to  drop  the 
desired  number  of  seeds  in  each  hill  by 
regulating  their  speed.  The  planter  is 
also  equipped  with  an  automatic  hill- 
drop  attachment  which  drops  the  hills 
from  17  to  52  inches  apart  in  the  row.  If 
the  ground  is  so  foul  as  to  require  ex- 
tensive cultivation  the  beans  should  be 
planted  in  checks  with  the  hills  30  to  36 
inches  apart  to  permit  cultivation  in  both 
directions. 

It  is  considered  very  essential  that  the 
number  of  plants  grown  on  a  certain 
area  be  sufficient  to  maintain  a  proper 
balance  between  the  soil  moisture  and  the 
moisture  requirements  of  the  nlants.  If 
this  balance  is  properly  maintained  the 
beans  ripen  evenly  and  a  uniform  crop 
is  produced.  In  the  sections  where  beans 
are  being  grown  at  present,  from  six  to 
eight  seeds  in  each  hill  produce  the  proper 
number  of  plants.  If  a  smaller  number 
of  seeds  is  planted  in  each  hill  there  is 
often  moisture  enough  in  the  ground  to 
keep  the  vines  growing  late  in  the  fall, 
and  the  late  beans  are  sometimes  dam- 
aged by  early  fall  frosts.  This  problem 
must  be  worked  out,  however,  for  each 
locality  having  different  soil  and  moist- 
ure conditions. 

A  hand  corn  planter  is  often  used  for 
planting  where  only  a  small  acreage  is 
to  be  grown.  The  ground  is  marked  off 
in  checks  about  30  inches  square  and  the 
beans  dropped  at  the  intersection  of  the 
marks.  An  experienced  man  can  plant 
from  four  to  seven  acres  a  day  by  this 
method.  If  the  ground  is  free  from  weeds, 
so  that  but  little  cultivation  Is  necessary, 
the  seed  is  often  planted  in  drill  rows 
with  either  a  bean  planter  or  an  ordi- 
nary grain  drill.  Of  the  two,  a  bean 
planter  which  has  a  drill  attachment  is 
the  more  desirable. 

A  grain  drill  having  feed  cups  which 
will  handle  beans  may  be  used  with  fair 
success.  An  ll-row  grain  drill  with  a 
space  of  seven  inches  between  each  drill 


574 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


tube  can  be  adjusted  for  drilling  beans 
in  rows  28  inches  apart  by  stopping  up 
all  of  the  feed  cups  except  the  second, 
sixth  and  tenth.  The  machine  is  so  reg- 
ulated as  to  plant  the  seed  from  three  to 
six  inches  apart  In   the  row. 

The  depth  at  which  the  beans  are 
planted  depends  upon  the  character  of 
the  soil  and  the  weather  conditions.  They 
are  not  planted  so  deep  in  dark,  heav>' 
soil  as  in  a  lighter  soil.  Neither  can 
beans  be  planted  to  a  very  great  depth 
during  cold,  damp  weather  without  injur- 
ing the  stand.  The  safe  plan  is  to  plant 
just  deep  enough  for  the  seed  to  lie  in 
moist  earth,  for  an  even  stand  of  strong, 
healthy  plants  is  one  of  the  first  require- 
ments of  a  good  bean  crop. 

Qiiaiititj  of  Seed  Per  Acre 

The  quantity  of  seed  required  per  acre 
depends  upon  the  size  of  the  beans  and 
also  upon  the  manner  of  seeding.  The 
pea  bean  varieties,  such  as  the  Little 
Navy,  the  Lady  Washington,  and  the  Red 
Miner,  require  from  16  to  20  pounds  per 
acre  when  planted  in  checks  30  to  36 
inches  square.  If  planted  in  drills  or 
checked  closer  than  this  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  seed  will  be  necessary.  The  larger 
seeded  varieties  require  more  seed  per 
acre  than  the  smaller  varieties. 

Beans  as  a  Truck  Crop  in  tbe  South 

W.    P.    WlLLI.\5IS 

The  raising  of  bush  or  snap  beans,  as 
they  are  called,  is  becoming  a  prominent 
industry  in  some  sections.  The  bean 
adapts  itself  readily  to  companion  crop- 
ping; has  a  short  period  of  growth  (60  to 
70  days)  ;  is  fairly  easy  to  grow,  and  is 
thus  gaining  favor  as  a  truck  crop. 

Beans  may  be  grown  on  any  garden 
soil,  but  a  rich  sandy  loam,  with  porous 
subsoil  is  preferable  for  early  crops.  Land 
for  this  crop  should  be  manured  and 
plowed  as  soon  in  the  spring  as  possible. 
It  should  be  disked  and  harrowed  until 
it  is  well  pulverized,  and  if  planting  is 
delayed  harrow  every  week  until  ready  to 
plant. 

The  bean,  being  a  leguminous  plant, 
does  not  need  heavy  application  of  nitro- 
gen.     An    application    of    the    following 


amount   of    fertilizer   per    acre   will    give 
very  good  results,  and  is  a  9-2 U-S  goods: 

Acid  phosphate  (16  per  cent)  ..300  lbs. 

Cotton  seed  meal 200  lbs. 

Muriate  of  potash 50  lbs. 

Some  growers  use  only  cotton  seed  meal 
at  the  rate  of  700  pounds  per  acre,  and 
a  dressing  of  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of 
soda  at  blossoming  time.  By  the  above 
method  the  succeeding  crop  gets  the  ben- 
efit of  fertility  not  available  for  the  pres- 
ent crop. 

Beans  are  sown  in  drills  four  feet  apart 
and  quick  maturing  crops,  such  as  rad- 
ishes, are  planted  between  the  rows  or 
later  crops,  like  cotton,  corn  or  potatoes, 
are  planted  when  the  beans  have  reached 
maturity.  Many  growers  practice  sowing 
a  successive  crop  of  beans  between  the 
rows. 

Cultivation  should  begin  as  soon  as  the 
plants  push  through  the  ground,  and  this 
should  be  continued  at  frequent  inter- 
vals throughout  the  growing  period.  The 
cultivation  should  be  shallow,  and  the 
soil  should  be  ridged  slightly  toward  the 
plants. 

The  seed  is  sown  in  drills  and  covered 
about  two  inches.  Seed  sown  early  is 
apt  to  rot,  so  it  should  be  sown  quite 
thickly.  One  quart  of  seed  will  plant 
from  80  to  100  feet  of  rows.  Early  sow- 
ings are  apt  to  be  caught  by  frost,  as  the 
young  plants  are  very  tender,  but  the 
prices  of  early  shipments  are  so  good  that 
some  risk  may  be  run  to  receive  these 
high  prices. 

Varieties  recommended  for  the  South 
are  Red  Valentine,  Stringless  Green  Pod, 
Refugee  and  Golden  Wax.  Pole  varieties 
such  as  Kentucky  Wonder  and  Old  Home- 
stead are  good,  as  they  last  over  a  longer 
season  than  the  bush  varieties. 

Beans  are  ready  to  harvest  from  eight 
to  ten  weeks  after  planting.  The  beans 
are  picked  when  of  sufficient  size,  but 
they  are  not  allowed  to  become  tough  and 
stringy.  Never  pick  beans  when  the 
foliage  is  damp,  as  many  growers  claim 
this  causes  rust  and  anthracnose  to 
spread  more  rapidly.  Anthracnose  is  con- 
trolled by  growing  seed  which  is  desired 
for  planting  the  following  spring,  in  the 


BEAXS— BEAN  DISEASES— BEAN  PESTS 


575 


fall;  if  there  should  be  some  disease  in 
the  fall  crop,  select  seed  only  from 
healthy  pods,  and  follow  the  recommend- 
ations as  given  above  for  cultivation  and 
picking. 

The  beans  when  picked  are  sorted  and 
packed  in  hampers  holding  about  seven- 
eighths  of  a  bushel  and  are  then  loaded 
into  refrigerator  cars.  The  cost  of  ship- 
ping a  car  to  Northern  markets  is  about 
$125.  and  the  cost  in  these  car  lot  ship- 
ments is  about  30  cents  per  hamper. 

A  good  yield  of  beans  is  150  hampers 
per  acre,  and  prices  are  sometimes  as 
high  as  $3.00  and  more  per  hamper,  for 
very  early  shipments.  Many  growers  fig- 
ure that  the  crop  of  beans  pays  all  the 
fertilizer  and  necessary  expenses  for  the 
culture  of  the  succeeding  crop,  and  thus 
the  price  received  for  the  latter  crop  is 
clear  profit. 

BEAX    DISEASES 

Authracnose — Spot 

CoUetotricTium  sp. 

Causes  large,  scabby,  dead  spots  upon 
the  pods. 

May  be  controlled  by  selecting  clean 
seed  and  spraying  the  plants  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture. 

Bacterial  Spot — Blight 

Bacterium  phaseoli  Erw.  Sm. 

Leaves,  pods  and  stems  show  watery 
spots.     Not  so   prevalent  on   new  land. 

Powdery  Mildew 

Erysiphe  polygoni 
Produces  a  white  growth  of  the  fungus 
covering    the    surface    of    the    leaves    in 
moist  weather. 

Sprinkle  with  dry  sulphur. 

R.  E.   Smith, 
Berkeley,   Cal. 
Bust 
Uromyces  appendiculattis 

Causes   a   yellowing   and    death    of   the 
leaves  with  the  production  of  a  dusty  red 
rust  on  the  under  side.     Not  usually  de- 
structive except  on  plants  growing  poorly. 
R.  E.  Smith, 
Berkeley,    Cal. 

BEAX  PESTS 

Bean  Aphis.     See  Aphids. 


Besin   Cutwonii 

Ogdoconta   cinereola  Gwen. 

The  caterpillar  of  this  species  does  in- 
jury to  the  foliage  and  pods  of  beans,  at 
times  stripping  them.  The  larvae  is  a 
looper,  pale  green  with  three  white  strips 
and  measures,  when  full  grown,  about  an 
inch. 

It  is  distributed  pretty  well  over  the 
country  east  of  the  Rockies,  but  has  been 


Fig.    1.     The    Common    Cut    Worm    Peridroma 
Marf/aritosa. 

— After  Easig. 

destructive   so    far    only    in    Florida    and 
Mississippi. 

Arsenical  sprays  will  control  it  though 
care  should  be  taken  to  thoroughly  clean 
the  pods  if  they  are  to  be  eaten. 

Bean  Weevil 

Acanthoscelides  obtectus  Say 

Family  Bruchidae. 

Bruchiis  ohtectus  Say 

General  Appearance 

The  adult  weevils  are  very  short  and 
robust,  measuring  about  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  in  length.  The  odd  shape  is  due 
to  the  wing  covers  being  shorter  than 
the  abdomen,  and  the  head  being  carried 
at  right  angles  to  the  body.  The  color 
varies  from  gray  to  brown  with  a  vel- 
vety greenish  tinge.  The  eggs  are  white 
and  less  than  a  millimeter  long.  The 
grubs  are  very  small,  a  number  of  them 
being  able  to  occupy  a  single  small  white 
bean.     They  are  light  cream  colored  and 


576 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


robust.       The  pupae  are  first  light,  grad- 
ually becoming  darker  with  age. 

Life  History 

The  adult  beetles  after  hibernating  or 
breeding  in  stored  beans  over  winter  ap- 
pear in  the  spring  about  the  time  the 
beans  are  blooming  and  lay  their  eggs 
upon  the  pods,  in  cracks  at  the  end  or  in 
slits  made  by  the  female's  jaws.  Upon 
hatching  the  young  larvae  bore  through 
the  pod  or  reach  the  beans  within 
through  a  natural  crack  and  begin  to  en- 
ter them  by  drilling  a  small  hole,  the  en- 
trance of  which  either  heals  over  or  is 
so  small  as  to  be  unobserved.  Once  within 
the  bean  the  entire  life  history  is  spent 
there,  the  adults  emerging  at  will  by 
cutting  a  circular  hole  in  the  side.  The 
adults  of  the  first  brood  immediately  be- 
gin egg  laying  upon  the  pods  as  did  the 
hibernating  females  in  the  field,  but  if 
in  storage  bins  or  sacks  the  eggs  are 
laid  upon  the  seed  beans  or  in  old  bur- 
rows. They  thus  continue  to  breed 
throughout  the  entire  summer  and  winter 
if  the  weather  is  not  too  cold,  many  gen- 
erations appearing  each  year. 

Distribution 

This  insect  is  generally  distributed 
throughout  the  state,  and  is  particularly 
troublesome  in  the  central  and  southern 
counties  where  small  beans  are  raised. 

Foods 

Nearly  all  varieties  of  beans  are  at- 
tacked by  this  weevil,  though  the  small 
white  and  brown  varieties  are  preferred. 
Limas  are  not  usually  affected,  but  occa- 
sionally they  are  attacked.  Peas  are  also 
included  as  a  host. 

Control 

The  first  step  in  the  control  of  this 
pest  is  to  harvest  the  beans  just  as  soon 
as  possible,  for  those  left  in  the  fields 
are  sure  to  become  largely  infested.  If 
any  of  the  insects  are  discovered  the 
beans  should  be  thoroughly  fumigated 
with  carbon  bisulfid  before  they  are 
stored.  If  weevils  appear  in  the  bins  or 
sacks,  fumigation  should  be  resorted  to 
at  once. 

E.  O.  EssiG 


Pig.   1.       The    Work    of    the    Bean    Weevil     on 
Small   White  and   Lima  Beans.    (Original.) 


Bean  Tlirips 

Heliothrips   fasciatus   Pergande 

General  Appearance 

The  adult  insect  is  black  with  head 
and  thorax  dark  brown;  antennae  are 
whitish  with  tips  dark;  legs  are  black 
and  yellow;  front  wings  are  blackish 
with  white  base;  posterior  wings  uni- 
formly yellow  with  dark  fringes.  The 
young  stages  are  lighter  in  appearance 
than   the  adult. 

Life  History 

According  to  H.  M.  Russell,  the  insects 
hibernate  in  the  adult  stage  only,  under 
leaves,  rubbish,  etc.  The  eggs  are  in- 
serted in  the  leaves  or  tender  stems.  The 
young  begin  feeding  soon  after  hatching. 
When  ready  to  pupate  the  larvae  seek 
shelter  under  rubbish  or  in  the  ground, 
where    the    nymphal    stage    is    completed 


Fig.   1.     Bean  Thrips.    (Enlarged) 

— After  Russell 


BEAN    PESTS 


577 


and  the  adults  emerge.  There  is  an  over- 
lapping of  broods  so  that  during  the  sum- 
mer months  all   stages  may   be   found. 

Dislribiitioii 

The  bean  thrips  are  found  in  Idaho, 
California,  Arizona  and  Kentucky. 

Food  Plants 

Due  to  its  large  numbers  this  insect 
has  proved  a  serious  pest  to  oranges, 
alfalfa,  pear  trees  and  various  garden 
crops,  the  work  being  the  same  as  that 
of  other  members  of  the  family. 

Control 

Control  measures  for  this  pest  are  the 
same  as  recommended  for  pear,  citrus  or 
grain  thrips,  depending  upon  the  plants 
which  are  infested.     See  Pear. 

A  flour  paste  consisting  of  from  six  to 
eight  pounds  of  cheap  flour  to  100  gallons 
of  water  and  applied  thoroughly  has 
given  excellent  results  in  controlling  this 
pest  upon  truck  crops,  such  as  beans, 
peas,  beets,  etc.,  which  have  tender 
foliage.  E.  O.  Essig 

Flea  Beetle 
Systena  blanda 

Several  flea  beetles  attack  field  beans. 
Probably  the  most  troublesome  is  the 
pale-striped  flea  beetle.     It  is  only  during 


hot,  dry  summers  that  these  tiny  crea- 
tures make  their  attacks,  but  at  such 
times  they  are  likely  to  appear  in  myriads 
in  fields  of  beans  and  sugar  beets,  as 
well  as  in  all  sorts  of  garden  truck. 

The  name  flea  beetle  is  suggested  by 
their  habit  of  jumping  when  disturbed, 
very  much  like  a  flea. 

The  beetles  themselves  are  only  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  length  and 
creamy  in  color,  with  thin,  longitudinal 
stripes  of  light  brown  on  the  wing  covers. 
The  larvae  are  slender,  thread-like  crea- 
tures, white  in  color  with  yellowish 
heads.  They  feed  underground  on  the 
roots  of  weeds  for  the  most  part. 

The  effect  of  many  tiny  beetles  eating 
holes  in  the  foliage  is  to  shrive!  the 
leaves  and,  if  the  plants  are  very  small, 
to  kill  them  outright. 

Remedies 

The  beetles  winter  as  adults,  which  at 
once  suggests  the  burning  of  rubbish 
about  the  farm  and  in  the  fence  corners. 

Bordeaux  is  a  very  valuable  repellent. 
Bordeaux,    however,    is   apt   to   burn    the 
leaves  of  beans  and  arsenate  of  lead   is 
probably  the  safest  and  best  remedy. 
R.   H.   Pettitt, 
East  Lansing,  Mich. 


'all'  Striped  Flea  Beetle.  Enlarged. 
i.\utbor's    Illustration.) 


578 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Four-Spotted  Bean  Weevil 

Bruchus  quadrimaculatus 

An  old  enemy  of  cow  peas.  It  also 
works  in  the  common  bean  and,  like  the 
common  bean  weevil,  it  works  indefinitely 
in  the  stored  seeds  until  nothing  ot  value 
is  left.  As  this  beetle  is  larger  than  the 
bean  weevil,  its  work  is  comparatively 
rapid. 

Like  the  bean  weevil,  this  creature 
starts  work  in  the  field,  coming  into  the 
granary  with  the  harvested  beans,  or  it 
may  gain  access  after  the  beans  have  been 
stored  away. 

Bemediefi 

Fumigation  of  the  seed  during  warm 
spells  with  carbon  bisulphid  is  the  best 
remedy  thus  far  discovered. 

R.  H.  Pettit, 
East  Lansings,   Micb. 

Harlequin  Cabbage  Bug.     See  Cabbage. 

Ladybird 

Epilachna  corrupta,  Muls. 

The  beetles  belonging  to  the  ladybird 
family  are  quite  common  in  this  section. 
They  are  small  oval  or  hemispherical  in 
shape  and  are  red  and  brown  with  black 
spots  or  black  with  red  or  yellow  spots. 
These  beetles  are  divided  roughly  into 
two  classes,  beneficial  and  injurious.  The 
beneficial  species  feed  on  plant  lice  and 
scale  insects.  The  ladybird  is  trouble- 
some throughout  New  Mexico  and  occa- 
sionally it  becomes  very  injurious,  espe- 
cially to  the  bean  crop.  This  beetle  de- 
vours all  parts  of  the  bean  plant  in  both 
the  larval  and  adult  stages.  The  yellow- 
ish brown  eggs  are  laid  in  clusters  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  leaves. 

The  larvae  has  a  yellow  color  and  is 
covered  with  ugly  branched  spines.  The 
matured  beetle  is  light  yellowish  brown 
with  eight  black  spots  on  each  wing 
cover.  This  beetle  is  the  one  locally 
known  as  La  chinche  del  'frljol  by  the 
Mexican  bean  growers.  The  insect  win- 
ters over  in  the  adult  stage  and  so  tar 
as  it  is  known  there  is  but  one  brood  a 
year.  It  seems  that  in  New  Mexico  the 
wintered  over  beetles  appear  about  the 
last  of  June  to  the  middle  of  July  and 
the  generation  from  these  is  developed  in 
August  and   September. 


Remedies 

By  judiciously  using  Paris  green  and 
arsenate  of  lead  many  ot  the  larvae  and 
adults  can  be  killed.  Greater  care  should 
be  taken  when  using  Paris  green,  since 
it  is  liable  to  injure  the  foliage.  Kero- 
sene emulsion  is  sometimes  used  with 
quite  a  degree  of  satisfaction.  In  small 
gardens  hand  picking  of  the  first  beetles 
in  the  summer  and  destroying  the  eggs 
may  aid  considerably  in  reducing  the 
number  of  the  late  brood.  Clean  culture, 
as  destroying  all  weeds  and  rubbish  in 
the  field,  fall  plowing,  and  harrowing 
would  undoubtedly  reduce  the  number  of 
adults  that  will  winter  over.  As  there 
seems  to  be  but  one  brood  and  this  is 
most  troublesome  to  the  late  crop  the 
injury  could  be  materially  reduced  by 
planting  the  beans  as  early  as  possible. 

Lima  Beau  Pod  Borer 

Etiella  zinckenella  Treit. 
Family   Pyralida" 

General  Appearance 

The  adult  moths  are  gray  with  ocherous 
blotches  on  the  fore  wings.     There  is  a 


Fig.  1.  The  Work  ot  Uie  l.iiiia  lican  Pod  Bor- 
er, Etiella  zinckenella  (Treit).  on  Bush 
Lima  Beans.        (Oriffinal.) 


BEAN   PESTS 


579 


plain,  broad,  white  band  along  the 
margins  of  these  wings  and  an  ocherous 
band  with  brown  spots  across  the  inner 
fourth.  This  band  is  especially  conspicu- 
ous. The  hind  wings  are  light  gray.  The 
moths  are  small,  scarcely  more  than  one- 
half  inch  long.  They  are  exceedingly 
active  on  wing  and  foot.  The  pupa  is 
rich  brown  and  usually  enclosed  in  a 
thin  white  cocoon.  The  young  larvae  are 
white  or  light  green.  When  full  grown 
they  are  white  or  distinctly  reddish  above 
and  greenish  beneath.  The  head  is  dark 
as  is  also  the  prothoracic  plate  and  the 
legs.  They  average  about  one  inch  in 
length.  When  disturbed  they  wriggle 
violently. 

Life  Historj- 

The  writer  has  never  seen  the  eggs  so 
is  unable  to  state  where  they  are  de- 
posited, but  judging  from  the  observance 
of  their  work  they  are  probably  laid 
upon  the  bean  plants  and  the  pods  as  soon 
as  they  are  formed.  As  soon  as  hatched 
the  young  caterpillars  bore  through  the 
pods  and  begin  feeding  upon  the  beans 
inside,  all  of  which  are  usually  gnawed 
into  or  destroyed  before  fully  developed. 
When  ready  to  pupate  the  larvae  either 
do  so  in  the  pod  or  select  some  other 
place.  Very  often  they  crawl  into  the 
ground  and  pupate  under  clods  or  any 
convenient  shelter.  As  a  protection  a  thin 
white  cocoon  is  spun.  In  this  stage  some 
of  the  insects  hibernate  though  many  ap- 
pear as  adults  in  late  summer  and  fall. 
There  is  but  one  brood  a  year.  The  adults 
appear  in  the  spring  about  May. 

Distribution 

Apparently  across  the  southern  half  of 
the  United  States  and  in  Europe. 

Food  Plants 

The  beans  in  the  pods  of  the  small  bush 
lima  beans  are  the  favorite  food  for  this 
moth,  though  it  occasionally  attacks  those 
of  the  large  limas. 

Control 

Early  beans  are  the  ones  suffering  from 
the  attacks  of  the  caterpillars,  though  the 
later  plantings  do  not  escape.  As  the 
bush   lima   is   usually   the   only   crop    at- 


tacked it  would  be  well  to  plant  the  large 
and  later  varieties  instead. 

E.  O.  EssiG 
Red  Spider.     See  Apple  Pests. 

Seed  Corn  Maggot 

Pegomya  fusciceps 

One  of  the  causes  of  failure  of  germi- 
nation of  seeds  in  the  ground  is  the  seed 
corn  maggot,  otherwise  known  as  the 
bean  maggot.  It  is  said  to  attack  the 
seed  of  peas,  corn  and  beans,  and  also  to 
work  on  a  varied  list  of  plants  including 
pumpkin,  cotton,  orange,  artichoke,  straw- 
berry, cabbage,  beets,  onion,  mustard  and 
other  plants. 

The  attack  is  most  serious  when  made 
just  after  the  germination  of  the  seed. 
Later  attacks  are  less  apt  to  kill  outright, 
though  naturally  they  are  bound  to  di- 
minish the  crop.  With  the  young  beans 
the  attack  is  likely  to  occur  just  as  the 
beans  are  nicely  appearing  above  the 
ground.  The  cotyledons  are  blackened 
and  the  young  central  shoot  often  is 
shrivelled  and  dead.  Maggots  are  often 
to  be  found  in  the  decaying  cotyledons  or 
in  the  fleshy  stems  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  soil.  This  occurs  during  the  first 
part  of  July.  The  adult  flies  appear  in 
the  third  week  in  July. 

The  maggots  appear  very  much  like 
those  of  the  onion  maggot  and  those  of 
the  cabbage  maggot,  being  white,  taper- 
ing, and  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long. 
The  adult  fly  looks  like  a  miniature  house 
fly,  being  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long. 

The  seed  corn  maggot  is  credited  with 
breeding  in  decaying  vegetation  and  also 
in  fresh  manure. 

Bemedial  Measures 

The  standard  repellents,  sand  and 
kerosene,  and  carbolic  acid  emulsion  can 
be  used  when  the  beans  are  in  the  garden, 
just  as  in  the  case  of  radish  and  onion 
maggots.  However,  in  the  field,  such 
methods  are  hardly  practicable.  The 
avoidance  of  freshly  applied  stable  ma- 
nure and  the  substitution  of  commercial 
fertilizers  during  the  year  that  beans  are 
raised  on  a  given  piece  of  ground,  should 
prove  beneficial  when  the  maggot  has 
once  made  trouble.  Of  course  beans 
should  never  be  planted  where  the  mag- 


580 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


got  is  known  to  have  been  recently,  nor 
in  fact  should  they  be  planted   in   very 
close  proximity  to  a  recent  outbreak. 
R.  H.  Pettit. 
East  Lansing,  Mich. 

Twelve  Spotted  Cucumbee  Beetle.  See 
Cucumber. 

Beans,  Velvet.  See  Apple  Orchard 
Cover  Crop. 

Bees 

Before  discussing  the  subject  of  bees 
in  the  orchard,  we  will  describe  briefly 
the  nature  of  bees  in  general;  because  It 
is  only  when  we  understand  them  that  we 
are  prepared  to  appreciate  their  relations 
to  things  affected  by  them. 

Bees,  like  most  animals  and  plants,  are 
divided  into  families,  species  and  vari- 
eties. Of  the  bees  there  are  two  distinct- 
ive families.  The  first  is  called,  scien- 
tifically, Andrenidea,  or  Solitary  Bees, 
having  the  underlip  flattened  and  very 
short.  The  second  is  called  Apidae,  and 
are  social  in  their  instincts.  The  Andre- 
nidea excavate  nests  in  the  turf,  the  grass 
and  other  substances  in  the  fields,  even 
making  a  deep  pipe  or  hole  with  short 
lateral  galleries  in  which  the  grub  feeds 
and  grows.  These  bees  entertain  guest 
bees  called  Nomada,  so  called  because 
they  lay  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  the 
Andrenidea  where  the  young  are  hatched 
and  share  the  food  of  their  hosts  as  vis- 
itors share  the  food  of  friends.  Here  the 
adults  seem  to  live  harmoniously  together, 
grow  their  young  and  sustain  relations 
which  seem  more  like  a  partnership  than 
a  case  of  parasitism. 

The  Apidae  includes  the  Bumble  Bee, 
the  Carpenter  Bee,  Stingless  Bees,  and 
Honey  Bees.  The  Bombus,  or  Bumble  Bee, 
are  familiar  to  all  American  boys,  espe- 
cially those  who  have  lived  in  the  coun- 
try in  the  Middle  or  Eastern  states.  Up- 
wards of  fifty  species  of  this  bee  inhabit 
North  America;  there  are  very  few  in 
South  America,  and  none  in  Africa  south 
of  the  Sahara,  or  in  Australia;  while 
they  are  the  only  bee  inhabiting  the 
Arctic  and  Alpine  regions.  This  bee  is 
sometimes  called  the  Humble  bee,  and  Is 
recognized  by  its  large,  thick,  hairy  body 
and   deep    bass    hum.      The    colonies    of 


Bumble  bees  are  not  numerous  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  Honey  bee,  but 
they  are  more  vicious  and  the  sting  is 
very  severe.  Their  colonies  are  not  large, 
perhaps  not  more  than  one-tenth  the  size 
of  the  colonies  of  the  Honey  bee.  In 
good  weather  and  when  the  flowers  are 
abundant  they  collect  honey  and  store  in 
the  cells  from  which  the  young  were 
hatched. 

The  Carpenter  bee,  called  in  science 
Xylocopa-virginica,  is  called  the  Carpenter 
bee  because  it  bores  in  the  wood  of  dead 
trunks  of  trees,  lumber,  and  sometimes  in 
buildings.  It  is  a  large  black  bee,  as 
large  as  the  Bumble  bee  or  sometimes 
larger.  It  bores  horizontally  across  the 
grain  of  the  wood,  then  turns  and  runs 
sometimes  from  one  to  two  feet  at  right 
angles.  When  the  cells  are  completed 
they  are  supplied  with  pollen  and  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  sawdust  or  dust 
which  the  bees  formed  in  making  the 
cells,  and  this  dust  is  glued  together  with 
a  wax  which  they  supply.  When  the  cells 
are  finished  an  egg  is  deposited  in  each 
cell;  when  the  egg  is  hatched  the  larvae 
feed  on  the  pollen  until  they  are  able  to 
bore  their  way  out  of  the  cell.  A  Car- 
penter bee  will  sometimes  use  the  same 
home  for  several  hatchings,  and  the  place 
is  often  occupied  by  other  bees. 

The  Stingless  bee  is  sometimes  called 
Melipona. 

The  Honey  bee  is  called  Apis  Melifica. 

The  leading  feature  in  the  natural  his- 
tory of  bees,  and  one  which  distinguishes 
them  from  all  other  insects  is  their  singu- 
lar distribution  into  three  different  kinds, 
constituting,  to  all  appearances,  so  many 
modifications  of  sex.  The  drone,  which 
has  a  thick  body,  a  round  head,  a  more 
flattened  shape,  and  a  more  obtusely  ter- 
minated abdomen,  within  which  are  con- 
tained the  male  organs  of  generation.  Is 
undoubtedly  the  male  of  the  species.  It 
is  distinguished  also  by  the  absence  of  a 
sting  and  by  the  humming  noise  that  ac- 
companies its  flight.  The  queen  bee  has 
a  sting,  has  a  larger  abdomen  than  the 
others,  and  is  larger  and  more  graceful. 
Her  work  is  to  lay  the  eggs  for  the  new 
colony  or  generation.  The  worker  bees 
are  small,  having  a  long  proboscis,  used 


BEES 


581 


for  extracting  nectar  from  the  flowers, 
peculiar  sliajied  legs  for  carrying  pollen 
to  be  worked  into  cells  or  bee-bread,  and 
have  only  rudimentary  generative  or- 
gans. They  construct  the  interior  of  the 
cells,  explore  the  country  in  search  of 
food  and  honey,  supply  the  queen,  defend 
the  hive,  and  carry  on  hostilities  against 
enemies  and  depredators.  The  number  of 
workers  is  much  larger  than  that  of  the 
drones,  generally  not  more  than  one  in 
30  or  40  is  a  drone  or  male,  while  there 
is  only  one  developed  female  or  queen. 
The  workers  do  not  present  distinctly 
marked  female  organs,  yet  it  is  now  un- 
derstood that  the  workers  are  undevel- 
oped females,  and  that  any  worker  if 
taken  in  the  early  stages  of  its  develop- 
ment and  fed  on  the  proper  food  can  be 
developed  into  a  queen  with  all  of  the 
sex  organs  perfect. 

How  tlie  Bee  Stings 

The  sting  consists  of  a  finely  pointed 
tubular  instrument  open  along  the  whole 
length  of  its  upper  surface.  This  open- 
ing is  closed  by  two  horny  slender  barbs, 
each  having  about  10  serrations  or 
notches  in  its  outer  edge.  These  barbs 
are  not  projected  in  advance  of  the  sting 
as  is  sometimes  supposed,  but  complete 
its  outer  tubular  surface  down  the  center 
of  which  the  poison  is  injected  from  a 
little  bag  at  the  root  of  the  sting.  The 
serrations  prevent  the  bee  from  with- 
drawing its  sting  from  its  enemy,  but  it 
is  torn  from  the  body  with  a  portion  of 
the  intestines,  causing  the  death  of  the 
bee.  The  poison  poured  into  the  wound 
from  the  sting  contains  certain  pungent 
salts  to  which  it  owes  its  mischievous 
tendency. 

How  They  Ventilate  the  Hive 

Crowded  into  a  small  space  in  a  box 
not  more  than  12  inches  square,  often 
with  several  thousand  bees,  the  air  would 
naturally  become  foul,  and  death  would 
result  were  there  not  some  system  of  ven- 
tilation. These  little  creatures  cannot 
live  in  a  foul  atmosphere  any  more  than 
could  animals  of  larger  size,  yet  so  per- 
fect is  their  system  of  ventilation  that 
the  air  of  the  hive  is  little  different  from 
the  surrounding  atmosphere  on  the  out- 


side of  the  hive.  This  ventilation  is 
effected  by  the  vibration  of  the  wings  of 
a  certain  number  of  bees  that  fasten  their 
feet  to  the  floor  of  the  hive  and  imitate 
the  action  of  flying.  The  vibration  of 
their  wings  drives  the  air  out  of  the  hive 
with  a  current  of  considerable  force,  and 
the  fresh  air  coming  in  to  fill  up  the 
vacuum  purifies  the  atmosphere.  These 
bees  continue  their  motions  for  from  20 
minutes  to  half  an  hour,  when  others 
take  their  places  to  be  again  relieved  by 
others.  This  is  the  occasion  of  that  hum- 
ming sound  heard  in  the  hive  when  the 
bees  are  in  a  state  of  activity.  The  im- 
mediate cause  of  the  action  of  ventila- 
tion is  supposed  to  be  the  impression 
made  on  the  organs  or  the  nervous  sys- 
tem by  the  vitiated  air,  for  a  bee  can  be 
made  to  ventilate  itself  outside  the  hive 
if  it  Is  brought  into  contact  with  sub- 
stances that  have  to  it  an  unpleasant 
odor. 

The  Bees  and  the  Orchard 

Anyone  who  has  studied  the  subject  of 
the  pollenization  of  flowers,  and  who 
knows  the  important  work  performed  by 
insects,  especially  by  bees,  in  fertilizing 
the  orchards,  causing  the  process  of  ger- 
mination and  the  production  of  fruit,  will 
know  that  bees  are  of  exceeding  impor- 
tance in  fruit  growing. 

Any  student  of  botany  understands  that 
flowers  are  sexual,  and  that  in  order  to 
produce  seed  or  fruit  the  pollen  from  the 
male  must  be  conveyed  in  some  manner 
to  the  stigma  of  the  female,  and  that  by 
the  union  of  the  two  the  process  germi- 
nation begins.  But  how  is  this  effected? 
Flowers  are  fastened  by  their  stems  to 
the  limbs  on  which  they  grow  and  cannot 
mate  as  do  insects  and  animals.  The  only 
possible  method,  therefore,  by  which  fer- 
tilization takes  place  is  that  of  conveying 
the  pollen  grain  from  the  one  to  the 
stigma  of  the  other. 

There  are  two  classes  of  flowers,  those 
that  are  self-pollinating  and  those  that 
must  be  cross-pollinated.  The  self-pollin- 
ating flower  produces  its  own  pollen, 
while  the  cross-pollinating  flower  must 
receive  the  pollen  from  others,  and  gen- 
erally from  other  trees  or  plants.     There 


582 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


are  two  ways  in  which  the  pollen  can  be 
conveyed  from  the  one  to  the  other.  The 
first  is  by  the  wind,  which  is  exceptional, 
the  second  is  by  insects,  generally  by  bees 
gathering  nectar  from  the  flowers.  In 
the  process  of  gathering  food  the  pollen 
is  scattered  in  minute  particles  upon  the 
feet,  head  and  organs  of  the  bee,  carried 
from  one  flower  to  the  other,  and  depos- 
ited where  it  is  suited  to  the  process  of 
germination. 

The  importance  of  pollen  carrying  in- 
sects cannot,  therefore,  be  over-estimated. 
Yet,  there  is  at  present  a  difiiculty  in  the 
successful  keeping  of  bees  that  feed  upon 
the  nectar  from  orchard  flowers,  on  ac- 
count of  the  fact  that  the  spraying  for 
codling  moth  must  be  done  after  the 
petals  of  the  flowers  have  fallen  and  be- 
fore the  calyx  cup  closes.  At  this  time 
the  spray  should  be  forced  into  the  calyx 
cup.  If  this  is  done  and  the  bee  gets  the 
poison  instead  of  the  nectar  It  dies  as 
surely  as  the  codling  moth  would  die  if 
it  entered  the  calyx  cup.  We  may  yet 
discover  an  insect  that  will  feed  upon 
the  codling  moth,  and  grow  it  in  our  or- 
chards, as  there  have  been  in  many  cases 
discovered  insects  that  feed  upon  others 
and  destroy  them,  but  until  such  discov- 
ery is  made  the  spraying  habit  must  con- 
tinue in  order  to  successfully  grow  fruits, 
and  bee  keeping  in  orchards  will  be  more 


or  less  perilous  because  thousands  of 
those  little  creatures  will  be  killed  by 
getting  the  poison  Intended  for  the  moth. 

At  the  present  time  we  have  no  means 
of  knowing  how  to  fertilize  our  trees  ex- 
cept through  the  aid  of  insects  that  carry 
the  pollen,  nor  have  we  any  knowledge 
of  how  to  kill  the  codling  moth  that  so 
seriously  damages  the  fruit  without  the 
use  of  arsenate  of  lead  or  some  other 
poison.  However,  we  believe  it  profit- 
able, with  all  the  dangers  that  accom- 
pany it,  to  keep  bees  in  orchards,  for 
while  many  of  them  will  be  killed,  many 
will  also  survive,  and  the  principal  profit 
will  be,  not  so  much  in  the  honey  which 
they  produce,  as  in  the  fertilization  of 
the  trees. 

The  Sense  Perception  of  Bees 

How  They  Hear.  See,  Smell,  Feel  and 
Taste. — We  quote  the  following  from  the 
Encyclopedia  Britannica: 

"The  physiology  of  the  sense  percep- 
tions in  a  class  of  animals  of  a  nature  so 
remote  from  our  own  must  necessarily 
be  very  imperfectly  understood  by  us. 
The  great  diversity  of  character  presented 
by  the  different  tribes  of  insects,  as  well 
as  of  other  animals,  naturall.v  suggests 
the  idea  that  external  objects  produce  on 
their  sentient  organs  widely  different  im- 
pressions from  those  communicated  to 
ourselves.     The  notions  that  we  form  of 


r 


Fig.   1.      A    Profitable    Colony    of    Bees    in    the    Yaltima   Country. 

— Courtesy  N.  P.  Ry.  Co. 


BEES 


583 


their  senses  must  not  only  be  liable  to 
great  inaccuracy,  but  may  often  be  totally 
inadequate  representations  of  the  truth. 
A  finer  organization  and  more  subtle  per- 
ceptions would  alone  suffice  to  extend  the 
sphere  of  the  ordinary  senses  to  an  in- 
conceivable degree,  as  the  telescope  and 
the  microscope  would  with  our  vision. 
But  they  possess,  in  all  probability,  other 
organs  appropriated  to  unknown  kinds  of 
impressions  which  must  open  to  them 
avenues  to  knowledge  of  various  kinds  to 
which  we  must  ever  remain  strangers. 
Art  has  supplied  us  with  many  of  the 
properties  of  matter  which  nature  has 
not  Immediately  furnished  us  with  the 
meank  of  detecting,  but  who  will  compare 
our  thermometers,  spectroscopes,  hygrom- 
eters, however  elaborately  constructed, 
with  those  refined  instruments  with 
which  the  lower  animals,  and  particularly 
Insects,   are  so  elaborately   provided." 

The  antennae  which  is  so  generally  ob- 
served in  this  class  of  animals,  look  like 
horns,  and  yet  are  so  delicately  adjusted 
that  they  are  believed  to  be  the  organs  of 
both  feeling  and  hearing,  and  are  most 
highly  sensitized.  They  are  believed  to 
be  sensitive  to  all  the  vibrations  and 
changes  in  the  air;  they  are  exceedingly 
flexible,  and  may  be  the  organs  also  of 
some  sense  of  which  we  know  nothing. 
Aided  by  these  the  bee  works  in  the 
darkness  with  perfect  accuracy,  and 
builds  its  comb,  pours  honey  into  its 
magazines,  feeds  the  larvae,  and  commu- 
nicates its  impressions.  With  this  organ, 
it  speaks  a  kind  of  language  which  seems 
capable  of  various  modifications,  capable 
of  supplying  every  sort  of  information  of 
which  they  are  possessed.  They  have  the 
sense  of  vision,  but  during  the  night  they 
seem  guided  by  a  sense  located  in  the 
antennae;  they  have  the  sense  of  smell, 
and  are  attracted  by  the  aroma  of  the 
flowers  or  repelled  by  disgusting  odors 
or  a  bad  atmosphere.  Their  perceptions 
of  heat  and  cold  are  exceedingly  delicate. 
The  influence  of  the  sun's  rays  excites 
them  to  vigorous  action:  a  moderate  de- 
gree of  cold  will  reduce  them  to  a  state 
of  torpor,  and  even  the  slight  changes 
from  heat  to  cold  are  unpleasant  to  them. 
Forty  degrees  of  temperature  will  so  be- 


numb a  bee  as  to  deprive  it  of  the  powers 
of  flight.  It  is  this,  more  than  anything 
else,  we  believe,  that  in  the  Pacific  North- 
west in  the  spring  of  1911  prevented  the 
pollination  of  the  orchards.  For  weeks 
together  at  the  time  the  blossoms  were 
forming  the  cold  was,  for  that  season  of 
the  year,  unusually  severe,  and  it  was 
only  occasionally  that  the  mercury  rose 
above  40  degrees  of  temperature.  Not 
being  able  to  work,  the  bees  could  not 
therefore  carry  the  pollen  from  one  tree 
to  another,  and  many  of  the  trees  were 
not  pollinated.  In  the  hive  where  the 
bees  are  in  their  usual  winter  quarters 
they  will  live  in  a  temperature  20  de- 
grees below  zero,  and  from  the  condensed 
vapor  in  the  hive  they  are  often  found 
in  a  solid  lump  of  ice;  yet,  with  returning 
spring,  they  awake  to  activity.  They  are 
exceedingly  sensitive  to  changes  in  the 
humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  as  well  as 
to  changes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  can  even 
portend  approaching  storms  when  no 
human  sense  can  detect  it.  Perhaps  the 
least  sensitized  of  their  organs  is  that  of 
taste.  They  will  extract  their  food  from 
various  things  that,  from  our  viewpoint, 
would  be  exceedingly  disgusting,  but 
otherwise  perhaps  not  more  so  than  many 
things  which   we   relish. 

The  Sociology  of  tlie  Bee 

In  a  colony  of  bees  there  are  proper 
divisions  of  labor,  each  class  doing  that 
to  which  it  is  by  nature  best  adapted,  and 
all  doing  something.  There  are  no  use- 
less classes  in  a  hive  of  bees.  It  has  been 
said  that  the  drones  are  parasites  and 
are  practically  useless  because  they  are 
not  workers.  It  has  been  charged  against 
them  that  they  feed  on  the  product  of  the 
labor  of  the  workers  without  rendering  a 
just  equivalent  for  what  they  receive. 
This  is  true  only  in  the  sense  that  the 
useful  period  of  the  drones  passes  with 
the  fertilization  of  the  queen,  and  when 
their  work  is  done  it  may  be  said  that 
they  are  no  longer  useful.  After  this 
work  is  completed,  before  entering  into 
winter  quarters  the  drones  are  cast  out 
of  the  hive  or  mercilessly  killed.  This 
is  perhaps  an  economic  measure,  and 
seems  to  be  performed  in  order  to  leave 
sufficient  food  to  the  workers  and  to  the 


584 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


young.  Under  conditions  where  the  food 
Is  scarce  and  the  question  Is  one  of  suffi- 
ciency for  the  life  of  the  colony,  this 
habit  enables  the  colony  to  survive  where 
others  would  die.  Viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  class,  the  killing  of  the 
drones  or  males  is  unmerciful  and  un- 
just; but  viewed  from  consideration  of 
the  good  of  the  colony  as  a  whole,  the 
action  is  justified. 

Ob.iection  to  Bees  in  Orchards 
An  objection  urged  is  that  they  carry 
blight  from  tree  to  tree.  This  is  doubt- 
less true,  but  the  remedy  here  is,  to  cut 
out  the  blight.  I  do  not  conceive  it  pos- 
sible to  fertilize  the  flowers  without  bees, 
or  some  other  insects  which  do  the  work 
of  bees,  even  though  it  be  true  that  they 
are  carriers  of  blight.  Some  of  our  best 
orchardists  think  that  there  should  be  a 
colony  of  bees  for  every  50  trees  in  an 
orchard,  while  others  think  one  colony 
for  100  trees  is  sufficient. 

Granville  Lowther 

BEE   KEEPING 

Prank   Benton 

In  Charge  of  ApicuUural  Investigations 

United  i^tates  Department  of  Agriculture 

Locations  Suited  to  the  Keeping  of  Bees 

It  may  be  safely  said  that  any  place 
where  farming,  gardening,  or  fruit  rais- 
ing can  be  successfully  followed  is  adapt- 
ed to  the  profitable  keeping  of  bees — in  a 
limited  way  at  least,  if  not  extensively. 
Many  of  these  localities  will  support  ex- 
tensive apiaries.  In  addition  to  this  there 
are,  within  the  borders  of  the  United 
States,  thousands  of  good  locations  for 
the  apiarist — forest,  prairie,  swamp  and 
mountain  regions — where  agriculture  has 
as  yet  not  gained  a  foothold,  either  be- 
cause of  remoteness  from  markets  or  the 
uninviting  character  of  soil  or  climate. 
This  pursuit  may  also  be  followed  in  or 
near  towns  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  in 
large  cities.  It  even  happens  in  some  in- 
stances that  bees  in  cities  or  towns  find 
more  abundant  pasturage  than  in  coun- 
try  locations   which   are   considered   fair. 

The  danger  of  overstocking  a  given 
locality  is  very  frequently  exaggerated. 
Each  range,  it  is  self-evident,  has  a  limit. 
The  writer  is,   however,  fully  convinced, 


after  long  experience  in  numerous  locali- 
ties and  under  the  most  varied  circum- 
stances, that  three  or  four  times  as  many 
colonies  as  are  commonly  considered  suf- 
ficient to  stock  a  given  range  may  usually 
be  kept  with  a  relative  degree  of  profit. 
But  to  secure  such  results  sufficient  care 
and  close  observation  have  too  frequently 
not  been  given  in  the  selection  of  bees 
adapted  to  the  locality  and  conditions. 

The   Returns   to   Be   Expected   from   an 
Apiary 

Aside  from  the  pleasure  to  be  derived 
from  the  study  of  these  interesting  crea- 
tures, what  returns  can  one  who  is  well 
adapted  to  such  work  expect  to  derive? 

A  moderate  estimate  for  a  fairly  good 
locality  would  be  35  to  40  pounds  of  ex- 
tracted honey  or  25  pounds  of  comb  honey 
per  colony.  This  presupposes  good  win- 
tering and  an  average  season.  By  locat- 
ing in  some  section  particularly  favor- 
able to  apiculture — that  is,  near  large 
linden  forests,  with  clover  fields  within 
range,  supplemented  by  buckwheat;  or  in 
a  section  where  alfalfa  is  raised  for  seed; 
where  mesquite,  California  sages  and 
wild  buckwheat  abound;  where  man- 
grove, palmettoes  and  titi,  or  where 
sourwood,  tuliptree,  and  asters  are 
plentiful — these  returns  may  frequently 
be  doubled  or  trebled.  But  these  favored 
locations,  like  all  others,  are  also  subject 
to  reverses — the  result  of  droughts,  great 
wet,  freezes  which  kill  back  the  bee  pas- 
turage, etc.  On  the  whole,  there  should 
be  expected  from  the  raising  of  bees  for 
any  purpose  whatever  only  fair  pay  for 
one's  time,  good  interest  on  the  money 
invested,  and  a  sufficient  margin  to  cover 
contingencies.  With  no  greater  expecta- 
tions from  it  than  this,  and  where  intel- 
ligence directs  the  work,  apiculture  will 
be  found,  in  the  long  run,  to  rank  among 
the  best  and  safest  of  rural  industries. 

The  value  of  bees  in  the  pollination  of 
various  fruit  and  seed  crops  is  often  suffi- 
cient reason  to  warrant  the  keeping  of  a 
small  apiary,  even  if  circumstances  do 
not  favor  its  management  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  secure  the  largest  possible  crops 
of  honey  or  to  insure  the  saving  of  all 
swarms. 


BEES 


585 


Anyone  Who  Desires  lo  Do  So  Can  Learu 
to  Manipulate  Bees 

Any  person  with  fairly  steady  nerves 
and  some  patience  and  courage  can  easily 
learn  to  control  and  manipulate  bees. 
There  are,  it  is  true,  a  few  exceptional 
individuals  whose  systems  are  particu- 
larly susceptible  to  the  poison  injected 
by  the  bee,  so  much  so  that  serious  effects 
follow  a  single  sting.  Such  cases  are, 
however,  very  rare.  In  most  instances 
where  care  is  not  taken  to  avoid  all  stings 
the  system  eventually  becomes  accus- 
tomed to  the  poison,  so  that  beyond  mo- 
mentary pain  a  sting  causes  no  incon- 
venience. 

How   to  Avoid  Stings 

Stings  can  be  avoided,  first,  by  having 
gentle  bees.  If  no  other  point  of  superior- 
ity over  the  common  brown  or  black  bee 
than  that  of  gentleness  could  be  fairly 
claimed  for  some  of  the  races  introduced 
and  some  of  the  strains  developed  in  re- 
cent years,  it  would  still  be  worth  while 
to  get  them  on  this  account  alone.  When 
the  fact  of  superiority  in  several  other 
important  points  is  considered  also,  there 
should  be  no  further  question  as  to  the 
advisability  of  procuring  them  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  common  variety. 


Fig.   1.     The  Bingham   Bee  Smoker. 

Of  the  races  already  in  general  cultiva- 
tion, Carniolans  are  the  gentlest,  although 
Caucasians,  more  recently  introduced 
from  Southeastern  Russia  and  only  now 
being  put  on  sale,  are  by  far  the  least  in- 
cllnei  to  sting  of  any  bees,  and  may  be 
handled  at  all  times  without  resorting  to 
the  protection  of  a  bee  veil,  and  generally 
without  smoke,  or  at  most,  a  very  slight 
application  of  smoke.  Some  strains  of 
Italians  equal  in  gentleness  average  Car- 


niolans, but  in  general  the  race  native  to 
Italy  is  by  no  means  as  gentle  as  that 
found  in  Carniola.  Austria,  and  the  Cau- 
casians are  much  to  be  preferred  for  the 
beginner.  In  case  these  gentler  races  are 
not  easily  procurable  he  need  not  hesi- 
tate, however,  to  undertake,  after  adopt- 
ing due  precautions,  the  manipulation 
of  pure  Italians. 

In  crossing  well-established  breeds  the 
males   of   a  gentle   race   should   be   used, 


Fig.  2.      Bee  Veil. 

otherwise  the  workers  of  the  cross  may 
vary  greatly  in  temper,  especially  in  the 
first  few  generations.  Only  careful  selec- 
tion continued  for  some  time  will  so  fix 
the  desirable  traits  as  to  result  in  their 
reproduction  with  a  fair  degree  of  cer- 
tainty in  the  offspring.  Bees  having  the 
blood  of  blacks  and  Italians  are  nearly 
always  quite  vicious  in  the  case  of  the 
first  cross,  and  are  even  harder  to  subdue 
with  smoke  than  are  pure  blacks.  Other 
races  need  not  be  considered  here,  as  they 
are  adapted  to  special  purposes:  and  the 
skill  of  the  bee  master,  the  conditions  of 
climate,  flora,  etc.,  and  the  particular  line 
of  production  to  be  followed,  should  de- 
cide whether  their  introduction  is  advis- 
able or  not.* 

*  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  this  subject,  see 
"The  Honey  Bee :  A  Manual  of  Instruction 
In  Apiculture."  by  Frank  Benton.  M.  S.  Bulletin 
No.  1,  new  series.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S. 
E>epartraent  nf  .^L'rioulture.  third  edition,  1899, 
Chapter  I,   pp.   11-18. 


586 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


The  second  essential  to  enable  one  to 
avoid  stings  is  to  have  a  good  smoker  at 
hand  whenever  the  bees  are  to  be  handled. 
For  ease  and  effectiveness  in  keeping  bees 
under  control  nothing  will  take  the  place 
of  the  modern  bellows  smoker  (Fig.  1). 
A  good  one  lasts  years,  and  its  cost  is  so 
slight  ($1  to  $1.25  for  the  medium  sizes) 
that  the  expenditure  may  be  considered 
one  of  the  wisest  that  can  be  made  in 
fitting  up  an  apiary. 

A  veil  (Fig.  2),  made  of  black  bobinet 
or  Brussels  net,  to  draw  over  the  hat.  and 
a  pair  of  gloves,  preferably  of  rubber, 
may  be  used.  The  veil  can  be  safely  dis- 
pensed with  if  the  gentlest  bees  are  kept. 

Simple  and  convenient  hives,  employ- 
ing the  Langstroth  principle,  and  with 
stories  and  frames  interchangeable  and 
so  constructed  as  to  reduce  propolization 
to  a  minimum  and  to  insure  straight 
combs,  will  much  facilitate  the  avoidance 
of  stings. 

The  use  of  the  bee  escape   (Fig.  3)    in 


Fig.  3.  The  Porter  Spring  Bee  Escape 
removing  surplus  honey  greatly  reduces 
the  risk  of  being  stung  during  this  oper- 
ation, for  it  saves  much  manipulation  of 
combs  and  shaking  and  brushing  of  bees. 
This  useful  device  is  fitted  into  a  slot 
made  in  a  board  the  same  size  as  the 
top  of  the  hive,  and  the  whole,  when 
slipped  in  between  the  brood  apartment 
and  an  upper  story  or  super,  will  permit 
all  of  the  workers  above  to  go  down  into 
the  lower  story  but  not  to  return  to  the 
top  one,  so  that  in  one  night  it  Is  pos- 
sible to  free  entirely  a  set  of  combs  from 
bees  without  any  manipulation  of  the 
combs,  and  without  smoking,  shaking  or 
brushing  the   bees. 

What  Race  of  Bees  to  Choose 

As  the  gentler  races  are  excellent  honey 
gatherers  the  beginner  should  adopt  only 
these — either  Caucasians,  Carniolans,  or 
Italians.     Should  full  colonies  not  be  ob- 


tainable, colonies  of  ordinary  bees  may 
be  changed  by  replacing  their  queens  with 
queens  of  the  desired  race,  the  latter  hav- 
ing been  procured  in  small  boxes  by  mail. 

A  brief  summary  of  the  leading  traits 
of  the  various  races  now  in  this  country 
will  be  of  use  in  guiding  the  purchaser. 

Caucasians  are  natives  of  Southern  Rus- 
sia, are  exceedingly  gentle,  good  workers, 
good  defenders  of  their  hives,  prolific, 
build  many  queen  cells,  and  swarm  often 
if  confined  to  small  hives.  The  workers 
are  dark  leaden  gray  in  their  general 
color,  and  present  quite  a  ringed  appear- 
ance because  of  the  alternation  of  this 
dark  color  with  the  lighter  fuzz  which 
edges  the  segments  of  the  abdomen. 

Carniolans  are  much  larger  bodied  and 
somewhat  lighter  gray  in  color  than  the 
Caucasians.  Their  great  hardiness  and 
excellent  wing  power  enable  them  to  fly 
freely  in  much  cooler  weather  than  some 
other  races  stand,  and  to  regain  their  hive 
entrances  under  adverse  conditions.  They 
are  prolific,  active,  and  good  honey  gath- 
erers, producing  combs  of  snowy  white- 
ness. 

Italians,  the  first  of  the  foreign  races 
to  be  introduced  into  this  country,  are 
much  more  widely  known,  and  have  with 
reason  found  great  favor,  since  they  are 
industrious,  good  defenders  of  their  hives, 
and  excellent  honey  gatherers,  as  well  as 
handsome  in  appearance,  being  usually 
evenly  marked  with  three  yellow  bands 
across  the  anterior  portion  of  the  ab- 
domen. 

Cyprians,  from  the  island  of  Cyi)rus, 
may  be  taken  as  a  general  type  with 
which  to  comiiare  other  Eastern  races. 
They  are  small  bodied,  more  slender,  in 
fact,  than  any  of  the  European  races  of 
bees.  The  abdomen  is  more  pointed  and 
shows,  when  the  bees  are  purely  bred, 
three  light-colored  bands  on  the  upper 
surface,  and  considerable  yellow  on  the 
under  side.  Cyprians  possess  longer 
tongues  and  greater  wing  power  than 
other  races.  This,  combined  with  great 
prolificness  and  most  remarkable  activ- 
ity, renders  them  the  best  of  honey  gath- 
erers. In  temper,  however,  they  may  be 
regarded  as  rather  aggressive,  rendering 


BEES 


587 


their   management   by   any    who   are   not 
experts   extremely   difiBcult. 

Cyprio-Caniiolans  and  Cyprio-Caucas- 
ians. — Bees  combining  the  blood  of  the 
first  two  races  in  various  proportions 
have  been  tested  for  years  in  comparison 
with  all  other  known  races,  with  the  re- 
sult that  the  cross  mentioned  above  has 
been  found  to  exceed  all  of  the  pure  races 
in  honey-gathering  powers,  owing  un- 
doubtedly to  the  combination  of  great  en- 
ergy, hardiness,  prolificness,  and  wing- 
power,  as  well  as  greater  length  of  tongue 
— a  fact  established  by  actual  measure- 
ments. Similar  results,  with  even  greater 
gentleness,  may  be  expected  from  the 
cross  obtained  between  Cyprian  queens 
and  Caucasian  drones. 

Syrian  and  Palestine  or  "Holy-Land" 
Bees. — What  has  been  said  of  Cyprians 
may  be  taken  to  apply  in  a  general  sense 
to  Syrian  and  Palestine  bees,  except  that 
in  these  the  good  qualities  are  slightly 
less  prominent,  while  some  of  the  bad 
ones  of  the  Cyprians  are  accentuated. 

German,  Common  Black,  or  Brown  Bees. 
— The  bees  commonly  found  wild,  and 
cultivated  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  in 
this  country,  and  known  under  the  above 
name,  are  probably  derived  from  early  in- 
troductions from  the  Old  World.  In  com- 
parison with  the  races  above  enumerated, 
they  may  be  said  to  be  inferior,  since 
they  possess  the  least  energy  in  honey 
collecting,  are  less  prolific,  and  not  as 
good  defenders  of  their  hives.  Under 
favorable  conditions,  however,  as  regards 
pasturage  they  may  be  relied  upon  for 
excellent  results.  They  are,  however, 
spiteful  under  manipulation,  and  have  the 
disagreeable  habit  of  running  from  the 
combs  and  dropping  in  bunches  on  the 
ground,  likewise  or  flying  from  the  hive 
entrance  and  attacking  passers-by.  They 
are  more  easily  discouraged  than  other 
bees  during  slack  times  as  regards  honey 
production,  and  this  is  doubtless  the  main 
reason  for  their  generally  inferior  eco- 
nomic value. 

What   Hive   to   Adopt 

The  suspended  Langstroth  frame  is 
used  more  than  any  other  frame  among 
English-speaking  bee  keepers.  There  being 


I'jut'nn*  *  /  jittrnitiiintiK^ 


Fig.  4.      Langstroth  Hive  with  Two   Halt-depth 
Supers  for  Surplus  Honey. 

no  patent  on  the  Langstroth  hive,  and 
accurately  made  hives  being  obtainable  at 
moderate  prices  from  hive  factories  in 
various  parts  of  the  country,  it  is  taken 
for  granted  that  the  enterprising  begin- 
ner will  adopt  a  simple  form  embodying 
this  principle — the  loose-fitting,  suspend- 
ed comb  frame — as  its  main  feature.  The 
hive  should  not  only  be  substantially 
built,  hut  should  have  accurate  bee  spaces 
and  a  close-fitting,  rainproof  cover  or  roof. 
Factory-made  hives,  as  a  rule,  best  meet 
these  requirements,  as  both  lock  joints 
and  halved  corners  can  only  be  made  to 
advantage  by  machinery,  and  the  expert 
hive  builder  understands,  of  course,  the 
absolute  necessity  of  great  accuracy  in 
bee  spaces,  as  well  as  the  great  desirabil- 
ity of  good  material  and  workmanship. 
Provision  should  also  be  made  for  winter 
protection. 

For  comb  honey,  hives  permitting  the 
insertion  in  the  brood  apartment  of  any 
number  of  frames  up  to  eight,  or  fre- 
quently up  to  ten,  are  most  in  use.  In 
securing  extracted  honey,  those  with  ten 
to  12  frames  in  each  story  are  preferable, 
and  as  many  stories,  one  above  the  other, 
are  employed  as  the  strength  of  the  col- 
ony and  a  given  harvest  may  require.  A 
construction,  therefore,  which  readily  ad- 


588 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


mits  of  expansion  and  of  contraction,  as 
occasion  demands,  is  desirable. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  a  hive  of 
quite  different  construction,  a  prominent 
feature  of  which  is  this  ease  of  contrac- 
tion and  expansion.  It  is  the  last  hive 
•which  the  late  M.  Quinby  gave  to  the 
public — the  Quinby  closed-end  frame  hive. 
This  hive  is  used  with  great  success  by 
certain  American  bee  keepers  of  long  ex- 
perience and  whose  apiaries  are  among 
the  largest  in  the  world. 

Management  in  Swarming 
Natural  Swarming 

When  a  swarm  is  seen  issuing  or  in  the 
air,  the  best  thing  to  do  is,  in  general, 
simply  to  wait  a  bit.  The  weather  is 
usually  rather  warm  then,  and  rushing 
about  to  get  tin  pans,  dinner  gongs, 
spraying  outfits,  etc.,  aside  from  its  dis- 
agreeableness,  may  get  one  so  excited 
and  into  such  a  perspiration  as  to  unfit 
him  to  do  with  the  bees  that  which  is 
likely  to  be  necessary  a  few  minutes 
later.  The  bees  will  probably  gather  in 
a  clump  on  a  tree  or  bush  near  the  apiary 
and  however  formidable  getting  them  in- 
to the  hive  may  at  first  seem,  nothing 
will  be  simpler  than  shaking  them  into 
their  new  hive,  or  into  a  basket  or  box, 
from  which  they  may  be  poured  in  front 
of  the  hive,  just  as  one  would  pour  out 
a  measure  of  wheat  or  beans. 

The  securing  of  swarms  can  be  made, 
however,  even  simpler  than  this  by  hav- 
ing the  colonies  placed  several  feet  apart 
on  a  smooth  lawn  or  dooryard  and  clip- 
ping one  wing  of  each  laying  queen  so 
as  to  prevent  her  flyingi  The  prime  or 
first  swarm  from  each  hive  is  accom- 
panied by  the  old  queen,  and  if  she  be 
clipped  she  will  of  course  fall  from  the 
alighting  board  to  the  ground  and  may  be 
secured   in  a  cage. 

The  parent  colony  removed  to  a  new 
stand  a  rod  or  more  away  will  rarely 
give  a  second  swarm.  But  to  make  cer- 
tain all  queen  cells  except  one  may  be 
cut  out  four  or  five  days  after  the  issu- 
ance of  the  first  swarm. 

Each  after-swarm  (second,  third,  etc.), 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  is  accom- 
panied   by    one    or    more    unimpregnated 


queens,  and  these  must  not  be  clipped 
until  they  have  flown  out  and  mated.  The 
regular  deposition  of  eggs  in  worker  cells 
may  nearl.v  always  be  regarded  as  a  safe 
sign  that  mating  has  taken  place.  Eggs 
will  usually  be  found  in  such  cells  within 
the  first  ten   days  of  the  queen's   life. 

Prevention  of  Swarming 

Under  the  conditions  most  frequently 
occurring — that  is,  where  it  is  not  prac- 
ticable to  be  present  at  all  times  during 
the  swarming  season,  or  where  the  de- 
sired number  of  colonies  has  been  at- 
tained— a  system  of  management  is  ad- 
visable which  in  general  contemplates  the 
prevention,  insofar  as  possible,  of  the 
issuance  of  swarms  without  at  the  same 
time  interfering  with  honey  storing.  The 
paragraphs  following  on  this  subject  are 
taken  from  the  department  publication, 
"The  Honey  Bee." 

The  most  commonly  practiced  and 
easily  applied  preventive  measure  is  that 
of  giving  abundant  room  for  storage  of 
honey.  This  to  be  effective  should  be  given 
early  in  the  season,  before  the  bees  get 
fairly  into  the  swarming  notion,  and  the 
honey  should  be  removed  frequently,  un- 
less additional  empty  combs  can  be  givea 
in  the  case  of  colonies  managed  for  ex- 
tracted honey,  while  those  storing  in  sec- 
tions should  be  given  additional  supers 
before  those  already  on  are  completed. 
With  colonies  run  for  comb  honey  it  is 
not  so  easy  to  keep  down  swarming  as  in 
those  run  for  extracted  honey  and  kept 
supplied  with  empty  comb.  Free  ventila- 
tion and  shading  of  the  hives  as  soon  as 
warm  days  come  will  also  tend  toward 
prevention.  Opening  the  hives  once  or 
twice  weekly  and  destroying  all  queen 
cells  that  have  been  commenced  will 
check  swarming  for  a  time  in  many  in- 
stances, and  is  a  plan  which  seems  very 
thorough  and  the  most  plausible  of  any 
to  beginners.  But  sometimes  swarms  is- 
sue without  waiting  to  form  cells;  it  is 
also  very  diflicult  to  find  all  cells  with- 
out shaking  the  bees  from  each  comb  in 
succession,  an  operation  which,  besides 
consuming  much  time,  is  very  laborious 
when  supers  have  to  be  removed,  and 
greatly   disturbs   the   labors   of   the   bees. 


BEES 


589 


If  but  one  cell  is  overlooked  the  colony 
will  still  swarm.  The  plan  therefore 
leaves  at  best  much  to  be  desired,  and  is 
in  general  not  worth  the  effort  it  costs 
and  can  not  be  depended  on. 

Dequeening. — The  removal  of  a  queen 
at  the  opening  of  a  swarming  season  in- 
terferes, of  course,  with  the  plans  of  the 
bees,  and  they  will  then  delay  swarming 
until  they  get  a  young  queen.  But  to 
prevent  swarming  by  keeping  colonies 
queenless  longer  than  a  few  days  at  most 
is  to  attain  a  certain  desired  result  at  a 
disproportionate  cost.  The  plan  is  there- 
fore not  to  be  commended. 


Fig.  5.  The  Simmins  Nonswarming  System — 
Slngle-stor.v  Hive  with  Supers :  he,  brood 
chamber:  sc,  supers;  st,  starters  of  founda- 
tion :  e,  entrance. 


Requeening. — Quite  the  opposite  of  this 
and  more  efficacious  in  the  prevention  of 
swarming,  is  the  practice  of  replacing  the 
old  queen  early  in  the  season  with  a 
young  one  of  the  same  season's  raising, 
produced,  perhaps,  in  the  South  before 
it  is  possible  to  rear  queens  in  the  North. 
Such  queens  are  not  likely  to  swarm  dur- 
ing the  first  season,  and,  as  they  are  vig- 
orous layers,  the  hive  will  be  well  popu- 
lated at  all  times  and  thus  ready  for  any 
harvest.  This  is  important,  inasmuch  as 
a  flow  of  honey  may  come  unexpectedly 
from  some  plant  ordinarily  not  counted 
upon;  and  also,  since  the  conditions  es- 
sential to  the  development  of  the  various 
honey-yielding  plants  differ  greatly,  their 
time  and  succession  of  honey  yield  will 
also  differ  with  the  season  the  same  as  the 
quantity  may  vary.  Young  queens  are 
also  safest  to   head  the  colonies  for  the 


winter.  The  plan  is  conducive  to  the 
highest  prosperity  of  the  colonies,  and  is 
consistent  with  the  securing  of  the  largest 
average  yield  of  honey,  since,  besides  giv- 
ing them  vigorous  layers,  it  generally 
keeps  the  population  together  in  powerful 
colonies.  It  is  therefore  to  be  commended 
on  all  accounts  as  being  in  line  with  the 
most  progressive  management,  without  at 
the  same  time  interfering  with  the  appli- 
cation of  other  preventive  measures. 

Space  Near  Entrances.  —  Arranging 
frames  with  starters,  or  combs  merely 
begun,  between  the  brood  nest  and  the 
flight  hole  of  the  hive,  while  the  bees  are 
given  storing  space  above  or  back  of  the 
brood  nest  (Fig.  5),  is  a  plan  strongly 
recommended  by  Samuel  Simmins,  of 
England,  and  which  has  come  to  be 
known  as  "the  Simmins  non-swarming 
method,"  some  features  of  it  and  the 
combination  into  a  well-defined  method 
having  been  original  with  him.  It  is  an 
excellent  preventive  measure,  though  not 
invariably  successful,  even  when  the  dis- 
tinctive features  brought  forward  promi- 
nently by  Mr.  Simmins — empty  space  be- 
tween the  brood  combs  and  entrance,  to- 
gether with  the  employment  of  drawn 
combs  In  the  supers — are  supplemented 
by  other  measures  already  mentioned ;  but 
when,  in  addition  to  the  space  between 
the  brood  and  the  flight  hole,  the  pre- 
caution be  taken  to  get  supers  on  in  time, 
to  ventilate  the  hive  well,  and  to  keep 
queens  not  over  two  years  old,  swarming 
will  be  very  limited.  If  to  these  precau- 
tions be  added  that  of  substituting  for 
the  old  queens  young  ones  of  the  current 
season's  raising,  before  swarming  has  be- 
gun, practical  immunity  from  swarming 
is  generally  insured. 

Selection  in  Breeding. — Some  races  of 
bees  show  greater  inclination  than  others 
toward  swarming,  and  the  same  differ- 
ence can  be  noted  between  individual  col- 
onies of  a  given  race;  therefore,  what- 
ever methods  be  adopted  to  prevent  or 
limit  increase,  no  doubt  the  constant  se- 
lection of  those  queens  to  breed  from 
whose  workers  show  the  least  tendency 
toward  swarming  would  in  time  greatly 
reduce  this  disposition. 


590 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Economic  Plants  and  Trees  for  Cultiya- 
tion  for  Honey  and  Pollen 

Except  as  a  means  of  bridging  over 
gaps  in  the  natural  pasturage,  special 
crops  for  honey  alone  are  not  profitable, 
but  where  other  utilities  besides  that  of 
honey  yield  can  be  combined  with  it, 
there  is  some  advantage  to  be  gained. 

Filbert  Bushes. — Useful  for  wind  breaks 
and  for  their  nuts,  yield  pollen  in  Febru- 
ary  and   March. 

Rape. — Can  be  grown  successfully  in 
the  North  for  pasturage,  for  green  manur- 
ing, or  for  seed,  and  when  permitted  to 
blossom  yields  considerable  pollen  and 
honey.  Winter  varieties  are  sown  late 
in  the  summer  or  early  in  the  autumn, 
and  blossom  in  April  or  May  following. 
This  early  yield  forms  an  excellent  stim- 
ulus to  brood  rearing.  Summer  or  bird 
rape,  grown  chiefly  for  its  seed,  blossoms 
about  a  month  after  sowing.  It  does 
best  during  the  cooler  months  of  the 
growing  season. 

Russian  or  Hairy  Tetch. — Is  a  hardy 
leguminous  plant  of  great  value  for  for- 
age and  use  in  green  manuring.  The 
blossoms  appear  early  in  the  season,  and, 
where  there  is  any  lack  in  early  pollen, 
especially  in  northern  and  cool  regions, 
this  vetch  will  be  found  of  great  value 
to  the  bees. 

Fruit  Blossoms. — Apricot,  peach,  pear, 
plum,  cherry,  apple,  currant,  and  goose- 
berry, yield  pollen  and  houey  in  abun- 
dance during  April  or  May;  strawberr.v 
and  blackberry  are  sometimes  visited 
freely  by  bees,  but  are  generally  far  less 
important  than  the  others  mentioned. 
Colonies  that  have  wintered  well  often 
gather  during  apple  bloom  12  to  15 
pounds  of  surplus  honey  of  fine  quality. 
The  raspberry  secretes  a  large  amount  of 
nectar  of  superb  quality,  and  coming  in 
May  or  June,  thus  later  than  the  other 
fruit  blossoms  and  when  the  colonies  are 
stronger  and  the  weather  is  more  settled, 
full  advantage  can  nearly  always  be  taken 
of  this  yield.  Grape  and  persimmon  blos- 
som also  in  June;  the  latter  is  an  excel- 
lent source.  In  subtropical  portions  of 
the  country  orange  and  lemon  trees  yield 
fine  honey  in  March  and  April,  and  the 


cultivation  of  the  banana  has  added  a 
profuse  honey  yielder  which  puts  forth 
successive  blossoms  all  through  the  sum- 
mer  months. 

Locust,  Tulip  Tree  ("poplar,"  or  white- 
wood),  and  Horse-Chestnut. — Useful  for 
shade,  ornament,  and  timber,  are  all  fine 
honey  producers  in  May.  The  locust 
yields  light-colored,  clear  honey  of  fine 
quality,  the  others  amber-colored  honey 
of  good  body  and  fair  flavor. 

Clovers. — Crimson,  blossoming  in  April 
or  May,  yields  fine,  light-colored  honey; 
white,  alsike,  and  mammoth  or  medium, 
blossoming  in  May,  June,  and  July,  give 
honey  of  excellent  quality  and  rich  yel- 
low color. 

Mustard. — Grown  for  seed  flowers  from 
June  to  August.  The  honey  is  somewhat 
acrid  and  crystallizes  soon,  yet  the  plant, 
where  abundant,  is  of  much  importance 
to  the  bees  and  the  bee  keeper  in  case 
other  forage  is  scant  at  the  time. 

Asparagus. — Blossoms  are  much  visited 
by  bees  in  June  and  July. 

Esparcet,  or  Sotnfoin.— Yields  in  May 
and  June  fine  honey,  almost  as  clear  as 
spring  water.  It  is  a  perennial  legumin- 
ous plant,  rather  hardy,  an  excellent  for- 
age crop,  and  particularly  valuable  for 
milch  cows.  It  succeeds  best  on  a  lime- 
stone soil  or  when  lime  is  used  as  a  fer- 
tilizer, and  is  itself  an  excellent  green 
manure  for  soils  deficient  in  nitrogen  and 
phosphoric  acid. 

Sulla,  or  Sjilla  Clover. — A  perennial 
plant,  closely  related  to  esparcet  or  sain- 
foin, succeeds,  like  the  latter,  best  upon 
limestone  soil  or  when  fertilized  with 
lime.  It  yields  a  splendid  quality  of 
honey  from  beautiful  pink  blossoms, 
which  continue  during  May  and  June. 
The  plant  is  an  excellent  soil  fertilizer 
and  of  great  value  in  connection  with 
the  feeding  of  stock,  particularly  dairy 
animals.  It  is,  however,  much  less  hardy 
than  esparcet.  and  success  with  it  can 
therefore  hardly  be  looked  for  above  the 
latitude  of  North  Carolina  and  Arkansas. 
When  the  qualities  and  requirements  of 
this  plant  were  brought  by  the  writer  to 
the  notice  of  a  prominent  scientific  agri- 
culturist   of    the    South,    this    gentleman 


BEES 


591 


suggested  as  very  probable  that  the  black 
belt  of  Alabama.  Mississippi,  Louisiana. 
and  Texas  would  be  well  adapted  to  it. 
the  lands  of  this  region  being  exceedingly 
strong  in  lime.  In  portions  of  Southern 
Europe  sulla  clover  is  a  'most  important 
forage  crop  for  farm  stock  as  well  as  for 
honey  bees. 

Serradella. — Is  an  annual  leguminous 
plant  which  will  grow  on  sandy  land,  and 
which  yields,  besides  good  forage,  clear 
honey  of  good  quality  in  June  and  July. 

Chestnut. — Valuable  for  timber,  orna- 
ment, shade,  and  nuts,  yields  honey  and 
pollen  in  June  or  July. 

Linden.  Sourioood,  and  Catalpa. — Fine 
shade,  ornamental,  and  timber  trees, 
yield  great  quantities  of  first  quality 
honey  in  June  and  July. 

Cotton. — In  the  South  cotton  blossoms. 
appearing  as  they  do  in  succession  dur- 
ing the  whole  summer,  often  yield  con- 
siderable honey.  It  would  appear,  how- 
ever, that  when  the  plants  are  very  rank 
in  growth  the  blossoms — being  corre- 
spondently  large — are  too  deep  for  the 
bees  to  reach  the  nectar. 

Chicory. — Raised  for  salad  and  for  its 
roots,  is,  whenever  permitted  to  blossom, 
eagerly  visited  for  honey  in  July  and 
August. 

Sweet,  MedicinaJ,  and  Pot  Herbs. — Such 
as  marjoram,  savory,  lavender,  catnip, 
balm,  sage,  thyme,  etc.,  when  allowed  to 
blossom,  nearly  all  yield  honey  in  June, 
July,  or  August.  Where  fields  of  them  are 
grown  for  the  seed  the  honey  yield  may 
be  considerable  from  this  source. 

Alfalfa. — Furnishes  in  the  West  a  large 
amount  of  very  fine  honey  during  June 
and  July.  Its  importance  there  as  a  for- 
age crop  is  well  known,  but  how  far 
eastward  its  cultivation  may  be  profitably 
extended  is  still  a  question,  and  even 
should  it  prove  of  value  in  the  East  as  a 
forage  plant,  its  honey-producing  quali- 
ties there  would  be  still  uncertain. 

Parsnips. — When  left  for  seed,  blossom 

freely    from    June    to    August,    inclusive, 

and  are  much  frequented  by  honey  bees. 

Peppermint. — Raised     for     its     foliage, 

from   which  oil   is  distilled,   is  most  fre- 


quently cut  before  the  bees  derive  much 
benefit  from  it.  but  whenever  allowed  to 
blossom  it  is  eagerly  sought  after  by 
them,  and  yields  honey  freely  during 
July  and  August. 

Bokhara,  or  Sweet  Clover.— Is  in  some 
sections  of  the  country  considered  a  val- 
uable forage  crop.  Animals  can  be  taught 
to  like  it,  and  it  is  very  valuable  as  a 
restorer  of  exhausted  lime  soils,  while  in 
regions  lacking  in  bee  pasturage  during 
the  summer  months  it  is  a  very  important 
addition.  It  withstands  drought  remark- 
ably well  and  yields  a  large  quantity  of 
fine  honey. 

Cucumber,  Squash.  Pumpkin  and  Melon. 
— Blossoms  furnish  honey  and  some  pol- 
len to  the  bees  in  July  and  August. 

Eucalypti. — Valuable  for  their  timber 
and  as  ornaments  to  lawn  and  roadside, 
are  quick-growing  trees  adapted  to  the 
southern  portions  of  the  United  States. 
They  yield  much  honey  between  July  and 
October. 

Carob  Tree. — The  cultivation  of  which 
has  been  commenced  in  the  Southwest,  is 
an  excellent  honey  ylelder  in  late  sum- 
mer. It  is  an  ornamental  tree  and  gives, 
in  addition  to  honey,  another  valuable 
product — the  carob  bean  of  commerce. 

Sacaline. — A  forage  and  ornamental 
plant  of  recent  introduction,  is  a  great 
favorite  with  bees.  It  blossoms  profusely 
during  August,  is  a  hardy  perennial,  and 
thrives  in  wet  and  also  fairly  in  dry  situ- 
ations, withstanding  the  ordinary  sum- 
mer drought  of  the  Eastern  states  be- 
cause of  its  deeply  penetrating  roots. 

Buckivheat. — Is  an  important  honey 
and  pollen  producer.  Its  blossoms  ap- 
pear about  four  weeks  after  the  seed  is 
sown,  hence  it  may  be  made  to  fill  in  a 
summer  dearth  of  honey  plants. 

How  to  Obtain  Snrplus  Honey  and  Wax 

Good  wintering,  followed  by  careful 
conservation  of  the  natural  warmth  of 
the  colony,  the  presence  of  a  prolific 
queen — preferably  a  young  one — with 
abundant  stores  for  brood  rearing,  are, 
together  with  the  prevention,  in  so  far 
as  possible,  of  swarming,  the  prime  con- 
ditions   necessary    to    bring   a   colony    of 


592 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


bees  to  the  chief  honey  flow  in  shape  to 
enable  it  to  take  full  advantage  of  the 
harvest. 

Extracted  Honey 

To  secure  extracted  honey,  the  requi- 
site number  of  combs  may  be  in  one  long 
hive,  or  in  stories  one  above  another.  It 
numerous  sets  of  combs  are  at  hand,  or  if 
it  is  desirable  to  have  others  built,  addi- 
tional stories  are  put  on  as  fast  as  the 
combs  already  occupied  by  the  bees  are 
filled.  Before  removing  the  filled  combs 
time  should  be  allowed  the  bees  to  ripen 
and  cap  the  honey;  hence  enough  combs 
are  necessary  to  give  the  bees  storage 
room  while  they  are  capping  others.  The 
honey  in  combs  that  are  quite  or  nearly 
sealed  over  may  be  considered  sufficiently 
ripened  to  be  removed  from  the  hive. 

It  should  also  be  taken  promptly,  in 
order  to  keep  the  various  grades  or  kinds 
separate. 

The  cells  are  uncapped  by  means  of  a 
sharp  knife,  made  especially  for  this  pur- 
pose   (Fig.    6),   and   the   combs   are   then 


Fig.  C.  Quinby  Uncapping  Knife, 
made  to  revolve  rapidly  in  the  honey 
extractor.  The  centrifugal  force  exerted 
on  the  honey  throws  it  out,  leaving  the 
comb  cells  uninjured,  or  so  slightly  in- 
jured that  they  are  wholly  repaired  with- 
in an  hour  or  so  after  the  return  of  the 
comb  to  the  hive.  The  chief  advantages 
of  this  method  of  harvesting  over  that  of 
crushing  the  combs  are  at  once  apparent 
when  it  is  known  that  each  pound  of 
comb  saved  represents  several  pounds  of 
honey  (consumed  in  its  construction), 
and  may,  with  care  be  used  over  almost 
indefinitely  in  securing  surplus  honey. 
Furthermore,  extracted  honey  is  of  much 
finer  quality  than  that  obtained  by  crush- 
ing the  combs  and  straining  out  the  liquid 
part,  since  it  is  free  from  crushed  bees, 
larvae,  pollen  or  "bee  bread,"  etc.,  which 
not  only  render  strained  honey  dark  and 
strong  in  flavor,  but  also  make  it  liable 
to  fermentation  and  souring. 

The  extracted  honey  is   run   into  open 


buckets  or  tanks  and  left,  covered  with 
cheese  cloth,  to  stand  a  week  or  so  in  a 
dry,  warm  room  not  frequented  by  ants. 
It  should  be  skimmed  each  day  until  per- 
fectly clear,  and  is  then  ready  to  be  put 
into  cans  or  barrels  for  marketing,  or  to 
be  stored  in  a  dry  place. 

The  surplus  combs  are  to  be  removed 
at  the  close  of  the  season  and  hung  an 
inch  or  so  apart  on  racks  placed  in  a 
dry,  airy  room,  where  no  artificial  heat 
is  felt.  Moth  larvae  are  not  likely  to 
trouble  them  until  the  following  spring, 
but  upon  the  appearance  of  milder 
weather  their  ravages  will  begin,  and  if 
the  combs  cannot  be  placed  under  the 
care  of  the  bees  at  once  they  must  be 
fumigated  with  burning  sulphur  or  with 
bisulphid  of  carbon. 

Comb  Honey 

The  main  difference  to  be  observed  in 
preparing  colonies  for  the  production  of 
comb  honey,  instead  of  extracted,  is  in 
the  adjustment  of  the  brood  apartment 
at  the  time  the  supers  are  added.  After 
the  colony  has  been  bred  up  to  the  great- 
est possible  strength,  the  brood  apart- 
ment should  be  so  regulated  in  size,  when 
the  honey  flow  begins  and  the  supers  are 
added,  as  to  crowd  many  of  the  bees  out 
and   into  the  supers  placed   above. 

On  each  hive  a  super  is  placed  holding 
24  to  48  sections,  each  section  supplied 
with  a  strip  or  a  full  sheet  of  very  thin 
foundation.  It  is  best  not  to  give  too 
much  space  at  once,  as  considerable 
warmth  is  necessary  to  enable  the  bees  to 
draw  out  foundation  or  to  build  comb 
A  single  set  of  sections  is  usually  suffi' 
cient  at  a  time.  When  the  honey  is  de 
signed  for  home  use  or  for  a  local  market 
half-depth  frames  are  sometimes  used 
the  same  as  those  often  used  above  the 
brood  nests  when  colonies  are  run  for 
extracted  honey,  but  for  the  general  mar- 
ket pound  sections  are  better  adapted. 

It  is  the  practice  of  many  to  have  nice 
white  comb  partially  drawn  out  before 
the  main  honey  flow  begins,  or  even  the 
season  before,  feeding  the  colonies,  if 
necessary,  to  secure  this;  and,  when  the 
honey  yield  begins,  to  supply  sets  of  sec- 
tions with  these  combs  having  cells  deep 


BEES 


593 


enough  for  the  bees  to  begin  storing  in 
as  soon  as  any  honey  is  collected.  Earlier 
work  in  the  sections  is  thus  secured,  and 
this,  as  is  well  known,  is  an  important 
point  in  the  prevention  of  swarming. 
Samuel  Simmins,  of  England,  has  long 
contended  for  this  use  of  partially  drawn 
combs,  and  though  it  forms  a  feature  of 
his  system  for  the  prevention  of  swarm- 
ing it  has  been  too  often  overlooked. 
Comb  foundation  is  now  manufactured 
with  extra  thin  septum  or  base  and  with 
the  beginnings  of  the  cells  marked  out 
by  somewhat  thicker  walls  which  the  bees 
immediately  thin  down,  using  the  extra 
wax  in  deepening  the  cells.  This  is  not 
artificial  comb,  but  a  thin  sheet  of  wax 
having  the  bases  of  the  cells  outlined  on 
it.  Complete  artificial  combs  have  never 
been  used  in  a  commercial  way,  although 
there  exists  a  widespread  belief  to  this 
effect,  which  is  founded  on  extravagant 
claims  that  have  appeared  from  time  to 
time  in  newspaper  articles. 

If  the  brood  apartment  has  been  much 
contracted  when  the  supers  were  added, 
the  queen  may  go  into  the  sections  and 
deposit  eggs  unless  prevented  by  the  in- 
sertion   of    a    queen    excluder    (Fig.    7). 


Fig.  7.     Perforated   Zinc  Queen   Excluder. 

This,  merely  a  sheet  of  zinc  with  perfo- 
rations wiich  permit  workers,  but  not 
the  queen,  to  pass,  is  placed  between  the 
brood  apartment  and  the  supers.  The 
great  inconvenience  of  having  brood  in 
some  of  the  sections  is  thereby  prevented. 
When  the  honey  in  the  sections  has  been 
nearly  capped  over,  the  super  may  be 
lifted  up  and  another  added  between  it 
and    the    brood    apartment.      Or.    should 


the  strength  of  the  colony  not  be  suffi- 
cient, or  the  harvest  not  abundant  enough 
to  warrant  the  giving  of  so  much  space, 
the  sections  which  are  completely  fin- 
ished may  be  removed  and  the  partly 
finished  ones  used  as  "bait  sections"  to 
encourage  work  in  another  set  of  sections 
on  this  hive  or  in  new  supers  elsewhere. 
The  objections  to  the  removal  of  sections 
one  by  one,  and  brushing  the  bees  from 
them,  are  (1)  the  time  it  takes,  and  (2) 
the  danger  that  the  bees  when  disturbed, 
and  especially  if  smoked,  will  bite  open 
the  capping  and  begin  the  removal  of 
the  honey,  thus  injuring  the  appearance 
of   the   completed   sections. 

A  recent  valuable  invention,  the  bee 
escape,  when  placed  between  the  super 
and  the  brood  nest,  permits  the  bees  then 
above  the  escape  to  go  down  into  the 
brood  apartment,  but  does  not  permit 
their  re-entering  the  super.  If  inserted 
12  to  24  hours  before  the  sections  are  to 
be  removed,  the  latter  will  be  found  free 
from  bees  at  the  time  of  removal,  provid- 
ed all  brood  has  been  kept  out  of  the 
supers. 

Grading  and  Shipping  Comb  Honey 

Before  marketing  the  honey  it  should 
be  carefully  graded,  and  all  propolis 
("bee-glue"),  if  there  be  any,  scraped 
from  the  edges  of  the  sections.  In  grad- 
ing for  the  city  markets  the  following 
rules  are,  in  the  main,  observed.  They 
were  adopted  by  the  North  American 
Bee  Keepers'  Association  at  its  twenty- 
third  annual  convention,  held  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  in  December,  1S92,  and  are 
copied  from  the  official  report  of  that 
meeting: 

Fancy. — All  sections  to  be  well  filled; 
combs  straight,  of  even  thickness,  and 
firmly  attached  to  all  four  sides;  both 
wood  and  comb  unsoiled  by  travel  stain 
or  otherwise;  all  cells  sealed  except  the 
row  of  cells  next  to  the  wood. 

No.  1. — All  sections  well  filled,  but  with 
combs  crooked  or  uneven,  detached  at  the 
bottom,  or  with  but  few  cells  unsealed; 
both  wood  and  comb  unsoiled  by  travel 
stain  or  otherwise. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  honey  is  to 
be  classified,  according  to  color,  into  light. 


594 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


amber,  and  dark.  For  instance,  there 
will  be  "fancy  light,"  "fancy  amber,"  and 
"fancy  dark,"  "No.  1  light,"  "No.  1  am- 
ber," and  "No.  1  dark." 

The  sections,  after  grading  and  scrap- 
ing, are  to  be  placed  in  clean  shipping 
cases  having  glass  in  one  or  both  ends. 
Several  of  these  may  be  placed  in  a  single 
crate  for  shipment.  To  prevent  breaking 
down  of  the  combs  it  is  best  to  put  straw 
In  the  bottom  of  the  crate  for  the  ship- 
ping cases  to  rest  on,  and  the  crates 
should  be  so  placed  as  to  keep  the  combs 
in  a  perpendicular  position.  The  crates 
are  also  likely  to  be  kept  right  side  up 
if  convenient  handles  are  attached  to  the 
sides — preferably  strips  with  the  ends 
projecting  beyond  the  corners.  Care  in 
handling  will  generally  be  given  if  the 
glass  in  the  shipping  cases  shows. 

Prodnctton  of  Wax 

No  method  has  yet  been  brought  for- 
ward which  will  enable  one,  at  the  pres- 
ent relative  prices  of  honey  and  wax,  to 
turn  the  whole  working  force  of  the  bees, 


Fig.  8.  Solar  Wax  Extractor. 
or  even  the  greater  part  of  it,  into  the 
production  of  wax  instead  of  honey;  in 
fact,  the  small  amount  of  wax  produced 
incidentally  in  apiaries  managed  for  ex- 
tracted or  for  section  honey  is  usually 
turned  into  honey  the  following  season; 
that  is,  it  is  made  into  comb  foundation, 
which  is  then  employed  in  the  .same  hives 
to  increase  their  yield  of  marketable 
honey.  It  is  even  the  case  that  in  most 
apiaries  managed  on  approved  modern 
methods  more  pounds  of  foundation  are 


employed  than  wax  produced;  hence  less 
progressive  bee  keepers  —  those  who  ad- 
here to  the  use  of  box  hives  and  who  can 
not  therefore  utilize  comb  foundation — 
are  called  upon  for  their  wax  product. 
As  each  pound  of  wax  represents  several 
pounds  of  honey,  all  cappings  removed 
when  preparing  combs  for  the  extractor, 
all  scrapings  and  trimmings  and  bits  of 
drone  comb,  are  to  be  saved  and  ren- 
dered into  wax.  This  is  best  done  in  the 
solar  wax  extractor  (Fig.  S),  the  essen- 
tial parts  of  which  are  a  metal  tank  with 
wire-cloth  strainer  and  a  glass  cover,  the 
latter  generally  made  double.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  metal  tank  is  strewn  with 
pieces  of  comb,  the  glass  cover  adjusted, 
and  the  whole  exposed  to  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun.  A  superior  quality  of  wax 
filters  through  the  strainer. 

The  Wintering'  of  Bees 

How  to  bring  bees  successfully  through 
the  winter  in  the  colder  portions  of  the 
United  States  is  a  problem  which  gives 
anxiety  to  all  who  are  about  to  attempt 
it  for  the  first  time  in  those  sections,  and 
even  many  who  have  kept  bees  for  years 
still  find  it  their  greatest  difficulty.  A 
queen  may  die  and  the  colony  dwindle 
away.  But  care  as  to  ventilation,  damp- 
ness, age  of  the  bees,  etc.,  will  usually 
insure  a  successful  wintering.  Out-of-door 
wintering  is  to  be  preferred  where  the 
climate  is  not  too  sevei'e. 

General    Considerations 

Whatever  method  be  followed  in  win- 
tering, certain  conditions  regarding  the 
colony  itself  are  plainly  essential:  First, 
it  should  have  a  good  queen;  second,  a 
fair-sized  cluster  of  healthy  bees,  neither 
too  old  nor  too  young;  third,  a  plentiful 
supply  of  good  food.  The  first  of  these 
conditions  may  be  counted  as  fulfilled  if 
the  queen  at  the  head  of  the  colony  is 
not  more  than  two  years  old,  is  still 
active,  and  has  always  kept  her  colony 
populous;  yet  a  younger  queen — even  one 
of  the  current  season's  rearing,  and  thus 
but  a  few  weeks  or  months  old — is,  if 
raised  under  favorable  conditions,  much 
to  be  preferred.  The  second  point  is  met 
if  brood  rearing  has  been  continued  with- 


BEES 


595 


out  serious  interruption  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  summer  and  the  cluster  of 
bees  occupies,  on  a  cool  day  in  autumn, 
six  to  eight  or  more  spaces  between  the 
combs,  or  forms  a  compact  cluster  eight 
or  ten  inches  in  diameter.  Young  bees, 
If  not  •well  protected  by  older  ones,  suc- 
cumb readily  to  the  cold,  while  quite  old 
bees  die  early  in  the  spring,  and  others, 
which  emerged  late  in  the  summer  or  au- 
tumn preceding  are  needed  to  replace 
them.  The  third  essential — good  food — 
is  secured  if  the  hive  is  liberally  supplied 
with  well-ripened  honey  from  any  source 
whatever,  or  with  fairly  thick  syrup, 
made  from  white  cane  sugar,  which  was 
fed  early  enough  to  enable  the  bees  to 
seal  it  over  before  they  ceased  flying. 
The  syrup  is  prepared  by  dissolving  three 
pounds  of  granulated  sugar  in  one  quart 
of  boiling  water  and  adding  to  this  one 
pound  of  pure  extracted  honey.  Twenty 
to  25  pounds  for  outdoor  wintering  in 
the  South,  up  to  30  or  40  pounds  in  the 
North,  when  wintered  outside  with  but 
slight  protection — or,  if  wintered  indoors, 
about  20  pounds — may  be  considered  a 
fair  supply  of  winter  food. 

Indoor  Wintering' 

A  dry,  dark  cellar  or  special  repository 
built  in  a  sidehill  or  with  double,  filled 
walls,  like  those  of  an  icehouse,  may  be 
utilized  for  wintering  bees  in  extremely 
cold  climates.  It  should  be  so  built  that 
a  temperature  of  42  to  45  degrees  Fahr- 
enheit (the  air  being  fairly  dry  in  the 
cellar)  can  be  maintained  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  winter.  To  this  end 
it  should  be  well  drained,  furnished  with 
adjustable  ventilators,  and  covered  all 
over  with  earth,  except  the  entrance, 
where  close-fitting  doors,  preferably  three 
of  them,  should  open  in  succession,  so  as 
to  separate  the  main  room  from  the  out- 
side by  a  double  entry  way.  The  col- 
onies, supplied  with  good  queens,  plenty 
of  bees.  20  to  25  pounds  of  stores  each, 
and  with  chaff  cushions  placed  over  the 
frames,  are  carried  in  shortly  before  snow 
and   severe   freezing  weather  come. 

Any  repository  which  is  damp  or  one 
whose  temperature  falls  below  freezing 
or  remains  long  below  38  degrees  Fahren- 


heit is  not  a  suitable  place  in  which  to 
winter  bees.  When  in  repositories,  the 
bees  have  no  opportunity  for  a  cleansing 
flight,  nor  do  they,  when  the  temperature 
rises  outside,  always  warm  up  sufficiently 
to  enable  the  cluster  to  move  from  combs 
from  which  the  stores  have  been  exhaust- 
ed to  full  ones,  hence  in  a  cold  repository 
they  may  possibly  starve  with  plenty  of 
food  in  the  hive.  As  a  rule,  colonies 
would  be  better  off  out  of  doors  on  their 
summer  stands  than  in  such  places. 

Outdoor  Wintering: 

Cold  and  dampness  are  the  great  winter 
enemies  of  bee  life.  A  single  bee  can 
withstand  very  little  cold,  but  a  good 
cluster,  if  all  other  conditions  are  favor- 
able, can  defy  the  most  rigorous  winters 
of  our  coldest  states.  But  if  not  thor- 
oughly dry,  even  a  moderate  degree  of 
cold  is  always  injurious,  if  not  absolutely 
fatal.  Dampness  in  winter  is  therefore 
the  most  dangerous  element  with  which 
the  bee  keeper  has  to  contend.  The  mat- 
ter would,  of  course,  be  quite  simple  if 
only  that  dampness  which  might  come 
from  the  outside  were  to  be  considered, 
but  when  the  air  of  the  hive,  somewhat 
warmed  by  the  bees  and  more  or  less 
charged  with  the  moisture  of  respiration, 
comes  in  contact  with  hive  walls  or  comb 
surfaces  made  cold  by  outside  air,  con- 
densation takes  place,  and  the  moisture 
trickles  over  the  cold  surfaces  and  cluster 
of  bees,  saturating  the  air  about  them  or 
even  drenching  them,  unless  by  forming 
a  very  compact  cluster  they  are  able  to 
prevent  it  from  penetrating,  or  by  greater 
activity  to  raise  the  temperature  suflS- 
ciently  to  evaporate  the  surplus  moisture, 
or  at  least  that  portion  near  them.  But 
this  greater  activity  is,  of  course,  at  the 
expense  of  muscular  power  and  requires 
the  consumption  of  nitrogenous  as  well 
as  carbonaceous  food.  Increased  cold  or 
its  long  continuance  greatly  aggravates 
conditions. 

Nature  has  provided  that  the  accumula- 
tion of  waste  products  in  the  body  of  the 
bee  during  its  winter  confinement  should 
be  small  under  normal  conditions,  but 
unusual  consumption  of  food,  especially 
of  a  highly  nitrogenous  nature  like  pollen. 


596 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


necessitates  a  cleansing  flight,  or  diar- 
rheal difficulties  ensue,  combs  and  hives 
are  soiled,  the  air  of  the  hive  becomes 
polluted,  and  at  last  the  individual  bees 
become  too  weak  to  generate  proper 
warmth  or  drive  off  the  surplus  moisture 
which  then  invades  the  cluster  and 
brings  death  to  the  colony;  or,  what  is 
more  frequently  the  case,  a  cold  snap 
destroys  the  last  remnant  of  the  colony, 
which  has  been  reduced  by  constant  loss 
of  bees  impelled  by  disease  to  leave  the 
cluster  or  even  to  venture  out  for  a  cleans- 
ing flight  when  snows  and  great  cold 
prevail. 

The  problem  then  is:  To  retain  the 
warmth  generated  by  the  bees,  which  is 
necessary  to  their  well-being,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of 
moisture  in  the  hive.  A  simple  opening 
at  the  top  of  the  hive  would  permit  much 
of  the  moisture  to  pass  off,  but  of  course 
heat  would  escape  with  it  and  a  draft 
would  be  produced.  Absorbent  material 
about  the  cluster  creates,  without  free 
ventilation,  damp  surroundings,  and 
again  the  temperature  is  lowered.  It  is 
only  necessary,  however,  to  surround  the 
bees  with  sufficient  material  to  protect 
them  fully  against  the  greatest  cold  likely 
to  occur,  and  to  take  care  also  that  this 
enveloping  material  is  of  such  a  nature 
and  so  disposed  as  to  permit  the  free 
passage  of  the  moisture  which  would 
otherwise  collect  in  the  Interior  of  the 
hive,  and  to  permit  the  escape  into  the 
surrounding  atmosphere  of  such  moisture 
as  enters  this  material  from  within.  This 
packing  should  also  be  fully  protected 
from  outside  moisture. 

South  of  Virginia.  Kentucky,  and  Kan- 
sas single-walled  hives  may  be  employed 
in  most  localities  with  good  success  in 
outdoor  wintering.  On  the  approach  of 
the  cool  or  the  rainy  season  a  close-fitting 
quilt  should  be  laid  over  the  frames  and 
several  folded  newspapers  pressed  down 
on  this,  or  a  cushion  filled  with  dry  chaff 
or  some  other  soft  material  may  be  used 
instead  of  paper.  The  cover  or  roof 
should  be  absolutely  rainproof,  yet  be- 
tween this  cover  and  the  cushion  or 
papers  should  be  several  inches  of  space 


with  free  circulation  of  air.  In  order  to 
permit  this  ventilation  above  the  top 
packing,  the  cover  should  not  rest  upon 
the  cap  or  upper  story  all  of  the  way 
around,  or  if  it  does,  an  auger  hole  in 
each  end,  protected  by  wire  cloth  against 
the  entrance  of  mice,  should  give  free 
passage  to  the  air.  In  the  more  northern 
portion  of  the  section  referred  to  some 
further  protection  is  advisable,  and  is 
really  necessary  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  the  same  territory  if  the  best 
results  are  to  be  obtained.  Farther  north, 
and  especially  in  the  cold  Northwest, 
much  greater  protection  becomes  an  abso- 
lute necessity.  Quilts  with  newspapers 
or  thin  packing  above  do  not  alone  suf- 
fice. The  side  walls  of  the  hive  may  be 
made  of  pressed  straw.  These,  with  top 
packing,  if  kept  dry  outside,  are  excel- 
lent for  outdoor  wintering,  even  in  cli- 
mates so  cold  that  ordinary  wooden  hives 
do  not  afford  sufficient  protection. 

In  the  severest  climates,  however,  still 
greater  protection  on  all  sides  of  the  col- 
ony is  needed,  and  packing  with  chaff  or 
other  soft  material  is  decidedly  the  best 
plan.     The  thickness  of  this  surrounding 
packing   should    be    from    two    inches    to 
eight   or   ten   inches    for   single   colonies, 
according  to  the  severity  of  the  climate, 
but  if  four  or  more  colonies  are  grouped 
for  the  winter,  so  as  to  make  the  natural 
warmth     generated     mutually     advanta- 
geous, somewhat  less  packing  will  be  suf- 
ficient.     A    most    important    point    is    to 
have   the   soft  warmth-retaining   packing 
come  in  close  contact  with  the  edges  of 
the  combs,  and  above  all  not  to  have  a 
hive   wall,  either  thick  or  thin,   between 
this  material  and  the  bees.     A  good  plan 
is    to    construct    an    open    framework    or 
skeleton  hive  of  laths,  cover  it  with  sack- 
ing, or,  preferably,  some  less  fuzzy  cloth 
which  the  bees  will  not  gnaw,  and  after 
placing  it  in  an  outer  wooden  case  large 
enough  every  way  to  admit  of  the  neces- 
sary packing  about  the  colony,  to  fill  in  on 
all  sides  with  some  dry,  porous  material. 
If  the  frames  are  shallow,  like  the  Lang- 
stroth,  it  is  better  to  construct  the  inner 
case  so  as  to  place  them  on  end,  and  thus 
give  a  deeper  comb  for  the  winter.  Layers 


BEES 


597 


of  newspapers  may  come  next  outside  the 
cloth  covering  of  the  framework.  Wheat 
chaff  answers  well  to  complete  the  pack- 
ing. AVool  is  to  be  preferred,  but  is  of 
course  too  expensive  unless  a  waste 
product.  Ground  cork,  waste  flax,  hemp, 
sawdust,  etc.,  in  fact,  any  fine  porous  ma- 
terial, if  thoroughly  dry,  may  be  used. 

A  board  passageway  three  or  four 
inches  wide  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
high  should  connect  this  inner  apartment 
and  the  flight  hole  of  the  outer  case,  thus 
affording  an  exit  for  the  bees  whenever 
the  weather  may  permit  them  to  fly. 
When  these  preparations  have  been  com- 
pleted, the  hive  is  ready  for  the  combs, 
which,  with  adhering  bees,  are  taken 
from  the  summer  hive  and  inserted  in 
the  winter  hive.  A  quilt  is  then  laid  on 
the  frames  and  the  top  packing  put  on. 
This,  for  convenience,  may  be  held  in  a 
cloth-bottomed  tray.  It  is  quite  impor- 
tant as  already  mentioned,  that  air  be 
allowed  to  circulate  freely  above  the 
packing.  The  outside  case  must  be  quite 
rainproof  or  else  wholly  protected  from 
the  rain  by  a  roof. 

All  other  necessary  conditions  having 
been  complied  with  shortly  after  the 
gathering  season  closed,  the  combs  may 
be  lifted  from  the  summer  hives  and 
placed  in  these  specially  arranged  winter 
cases  before  cold  weather  wholly  stops 
the  bees  from  flying  out.  Thus  prepared 
for  the  winter  the  colonies  will  need  but 
slight  attention  from  October  until 
March,  or,  in  the  North,  even  later,  and 
the  losses  will  be  limited  to  the  small  per- 
centage of  cases  due  to  failure  of  appar- 
ently good  queens. 

The  Risk  of  Loss  Tbrongli  Disease  and 
Enemies 

Winter  losses  through  disease  superin- 
duced by  unfavorable  surroundings  which 
it  is  within  the  power  of  the  bee  keeper 
to  avoid  have  already  been  considered. 
But  one  other  very  serious  disease  has 
been  widespread. 

Foul  Brood  or  Baeillns  of  tbe  Hive 

This  is  a  highly  contagious  affection 
which,  as  it  mainly  affects  the  developing 
brood  in  the  cells,  is  commonly  known  as 
"foul    brood."     It    is    due    to    a    microbe 


(Bacillus  alvei)  whose  spores  are  easily 
transported  from  hive  to  hive  by  the  bees 
themselves,  by  the  operator,  in  honey,  or 
in  combs  changed  from  one  hive  to  an- 
other. Once  established  in  an  apiary,  it 
usually  spreads,  unless  speedily  and  ener- 
getically checked,  until  all  of  the  colonies 
in  the  neighborhood  are  ruined  and  even 
exterminated.  The  most  apparent  symp- 
toms are  the  turning  black  of  larvae  in 
open  cells,  many  sealed  cells  with  sunken 
caps,  frequently  broken  in  and  containing 
dead  larvae  or  pupae  in  a  putrid  condi- 
tion, brown  or  coffee-colored,  jelly-like  or 
ropy  in  consistency,  and  giving  off  an 
offensive  odor.  The  disease,  though  known 
to  exist  in  nearly  all  countries,  can  hardly 
be  said  to  be  common.  The  writer,  in  an 
experience  of  over  30  years  in  bee  keeping 
in  several  states  of  the  Union,  as  well  as 
in  a  number  of  foreign  countries,  has 
met  the  disease  but  rarely,  and  has  had 
but  one  experience  with  it  in  his  own 
apiary,  it  having  been  in  this  instance 
brought  in  by  a  neighbor  who  purchased 
bees  at  a  distance.  It  was  easily  cured, 
without  great  loss.  Thus  the  beginner's 
risks  of  disaster  in  this  direction  are,  if 
he  be  forewarned,  comparatively  small. 
He  may,  furthermore,  gain  assurance 
from  the  fact  that,  should  the  disease  in- 
vade his  apiary,  prompt  and  intelligent 
action   will  prevent  serious  loss. 

The  following  is  the  treatment  for  a 
colony  which  still  has  sufficient  strength 
of  numbers  to  be  worth  saving:  The  bees 
are  to  be  shaken  from  their  combs  just 
at  nightfall  into  an  empty  box,  which  is 
to  be  removed  at  once  to  a  cool,  dark 
place.  They  are  to  be  confined  to  the 
box,  but  it  must  be  well  ventilated 
through  openings  covered  with  wire  cloth. 
During  the  first  48  hours  no  food  should 
be  given  to  them,  and  during  the  second 
48  hours  onl.v  a  small  amount  of  medicat- 
ed syrup — a  half  pint  daily  for  a  small 
colony  to  a  pint  for  a  strong  one.  This 
food  is  prepared  by  adding  one  part  of 
pure  carbolic  acid  or  phenol  to  600  or  700 
parts  of  sugar  syrup  or  honey.  At  the 
end  of  the  fourth  day  the  bees  are  to  be 
shaken  into  a  clean  hive  supplied  with 
starters  of  comb  foundation.  This  hive  is 
to  be  placed  outside  on  a  stand  some  dis- 


598 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


tance  from  all  other  colonies,  and  moder- 
ate feeding  with  medicated  syrup  or 
honey  should  be  continued  for  a  few  days 
thereafter. 

The  combs  of  diseased  colonies  which 
contain  brood  may  be  assembled  over  a 
single  one  of  these  colonies,  or,  if  the 
amount  of  brood  be  too  great  for  one 
colony  to  care  for,  over  several  such  dis- 
eased colonies,  until  the  young  bees  have 
emerged.  All  of  the  honey  is  then  to  be 
extracted.  While  it  is  wholesome  as  food, 
it  should  not  be  offered  for  sale,  lest  some 
of  it  be  used  in  feeding  bees  or  be  in- 
advertently exposed  where  foraging  bees 
might  find  it  and  carry  to  their  hives  the 
germs  of  this  disease,  harmless  to  other 
creatures  but  so  fatal  to  bee  life.  A  good 
use  for  this  honey  is  to  employ  it  in  mak- 
ing vinegar. 

If  the  honey  containing  the  germs  is 
to  be  used  for  feeding  bees,  it  is  to  be 
diluted  with  half  its  own  quantity,  by 
measure,  of  water  and  kept  at  the  boiling 
point  for  three  hours  in  a  water  bath — a 
vessel  within  another  containing  water. 

The  combs  frcm  which  the  honey  has 
been  extracted,  as  well  as  all  of  the 
pieces  built  by  the  bees  during  their  four 
days'  confinement,  may  be  melted  into 
wax,  by  thorough  boiling  in  soft  water. 
This  wax  should  be  kept  liquid  for  48 
hours  or  longer,  to  allow  all  impurities 
to  settle.  These  will  include  the  foul 
brood  spores,  which  may  then  be  removed 
with  the  impure  wax  by  scraping  or  cut- 
ting away  the  bottom  of  the  cake.  These 
scrapings  should  be  burned.  The  same 
disposition  had  better  be  made  of  the 
frames  from  which  the  combs  containing 
germs  were  removed. 

In  all  of  this  work  the  utmost  care 
should  be  exercised  to  avoid  the  dripping 
of  honey  about  the  apiary  or  the  exposure 
of  implements,  receptacles,  or  combs 
smeared  with  or  containing  honey  from 
the  diseased  colonies.  The  old  hive  and 
all  utensils  used  about  the  diseased  col- 
ony should  be  disinfected  by  washing  in 
a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  If  it 
be  found  that  the  diseased  colonies  are 
weak  in  numbers  and  seem,  therefore, 
individually  hardly  worth  saving,  several 


colonies  may  be  smoked  and  shaken  to- 
gether into  the  same  box  to  make  a  single 
strong  colony,  the  best  queen  of  the  lot 
having  been  selected  and  caged  in  the 
box  in  such  a  way  that  the  workers  can 
release  her  within  a  few  hours  by  eating 
through  candy. 

Bee  Paralysis 

Among  other  diseases  of  a  bacterial 
nature  paralysis  is  most  noticeable,  al- 
though not  to  be  dreaded  as  foul  brood. 
It  affects  the  adult  bees  only,  producing 
a  paralyzed  condition  of  their  members 
and  a  swelling  up  of  their  bodies.  The 
source  from  which  the  bees  obtain  the 
original  infection  is  unknown,  but,  once 
in  the  apiary,  it  is  spread  mainly  by  the 
entrance  of  affected  workers  into  healthy 
colonies,  and  probably  also  by  the  visits 
which  bees  from  healthy  colonies  make  to 
the  diseased  ones,  the  latter  often  being 
so  weakened  in  numbers  as  to  be  unable 
to  protect  their  stores  from  healthy  bees 
out  on  robbing  expeditions. 

Ordinary  paralysis  may  generally  be 
cured  by  strewing  powdered  sulphur  over 
the  combs,  bees,  and  along  the  top  bars 
of  the  frames,  the  precaution  first  having 
been  taken  of  removing  all  unsealed 
brood.  This  brood  would  be  killed  by  the 
application  of  sulphur,  but  as  there  is  no 
danger  whatever  of  spreading  the  disease 
by  the  transfer  of  brood  or  honey  from 
one  hive  to  another,  provided  absolutely 
every  one  of  the  adult  bees  has  first  been 
shaken  or  brushed  from  the  combs,  the 
latter  may  be  given  to  healthy  colonies 
which    need   strengthening. 

Another  simple  plan  for  getting  rid  of 
the  disease  and  yet  utilizing  the  available 
strength  of  the  affected  colonies  is  to  close 
their  hives  at  night  and  move  them  a 
mile  or  more,  locating  them,  if  possible, 
outside  of  the  range  of  other  bees.  As 
the  brood  in  these  colonies  remains 
healthy  all  that  is  sealed  or  even  well 
advanced  in  the  larval  stage  may  have 
the  bees  shaken  from  it  and  be  distributed 
among  the  remaining  colonies  of  the 
apiary.  The  bees  of  the  diseased  col- 
onies thus  become  rapidly  reduced  in  num- 
bers, and  several  of  the  colonies  them- 
selves may  soon  be  combined,   the  best 


BEES 


599 


queen  being  selected  to  continue  egg  lay- 
ing. Eventually  the  diseased  apiary  be- 
comes, by  the  removal  of  the  developing 
brood  and  the  death  of  the  old  bees,  re- 
duced to  nothing.  None  of  the  queens 
should  be  saved  nor  should  any  of  the 
adult  workers  be  returned  to  the  healthy 
apiary. 

A  combination  of  the  sulphur  cure  with 
the  last  plan  mentioned — that  of  getting 
rid  of  the  disease  through  the  removal  of 
brood  combs  from  affected  colonies — is 
really,  all  in  all.  the  best  procedure.  When 
a  fairly  strong  colony  has  been  made  up 
by  shaking  the  adult  bees  of  two  or  more 
together  and  this  removed  to  an  isolated 
locality,  the  application  of  sulphur  may 
be  made  before  any  brood  has  been  start- 
ed. It  is  well,  also,  to  replace  the  queen 
with  a  vigorous  one  from  slock  entirely 
unrelated  to  the  diseased  bees.  Should 
any  signs  of  the  disease  reappear,  con- 
stant removal  of  the  brood  should  be  fol- 
lowed, as  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
paragraph. 

Other  bacterial  diseases,  though  exist- 
ing, have  developed  only  very  locally  or 
have  been  too  limited  in  the  amount  of 
injury  inflicted  to  require  special  mention 
here. 

Insect  and  Other  Enemies 

The  bee  or  wax  moth  (Galleria  tnellon- 
eUa  Linn.)  is  regarded  by  those  unfamil- 
iar with  modern  methods  in  bse  keeping 
as  a  very  serious  enemy  to  success  in 
this  work.  It  was  frequently  such  when 
only  the  common  black  bee  was  kept  and 
the  old  way  of  managing,  or  rather  of 
trusting  to  luck,  was  followed.  But  w'ith 
the  better  races  now  introduced  and  with 
improved  hives  and  methods,  and  espe- 
cially with  the  care  that  is  now  given  to 
have  no  colonies  queenless  long  at  a  time, 
the  wax-moth  larvae  are  no  longer  re- 
garded with  great  concern. 

Spiders,  toads,  and  lizards  destroy,  in 
addition  to  many  injurious  insects,  also 
some  bees,  and  should  be  tolerated  in  the 
vegetable  garden  rather  than  in  the 
apiary. 

Swallows,  kingbirds  or  bee  martins, 
mice,  skunks,  and  bears  only  occasionally 
commit  depredations  in  the  apiary. 


Properly  constructed  hives  enable  the 
bees  to  limit  in  a  great  measure  the  in- 
jury which  these  various  enemies  might 
inflict,  and  the  avoidance  of  overswarm- 
ing,  with  care  to  insure  the  constant  pres- 
ence of  a  prolific  queen  and  a  supply  of 
food  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  colony  at 
the  time,  will  keep  it  populous  and  there- 
fore in  shape  to  repel  attacks  or  to  make 
good  most  of  the  unavoidable  losses. 

Eohber  Bees 

Robbing  is  sometimes  a  more  serious 
matter,  although  a  little  careful  attention 
just  at  the  right  time  on  the  part  of  the 
bee  keeper  would  avoid  all  serious  trouble 
on  this  score.  When  bees  find  nothing  to 
gather  during  weather  when  they  can  still 
fly  out  they  are  easily  tempted  to  appro- 
priate the  stores  of  weaker  colonies.  Ex- 
posure of  combs  of  honey  at  such  times 
may  even  occasion  a  combined  attack 
upon  a  good  colony  otherwise  quite  able 
to  take  care  of  itself.  It  is  then  that  the 
greatest  destruction  ensues,  for  such  a 
colony  will  defend  itself  vigorously,  and 
a  pitched  battle,  with  perhaps  50,000  or 
60,000  Amazons  on  either  side,  leaves  the 
ground  literally  strewn  with  dead  and 
dying. 

If  the  invaders  conquer,  every  drop 
of  honey  is  taken  from  the  few  vanquish- 
ed that  are  likely  to  be  still  alive;  and 
in  turn  the  despoilers  invariably  fight 
among  themselves  as  to  the  possession  of 
the  booty.  When  the  robbing  takes  place 
during  the  absence  of  the  owner,  the  con- 
dition of  the  robbed  colony  may  not  at- 
tract immediate  attention,  and  during 
warm  weather  moth  larvae  gain  full  pos- 
session of  the  combs  within  a  few  days. 
When  this  condition  is  observed,  the 
whole  damage  is  very  likely  to  be  at- 
tributed to  the  moth  larvae.  Colonies 
that  have  been  left  queenless  for  some 
time,  and  those  weakened  by  disease  or 
by  overswarming,  are  especial  marks  for 
such  attacks.  Of  course  these  defects 
should  be  remedied  whenever  observed, 
but  meanwhile,  if  legitimate  field  work 
is  likely  to  be  interrupted,  every  colony 
should    be    assisted    in    protecting    itself 


600 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


against  assault  by  having  Its  hive  made 
secure  and  the  entrance  such  a  narrow 
pass  as  to  enable  a  few  workers  to  re- 
pel attack  there. 

Should  robbers  get  well  started  before 
being  observed,  the  entrance  of  the  hive 
should  be  narrowed  at  once,  and  wet  grass 
or  weeds  may  be  thrown  loosely  over  it, 
or  a  pane  of  glass  may  be  stood  against 
the  front  of  the  hive  in  a  slanting  man- 
ner to  confuse  the  intruders.  In  ex- 
treme cases  the  attacked  colonies  may  be 
removed  to  a  cellar  for  a  few  days,  plenty 
of  ventilation  being  given  during  con- 
finement, and  a  new  location,  apart  from 
other  colonies,  selected,  on  which  they 
are  to  be  placed  just  at  nightfall:  or.  in- 
stead of  putting  them  in  the  cellar,  they 
may  be  taken  a  mile  or  more  away  and 
returned  only  when  the  danger  has  passed. 
With  these  precautions,  little  loss  is  to  be 
feared  on  this  score. 

In  general,  the  intelligent  owner  who 
gives  careful  attention  to  certain  impor- 
tant points  in  bee  management  finds  that 
he  very  rarely  has  disease  to  contend 
with,  and  that  the  reduction  of  profits 
through  the  depredations  of  bee  enemies 
is  not.  in  most  parts  of  the  Union,  a  seri- 
ous discouragement.  Altogether  it  seems 
to  the  writer  that  the  risks  in  these  di- 
rections are  even  less  in  bee  keeping  than 
those  usually  met  in  the  keeping  of  other 
animals,  which,  like  bees,  are  legitimate- 
ly made  to  contribute  to  the  wealth  of 
the  individual  and  of  the  nation. 

Journals  Treating  of  .tpiciiltiire 

As  a  matter  of  general  information,  the 
following  list  of  journals  relating  to  api- 
culture is  given.  It  comprises  all  those 
published  in  this  country  at  the  present 
time. 

The  American  Bee  Journal,  Chicago.  111. 

Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture,  Medina,  Ohio. 

The  Bee  Keepers'  Review.  Flint,  Mich. 

The  American  Bee  Keeper,  Falconer, 
N.   Y. 

The  Progressive  Bee  Keeper.  Higgins- 
vllle.  Mo. 

Western  Bee  Journal,  Kingsburg,  Cal. 

The  Rural  Bee  Keeper,  River  Falls.  Wis. 


Beets 

The  beet  is  used  as  a  garden  vegetable, 
for  feeding  stock,  and  making  sugar. 
There  are  about  40  varieties  of  the  beet 
in  cultivation  in  the  United  States  rang- 
ing in  color  from   deep  red  to  white. 

The  Sngar  Beel 

The  cultivation  of  the  sugar  beet  in  the 
United  States,  for  the  manufacture  of 
sugar,  is  one  of  the  important  industries. 
The  variety  grown  for  this  purpose,  is 
generally  the  Beta  maritima.  In  the 
earlier  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  in 
Europe,  the  beet  only  yielded  about  4. -5 
per  cent  sugar  for  the  red  variety,  and 
6.2  per  cent  for  the  white.  At  the  pres- 
ent time,  the  varieties  have  been  so  im- 
proved by  the  selection  of  seed,  by 
manuring  and  the  careful  selection  of 
soil,  that  they  now  yield  from  10  per 
cent,  to  13  per  cent  sugar.  In  some 
parts  of  the  country,  the  average  weight 
of  beets  per  acre,  has  been  as  high  as 
26  tons,  and  the  average  percentage  of 
sugar  in  the  juice,  as  high  as  16  per 
cent.  After  the  sugar  is  extracted,  it  is 
common  to  use  the  pulp  as  food  for  stock. 

Garden  Beets 

Among  the  varieties  of  garden  beets  are 
the  following: 

Eclipse. — A  very  early,  dark-red,  turnip 
shaped  variety,  of  good  quality,  a  favor- 
ite with  market  gardeners,  may  be  plant- 
ed early  in  spring,  and  at  almost  any 
time  during  the  later  season. 

Early  Turnip  Beet.  Baastions. — A  valu- 
able early  variety,  sweet,  tender,  and  one 
of  the  best  for  early  and  late  planting. 

Eoyptian. — A  good  variety  for  early 
spring  sowing. 

De wing's  Improved  Blood  Turnip  Beet. 
— -A  first  class  beet,  for  winter  or  sum- 
mer use. 

Stock  Beets 

These  varieties  are  very  prolific,  yield 
heavily  per  acre,  and  require  a  rich  deep 
soil. 

Planting 

The  seed  may  be  sown  in  hot  beds  for 
early  planting,  or  it  may  be  sown  in  the 
open   ground   and   the  plants   removed  to 


BEETS 


601 


the  field  or  garden;  or  it  may  be  sown  in 
the  rows  where  the  beets  are  to  grow.  In 
this  case  it  should  be  sown  in  sufficient 
quantities,  so  that  the  plants  may  be 
thinned  to  the  proper  distance  apart.  In 
the  garden,  the  seeds  are  generally  sown 
in  drills,  about  15  inches  apart,  and  the 
plants  thinned  to  about  8  inches.  The 
stock  beets  and  sugar  beets,  growing  to 
much  larger  size,  must  be  planted  farther 
apart.  The  ground  should  be  rich  and 
loose,  because  the  beet  is  a  heavy  feeder, 
and  requires  a  fertile  soil.  In  the  arid 
regions  where  irrigation  is  practiced, 
where  the  alkali  leaches  from  the  soil  and 
is  deposited  on  the  low  lands,  it  has  been 
demonstrated  that  sugar  beets  and  stock 
beets  will  stand  a  much  larger  content 
of  alkali,  than  most  other  crops;  there- 
fore lands  that  have  been  abandoned  for 
general  farming,  because  they  were  too 
strong  in  alkali  to  grow  crops  successful- 
ly, have  proven  to  be  valuable  for  the 
growing  of  sugar  beets. 

Tarieties 

Eclipse,  Edmund  Blood  Turnip.  Crosby's 
Egyptian.  Blood  Red,  Dreer  Excelsior. 

Gr.\XVII.LE    Lo^VTHEB 

Sugar  Beet  Growing  Under  Irrigation 

C.    O.    TOWNSEND 

Pathologist,    Cotton    and    Truck    Disease 
and  Sugar  Plant  Investigations 

Introduction 

The  present  sugar  beet  belt  of  the 
United  States,  that  is,  the  area  within 
which  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions 
admit  of  the  successful  production  of 
sugar  beets  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar, 
extends  entirely  across  the  northern  por- 
tion of  this  country.  The  present  south- 
ern boundary  of  this  area  is  a  some- 
what indefinite  and  irregular  line  that 
may  be  said  to  extend  from  Virginia  on 
the  east  to  the  southern  part  of  Cali- 
fornia on  the  west.  Efforts  are  being 
made  to  extend  this  line  farther  south, 
thereby  increasing  the  productive  sugar 
beet  area.  This  can  undoubtedly  be  ac- 
complished with  an  increased  knowledge 
of  the  requirement  of  the  sugar  beet  plant 
combined   with   its   wide   range  of  adapt- 


ability. As  it  is  at  present  this  belt  is 
capable  of  maintaining  hundreds  of  sugar 
beet  mills,  the  output  of  which  would 
supply  this  country  with  the  millions  of 
pounds  of  sugar  required  for  home  con- 
sumption. A  study  of  the  great  variety 
of  soil  and  climatic  conditions  under 
which  sugar  beets  thrive  illustrates  and 
emphasizes  the  wonderful  adaptability  of 
this  remarkable  plant  to  the  wide  range 
of  conditions  under  which  it  may  profit- 
ably be  produced. 

This  article  will  be  confined  to  a  con- 
sideration of  the  conditions  and  cultural 
methods  employed  in  those  areas  where 
there  is  an  insufficient  precipitation  for 
the  profitable  production  of  sugar  beets, 
namely,  the  central,  western  and  south- 
western portions  of  the  United  States. 

Selection  of  Soil 

In  the  irrigated  portion  of  the  sugar 
beet  belt  there  is  a  great  variety  of  soils, 
varying  from  the  distinctly  sandy  type 
through  the  sandy  and  clay  loams,  the 
silt,  and  volcanic  ash  to  the  heavy  black 
adobe.  In  the  selection  of  soil  for  sugar 
beet  culture  it  is  safe  to  say  that  any  of 
the  soil  types  that  are  capable  of  pro- 
ducing good  crops  of  other  kinds  will 
produce  satisfactory  beets. 

The  principal  factors  to  be  considered 
are  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil, 
the  way  in  which  it  has  been  previously 
handled,  and  the  climatic  conditions. 
Much  more  depends  upon  these  factors 
than  upon  the  kind  or  type  of  soil  to 
be  used.  The  physical  condition  of  the 
soil  depends  to  a  considerable  extent 
upon  the  previous  crops  and  the  way  in 
which  the  soil  has  been  handled.  The 
soil  should  be  well  supplied  with  humus, 
not  only  to  Insure  its  fertility  but  to  im- 
prove its  water-holding  capacity.  The 
previous  cropping  should  have  been  such 
that  the  ground  is  in  good  tilth  and  rea- 
sonably free  from  pests  that  are  capable 
of  injuring  sugar  beets.  The  soil  should 
be  well  drained,  either  naturally  or  ar- 
tificially, in  order  to  prevent  water-log- 
ging, and  the  ground  should  be  kept 
sweet  and  at  the  same  time  free  from  an 
excess  of  alkali.  Most  of  the  western 
soils  are  well  supplied  with  lime,  but  an 


602 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


occasional  application  will  in  some  cases 
be  found  beneficial. 

Extremely  sandy  soils  should  not  be  se- 
lected tor  sugar  beet  growing,  especial- 
ly in  localities  where  high  winds  prevail 
in  the  spring.  The  adobe  and  silty  soils 
should  be  handled  with  considerable  care 
to  prevent  baking  and  crusting.  It  is 
generally  assumed  that  new  sod  ground 
is  not  suitable  for  beets,  but  experience 
has  shown  that  good  results  may  be  ob- 
tained from  our  western  virgin  soils.  If 
such  ground  is  to  be  planted  to  beets  the 
sod  should  be  broken  in  the  summer,  the 
ground  fall  plowed,  worked  down,  and 
kept  moist  so  that  the  sod  will  rot. 

The  kind  and  location  of  the  subsoil 
are  always  important  factors.  In  some 
cases  the  subsoil  is  very  porous.  This  con- 
dition can  be  relieved  to  some  extent  by 
increasing  the  humus  supply  in  the  soil 
and  by  giving  special  attention  to  firm- 
ing the  seed  and  root  beds  in  order  that 
their  water-holding  capacity  may  be  in- 
creased. If  the  subsoil  is  extremely  por- 
ous and  deep,  it  would  not  be  advisable 
to  use  the  soil  for  beet  culture. 

If  the  hardpan  is  close  to  the  surface, 
so  that  there  is  not  sufficient  depth  of 
soil  to  produce  sugar  beets,  the  field 
should  not  be  used.  If  a  good  soil  to  the 
depth  of  18  inches  or  more  covers  the 
hardpan,   it  will   be   safe. 

Climatic  Conditions 

The  principal  climatic  factors  which 
have  a  direct  bearing  upon  sugar  beet 
culture  are  temperature,  precipitation, 
and  winds.  A  study  of  the  most  success- 
ful sugar  beet  localities  of  the  world  leads 
to  the  conclusion  that  beets  of  the  best 
quality  can  not  be  grown  where  the  aver- 
age temperature  for  the  season  when  the 
beets  are  being  grown  is  much  above  70 
degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Low  temperatures  are  most  likely  to  be 
injurious  to  sugar  beets  when  the  plant- 
lets  are  just  breaking  through  the  ground, 
but  after  the  roots  are  established  in  the 
soil  they  rapidly  become  hardy  and  re- 
sistant to  frost  to  a  marked  degree.  A 
killing  frost  when  the  beets  are  coming 
up  often  necessitates  the  expense  and 
labor  of  replanting. 


The  great  danger  from  low  tempera- 
tures at  the  end  of  the  growing  season 
is  that  the  beets  may  be  frozen  in  the 
ground.  To  avoid  this  danger  and  the 
consequent  loss  that  might  result  from 
such  a  condition  it  is  advisable  to  get 
the  beets  out  of  the  ground  as  soon  as 
possible  after  they  are  ripe  and  to  cover 
them  to  avoid  freezing  or  drying.  Appar- 
ently beet  roots  are  not  injured  for  sugar- 
making  purposes  by  freezing,  provided 
that  they  freeze  and  remain  frozen  until 
they  are  put  through  the  mill,  but  alter- 
nate freezing  and  thawing  causes  them 
to  decay  and  blacken,  so  that  their  value 
for  sugar  making  is  materially  decreased. 

The  practice  that  prevails  in  some 
localities  of  letting  the  natural  moisture 
escape  from  the  soil,  with  the  idea  that 
more  water  can  be  applied  when  it  is 
needed,  is  most  pernicious  and  should  not 
be  followed.  The  moisture  that  falls 
upon  the  ground  in  the  form  of  precipita- 
tion and  is  received  and  retained  by  the 
soil  acts  upon  the  plant  foods  day  after 
day  and  week  after  week  and  accom- 
plishes most  for  plant  growth.  There  is 
a  feeling  of  safety  In  having  an  unlimit- 
ed supply  of  water  for  irrigation  pur- 
poses, but  it  should  be  remembered  that 
irrigation  costs  money  and  labor;  pre- 
cipitation is  nature's  gift. 

Winds  have  been  briefly  mentioned  in 
connection  with  soil  selection  for  sugar 
beets,  but  they  have  a  still  wider  bear- 
ing   upon   crop    conditions. 

The  blowing  of  the  soil  and  the  exces- 
sive evaporation  may  often  be  reduced 
to  the  point  of  successful  crop  produc- 
tion by  keeping  the  surface  of  the  ground 
covered  with  a  lump  mulch.  The  mulch 
retards  the  evaporation,  while  its  lumpy 
condition  reduces  the  shifting  of  the 
soil.  The  cutting  action  of  the  shifting 
sand  may  be  controlled  by  planting  the 
beet  rows  at  right  angles  to  the  direction 
of  the  prevailing  winds  when  practicable 
and  by  attaching  irrigating  shovels  to  the 
drills,  so  that  the  ridges  capable  of  pro- 
tecting the  young  plants  will  be  thrown 
up  between  the  rows  at  planting  time. 


BEETS 


603 


PlowiiiiT 

The  time,  the  depth,  and  the  kind  of 
plowing  done  and  the  condition  of  the 
ground  at  the  time  of  plowing  are  all  im- 
portant factors  in  preparing  the  soil  for 
sugar  beets.  As  a  rule,  the  most  satisfac- 
tory time  to  plow  for  beets  is  in  the  fall, 
for  the  reason  that  fall-plowed  ground  is 
in  better  condition  to  receive  the  winter 
moisture  and  consequently  to  respond  to 
the  freezing  and  thawing  action  which 
tends  to  put  the  soil  in  the  best  physical 
and  chemical  condition  for  plant  produc- 
tion. 

In  the  irrigated  sections  plowing  should 
never  be  left  until  spring  if  it  can  pos- 
sibly be  done  earlier.  In  the  first  place 
the  rush  of  spring  w-ork  is  not  favorable 
to  the  best  kind  of  plowing,  but  more  im- 
portant is  the  fact  that  stirring  the 
ground  to  such  a  depth  so  close  to  plant- 
ing time  promotes  evaporation  and  often 
the  entire  seed  and  root  beds  are  com- 
paratively dry  before  the  seed  is  plant- 
ed. 

If  done  in  the  fall,  there  is  very  little 
danger  of  plowing  too  deep.  Other  things 
being  equal,  plowing  to  a  depth  of  10  to 
14  inches  or  more  will  give  the  best  re- 
sults. Subsoil  plowing  is  not  generally 
practiced,  and  in  cases  where  deep  plow- 
ing is  done  and  the  soil  below  the  plowed 
area  is  not  too  hard  for  the  beet  roots 
to  penetrate  it  readily  subsoiling  would 
not  pay  for  the  labor  and  money  expended. 
Where  for  any  reason  the  plowing  can  not 
be  done  to  the  desired  depth  and  the  un- 
derlying soil  is  hard,  it  will  pay  to  run 
the  subsoil  plow. 

Ground  is  in  proper  condition  for  plow- 
ing when  it  is  neither  too  wet  nor  too 
dry.  Under  no  circumstances  should 
ground  be  plowed  when  wet.  since  plow- 
ing under  such  circumstances  injures  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil  to  an  ex- 
tent that  often  requires  years  to  correct. 
Plowing  should  always  be  done  when  the 
ground  is  in  what  is  called  a  friable  con- 
dition, that  is,  when  it  is  capable  of  fall- 
ing apart  as  the  furrow  is  turned  so  that 
there  are  no  air  spaces  below,  as  Is  the 
case  when  the  ground  is  too  wet  or  when 
it  is  dry  and  cloddy. 


The  Seed  and  Root  Beds 

The  seed  requires  a  uniformly  fine, 
firm,  moist  bed  in  order  to  produce  a  quick 
and  uniform  germination,  which  is 
especially  desirable  in  beet  culture.  The 
more  quickly  the  seeds  germinate,  the 
more  certain  is  a  good  stand,  which  is  the 
first  requirement  of  a  satisfactory  crop. 
The  plants  require  a  fine.  firm,  moist,  well- 
aerated  root  bed  in  order  to  make  a  satis- 
factory growth.  The  root  bed  must  be  fine 
and  firm  because  the  plants  must  be  held 
firmly  in  place  during  their  entire  period 
of  growth,  and  the  soil  particles  must  be 
closely  in  contact  with  the  feeding  root- 
lets. The  soil  must  be  moist  enough  to 
supply  the  plants  with  mineral  food  in 
solution  and  with  enough  water  to  pro- 
mote constant  and  rapid  growth. 

At  the  same  time  there  must  not  be  in 
the  soil  for  any  considerable  period  of 
time  so  much  water  that  a  free  inter- 
change of  soil  gases  can  not  take  place. 

If  the  ground  is  properly  plowed  in  the 
fall  when  its  physical  condition  is  right, 
the  root  bed  will  be  fine  and  free  from 
air  spaces.  The  winter  moisture  will  usu- 
ally pack  the  fall-plowed  ground,  so  that 
the  root  bed  will  be  firm.  In  the  absence 
of  natural  winter  rain  or  snow,  winter  ir- 
rigation should  be  practiced;  otherwise, 
two  of  the  most  important  objects  of  fall 
plowing  will  be  lost,  namely,  the  firming 
of  the  seed  and  root  beds  and  the  changes 
in  the  soil  due  to  freezing  and  thawing. 

If  the  ground  is  not  plowed  until  spring, 
the  seed  and  root  beds  must  be  artificially 
packed.  This  can  best  be  done  with  a  sub- 
surface packer,  which  should  follow  im- 
mediately behind  the  plow.  The  packer 
should  be  followed  immediately  by  the 
harrow,  in  order  to  form  the  necessary 
mulch  and  to  retain  the  moisture  in  the 
soil.  This  mulch  should  be  maintained 
until  iJlanting  time.  when,  if  the  seed  bed 
is  not  sufficiently  firm,  the  roller  and  har- 
row should  be  used  until  the  proper  de- 
gree of  firmness  is  produced.  Due  regard 
should  be  given  to  the  condition  of  the 
soil  when  these  implements  are  used,  so 
that  the  flocculent  condition  of  the  soil 
is  not  destroyed.  The  ground  should  be 
so  firm  before  the  seed  is  put  into  it  that 


604 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


even  the  horses'  feet  make  but  little  im- 
pression upon  it. 

Another  important  point  in  preparing 
the  ground  for  beets  is  to  see  that  it  is 
properly  leveled.  A  properly  leveled  field 
can  be  irrigated  much  more  quickly, 
and,  furthermore,  if  not  properly  leveled 
there  will  be  high  spots  where  the  beets 
suffer  from  lack  of  sufficient  moisture 
and  low  spots  where  the  plants  are  in- 
jured by  too  heavy  watering. 

Drainage 

At  first  thought,  drainage  in  an  ir- 
rigated section  of  the  country  might 
seem  unnecessary,  but  experience  has 
shown  that  under  certain  conditions  the 
constant  applications  of  water  cause  the 
soil  to  become  water-logged. 

There  are  two  general  systems  of  ar- 
tificial drainage  that  may  be  used  for 
carrying  off  the  excess  of  water  or  for 
removing  the  excess  of  salts  from  the 
soil,  namely.  (1)  the  open  ditch  and  (2) 
the  blind  ditch  in  which  tile  or  a  similar 
conducting  channel  is  used  to  aid  the  flow 
of  the  water  through  the  ground.  The 
blind  ditch  is  most  often  used,  and  while 
its  initial  cost  is  somewhat  greater  than 
that  of  the  open  ditch  it  is  more  econ- 
omical in  the  end,  since  it  still  allows  the 
use  of  the  land  and  if  properly  construct- 
ed does  not  require  the  expenditure  of 
time  and  labor  necessitated  by  the  open 
ditch  to  keep  it  in  working  order. 

Irrigation 

The  proper  use  of  irrigating  water  is 
one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the 
growing  of  sugar  beets  under  irrigation. 
The  time  and  method  of  application  and 
the  quantity  of  water  used  are  the  es- 
sential considerations  in  the  irrigation 
of  sugar  beets.  In  all  irrigated  sections 
there  is  some  precipitation  in  the  form  of 
rain  or  snow,  although  this  precipitation 
is  uncertain  both  as  to  time  and  amount. 
However,  it  should  always  be  conserved 
and  utilized  to  the  fullest  extent  and  the 
irrigating  water  should  be  looked  upon 
as  an  insurance  to  carry  the  crop  over 
periods  of  drought.  It  is  usual  in  some 
localities  to  irrigate  beets  up;  that  is,  the 
seed  is  planted  in  dry  ground  and  the  field 
is  then  flooded  in  order  to  germinate  the 


seed.  This  is  a  poor  practice  and  should 
be  avoided  whenever  possible,  especial- 
ly in  fields  in  which  the  soil  has  a  tend- 
ency to  form  a  crust.  It  is  much  more 
satisfactory  to  irrigate  before  planting 
If  enough  natural  moisture  can  not  be  re- 
tained in  the  soil  to  produce  germina- 
tion. 

In  irrigating  before  germination  it  is 
generally  best  to  corrugate  the  land,  mak- 
ing the  corrugations  5  or  6  inches  deep 
and  about  20  inches  apart.  The  water 
should  then  be  run  into  the  corrugations 
until  the  ground  is  thoroughly  wet.  As 
soon  as  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  suf- 
ficiently dry  to  work  it  should  be  harrow- 
ed down  and  planted.  Whether  the  germ- 
ination is  produced  by  the  moisture 
already  in  the  soil  or  whether  it  is  pro- 
duced by  irrigation,  the  plants  should 
be  carried  just  as  long  as  possible  after 
they  are  up  before  they  are  watered.  The 
object  in  withholding  the  water  as  long 
as  possible  is  to  produce  long  roots,  since 
long  roots  are  essentia!  for  a  good  ton- 
nage. 

In  watering  beets  after  they  are  up  they 
should  never  be  flooded,  but  should  be 
watered  in  furrows  between  the  rows. 
This  is  especially  important  while  the 
beets  are  small,  since  flooding  at  that 
time  is  likely  to  scald  the  beet  stems 
and  to  produce  a  crust  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Usually  suitable  furrows 
between  the  beet  rows  can  be  made  by 
means  of  irrigating  shovels,  which  may 
be  attached  to  the  cultivator.  If  the  fur- 
rows made  in  this  manner  are  not  deep 
enough  and  smooth  enough  to  carry  the 
water  readily,  which  will  depend  upon 
the  slope  of  the  land  and  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  they  should  be  logged  out.  This 
can  be  done  by  running  the  corrugators 
behind  the  cultivator.  The  same  imple- 
ment can  be  used  to  prepare  the  ground 
for  watering  before  planting  and  after 
the  beets  are  up. 

After  the  furrows  are  properly  prepared, 
the  water  should  be  allowed  to  run  slow- 
ly through  them,  so  that  they  will  not 
overflow  and  so  that  the  ground  will  be 
thoroughly  wet  down  and  the  water  seep 
out  to  the  beets.    After  each  watering  the 


BEETS 


605 


ground  should  be  cultivated  just  as  soon 
as  the  surface  is  dry  enough  to  work. 
The  mulch  produced  by  the  cultivator 
should  be  maintained  by  frequent  cultiva- 
tion in  order  to  hold  the  water  as  long  as 
possible. 

The  quantity  of  water  that  should  be 
applied  in  order  to  produce  a  crop  of  beets 
can  not  be  stated  in  specific  terms,  since 
the  water  absorbing  and  retaining  ability 
of  different  soils  varies  and  the  rate  of 
evaporation  varies  both  in  different  locali- 
ties and  in  the  same  locality  under  the 
constantly  changing  atmospheric  condi- 
tions. The  plants  themselves  should  be 
the  index  as  to  the  quantity  of  water 
required.  So  long  as  the  beets  have  a  fresh 
appearance  and  a  bright-green  color  they 
are  not  suffering  for  lack  of  water,  and 
if  furrow  irrigation  is  practiced  there  is 
little  danger  of  giving  them  too  much 
water.  A  dark-green  color  of  the  beet 
leaves  usually  indicates  that  the  water 
supply  in  the  soil  is  running  low.  This 
is  often  followed  by  a  wilting  of  the  beets 
and  a  consequent  retardation  in  growth. 
If  the  wilted  beets  fail  to  revive  during 
the  night,  practically  no  growth  can  take 
place  and  water  should  be  applied  im- 
mediately. 

Holding  the  Moisture 

By  nature  soils  vary  within  wide  limits 
as  to  their  water-holding  capacity.  For 
example,  a  fine,  compact  soil  is  capable 
of  holding  more  moisture  than  a  coarse 
or  loose  soil. 

Humus  affords  a  good  medium  in  which 
the  soil  organisms  can  live  and  thrive 
and  liberate  plant  food,  but  they  can 
perform  their  functions  to  a  much  high- 
er degree  because  of  the  additional  moist- 
ure which  the  soil  is  able  to  retain  on 
account  of  the  presence  of  the  humus.  If, 
then,  the  soil  has  been  supplied  with 
the  requisite  amount  of  humus  and  has 
been  plowed  uniformly  deep  at  the  right 
time,  much  has  been  done  toward  fur- 
nishing the  plants  with  the  moisture 
needed  for  plant  growth.  Special  atten- 
tion should  then  be  paid  to  keeping  the 
surface  of  the  soil  constantly  in  the  form 
of  a  mulch.  This  mulch  acts  as  a  blan- 
ket in  retarding  evaporation  from  the  soil 


below.  Everyone  is  familiar  with  the 
moist  appearance  of  the  ground  under 
a  layer  of  straw,  manure,  or  other  loose 
covering  as  compared  with  the  exposed 
surface  of  the  adjacent  ground. 

Plantine:   the   Seed 

If  the  seed  bed  has  been  thoroughly 
prepared,  the  principal  factors  to  be  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  planting  the 
seed  are  the  time  and  depth  of  planting, 
the  quantity  of  seed  used,  and  the  dis- 
tance between  rows.  The  seed  should 
not  be  put  into  the  ground  until  the  soil 
is  warm  enough  to  produce  a  quick  germ- 
ination and  a  rapid  subsequent  growth. 
If  the  seed  lies  in  the  ground  when  the 
conditions  are  not  right  for  germination 
it  is  liable  to  rot,  and  even  if  it  does  not 
rot,  the  resulting  plants,  when  they  do 
finally  develop,  will  usually  be  weak  and 
unsatisfactory. 

The  desire  to  give  the  plants  every  ad- 
vantage of  a  long  season  often  leads  to  the 
mistake  of  planting  too  early.  Experience 
has  shown  that  almost  invariably  the 
plantings  that  are  made  later,  when  the 
temperature  conditions  for  germination 
and  growth  are  right,  give  the  best  re- 
sults in  tonnage  and  quality,  and  the  beets 
usually  mature  in  advance  of  the  earlier 
plantings.  On  the  other  hand,  the  plant- 
ing should  not  be  delayed  until  the  moist- 
ure has  escaped  from  the  seed  bed. 

The  seed  should  be  planted  just  as  shal- 
low as  is  consistent  with  quick  and  uni- 
form germination.  The  depth  of  plant- 
ing will  varj-.  therefore,  with  the  nature 
of  the  soil  and  the  condition  of  climate. 
The  seed  should  always  be  put  into  moist 
soil  and  the  soil  should  be  capable  of 
holding  its  moisture  long  enough  to  pro- 
duce germination.  It  is  questionable 
whether  it  is  ever  wise  to  plant  more  than 
1%  inches  deep,  for  the  reason  that  the 
beet  seed  proper  is  comparatively  small 
and  the  young  plant  must  be  able  to  get 
through  to  the  light  by  using  the  reserve 
plant  food  in  the  seed. 

As  an  aid  in  holding  the  moisture  in  the 
soil,  the  drill  should  be  provided  with 
press  wheels,  which  exert  a  firm,  even 
pressure  upon  the  soil  directly  over  the 
drill  row.     Furthermore,  a  firm  soil  acts 


606 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


like  a  lamp  wick  and  draws  the  moisture 
up  from  below. 

Plant  all  the  seed  at  a  uniform  depth. 
The  importance  of  this  will  be  apparent 
when  we  consider  the  operation  of  thin- 
ning the  beets.  Only  two  conditions  are 
necessary  in  order  to  plant  at  a  uniform 
depth.  First,  the  surface  of  the  ground 
must  be  smooth  and  firm,  and,  second,  the 
drill  shoes  must  each  stand  on  the  same 
level. 

In  order  to  get  a  good  stand  of  beets, 
which  is  the  first  requisite  of  a  satis- 
factory crop,  plenty  of  seed  must  be  used, 
so  there  will  be  no  gaps  or  spaces  of  any 
considerable  distance  where  there  are  no 
beets.  Usually  from  15  to  20  pounds 
of  seed  per  acre  will  be  sufficient  to  ac- 
complish this  result.  If  a  large  number 
of  seeds  germinate  at  the  same  time,  each 
plantlet  will  help  others  to  get  through 
to  the  light;  hence  the  importance  of 
plenty  of  seed  in  a  well-prepared  seed  bed. 

Experience  has  determined  that  in  gen- 
eral the  most  satisfactory  distance  be- 
tween rows  is  from  IS  to  22  inches.  It 
is  evident  that  very  fertile  soil  capable  of 
holding  an  abundance  of  moisture  will 
yield  better  results  with  narrow  rows 
than  will  a  less  fertile  soil  with  a  lower 
water-holding  capacity. 

Spacing   and   Thinning 

As  already  indicated,  the  present 
method  of  planting  beet  seed  is  in  solid 
rows  instead  of  in  hills,  in  order  to  obtain 
a  more  uniform  and  nearly  perfect  stand 
of  beets.  Having  secured  a  good  germina- 
tion it  next  becomes  important  to  thin 
the  beets  down  to  one  in  a  place  at  suit- 
able distances  apart  in  the  row  to  produce 
a  good  crop.  The  first  step  in  reducing 
the  beets  to  one  In  a  place  is  that  of 
spacing  the  beets,  which  is  usually  done 
with  a  hand  hoe  used  at  right  angles  to  the 
row.  In  this  manner  a  large  number 
of  the  plants  are  cut  out  and  the  remain- 
ing beets  are  left  in  small  tufts  at  inter- 
vals of  8  to  12  inches  in  the  row.  In  per- 
forming this  operation  the  hoe  should  be 
struck  just  deep  enough  so  that  the  beets 
cut  off  will  not  grow  again  and  so  that 
all  weeds  that  may  have  started  in  the 
row  will  be  destroyed. 


Several  machines  have  been  devised  for 
spacing  beets,  but  they  have  not  come 
into  general  use. 

As  soon  as  the  beets  have  been  spaced, 
the  tufts  should  be  thinned  to  one  in  a 
place.  This  work  must  be  done  with  the 
hands,  since  the  beet  plants  stand  so  close 
together  that  no  machine  has  been  de- 
vised that  is  capable  of  doing  the  work 
satisfactorily.  It  is  seldom  the  case  that 
two  beets  left  in  the  same  tuft  will  pro- 
duce the  same  weight  of  beet  roots  that 
would  have  been  produced  by  either  of 
the  beets  alone. 

The  beets  should  be  spaced  and  thinned 
just  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are 
up.  This  can  usually  be  done  when  the 
plants  have  from  4  to   6  leaves. 

Cultivating 

There  are  three  principal  objects  to  bo 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  the  cultivator; 
namely,  the  destruction  of  weeds,  the  re- 
tention of  moisture,  and  the  interchange 
of  gases  in  the  soil.  The  purpose  for 
which  the  cultivator  is  operated  should 
be  kept  in  mind,  and  the  cultivator 
should  be  fitted  with  attachments  accord- 
ingly. In  using  the  weeders  care  should 
be  taken  that  they  do  not  form  a  crust 
just  below  the  mulch  produced  by  the 
weeder  blades.  This  may  be  avoided 
by  attaching  calf-tongues  just  back  of  the 
weeder  and  so  setting  them  that  the 
points  operate  a  little  deeper  than  the 
weeder  blades. 

Some  growers  are  partial  to  the  disks 
when  the  beets  are  small.  These  are 
useful  if  the  main  object  is  the  forma- 
tion of  a  mulch  or  if  a  light  crust  has 
formed  which  it  is  desired  to  break  and 
at  the  same  time  to  form  a  mulch.  The 
disks,  if  properly  set,  prevent  the  dirt 
from  being  thrown  over  the  young  beets, 
which  is  a  point  that  should  be  strong- 
ly emphasized  at  every  cultivation,  re- 
gardless of  the  kind  of  attachments  used. 
The  objection  to  the  disk  is  that  it  leaves 
a  furrow  on  either  side  of  the  beet  row, 
and  consequently  the  plants  stand  on  a 
ridge,  which  is  inclined  to  dry  out.  To 
avoid  this  condition  a  bull-tongue  should 
be  attached  back  of  each  of  the  disks  and 
so  adjusted   that  the  furrows  formed  by 


BEETS 


607 


the  disks  are  filled  in  with  the  loose  dirt, 
so  that  the  surface  of  the  ground  is 
level. 

While  the  beets  are  small  it  is  safe 
to  cultivate  fairly  deep  and  quite  close  to 
the  plants.  The  depth  to  which  the 
ground  is  stirred  when  the  beets  are 
small  should  never  be  as  great  as  the 
depth  to  which  the  roots  have  pene- 
trated and  never  need  exceed  from  3  to  4 
inches  in  order  to  accomplish  the  ob- 
ject of  the  cultivation.  As  the  beets  get 
older  it  is  usually  advisable  to  set  the 
cultivator  so  that  it  does  not  work  so 
deep  or  so  close  to  the  beets,  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  feeding  roots  must  not  he 
disturbed.  The  manner  in  which  the 
beets  are  handled  while  small,  especially 
with  reference  to  the  soil  moisture,  will 
govern  to  a  great  extent  the  position  of 
the  feeding  roots.  If  the  ground  is  kept 
rather  moist  near  the  surface  the  feeding 
roots  will  develop  near  the  surface  and 
great  injury  may  be  done  by  the  later 
cultivation.  This  emphasizes  the  import- 
ance of  withholding  the  water  from  the 
young  beets  as  long  as  possible,  so  that 
the  main  root  will  be  long  and  the  feed- 
ing roots  formed  well  down  on  the  main 
root.  If  this  is  done  a  deeper  mulch  and 
one  that  extends  closer  to  the  beets  can 
be  maintained  without  injury  to  the 
plants.  This  will  be  very  helpful  in  re- 
taining the  moisture  in  the  root  bed  and 
also  in  maintaining  a  free  circulation  of 
gases  in  the  soil, 

Before  cultivating  it  is  always  advis- 
able to  examine  the  plants  with  reference 
to  the  length  of  the  taproots  and  the  lo- 
cation and  length  of  the  feeding  ones. 

Hoeing 

Beets  receive  their  first  and  in  many 
cases  their  only  real  hoeing  at  the  time 
they  are  thinned.  At  this  time  the  ground 
Is  or  should  be  thoroughly  stirred  around 
each  beet.  The  hoeing  should  be  deep 
enough  to  destroy  all  weeds  in  the  beet 
rows  and  to  form  a  continuous  mulch 
around  and  between  the  beets.  Unfor- 
tunately, in  practically  all  sugar  beet 
localities  all  hoeing  after  the  beets  are 
thinned  consists  simply  in  cutting  out 
the  weeds  in  the  beet  rows.     The  conse- 


quence is  that  the  ground  in  the  beet 
rows  is  not  stirred  from  the  time  the 
beets  are  thinned  until  they  are  harvest- 
ed except  at  the  points  where  weeds  ap- 
pear. This  permits  the  formation  of  a 
crust,  in  many  cases  the  entire  length  of 
the  beet  rows,  through  which  an  enor- 
mous amount  of  soil  moisture  escapes. 

The  destruction  of  weeds  is  of  vital  im- 
portance, since  if  allowed  to  grow  they 
rob  the  soil  of  both  moisture  and  plant 
food,  but  the  stirring  of  the  ground  be- 
tween the  beets  in  the  row  should  not  be 
overlooked. 

Harvesting 

The  proper  time  for  harvesting  the 
beets  is  usually  determined  by  certain 
tests  which  show  the  sugar  condition  and 
purity  of  the  juice  in  the  roots.  Each 
sugar  company  has  its  standard  for  these 
factors  of  quality,  and  until  the  roots 
measure  up  to  this  standard  they  are 
not  considered  sufficiently  mature  to  be 
harvested  profitably.  Harvesting  beets 
consists  of  several  distinct  operations; 
i.  e.,  lifting,  pulling,  topping,  piling,  and 
hauling. 

Lifting  the  beets  consists  in  loosening 
them  so  that  they  can  be  easily  pulled. 
Two  forms  of  lifters  are  in  general  use. 
One  is  a  double-pointed  implement  so 
constructed  that  one  point  passes  along 
on  either  side  of  the  beets  and  at  a  suit- 
able distance  from  the  surface  so  that 
the  beets  are  slightly  raised  out  of  the 
ground.  The  other  is  a  single-pointed  im- 
plement somewhat  resembling  a  subsoil 
plow.  This  passes  along  on  one  side  of 
the  beet  row  and  loosens  the  dirt  so  that 
the  beets  are  easily  pulled  and  is  called 
a  side  lifter.  The  side  lifter  usually  has 
a  lighter  draft  than  the  double-pointed 
implement.  Aside  from  the  draft,  the 
important  points  are  that  all  the  beets 
be  loosened  and  that  as  few  roots  as  pos- 
sible be  broken.  Both  of  these  factors 
are  often  a  matter  of  good  driving.  Af- 
ter the  beets  have  been  loosened  they 
are  pulled  and  thrown  in  piles  or  rows. 
The  number  of  beet  rows  used  in  making 
one  row  of  piles,  usually  consists  of  from 
16  to  24  rows  of  beets. 


608 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


After  the  beets  have  been  pulled  they 
are  topped.  This  consists  in  cutting  off 
each  beet  at  the  line  of  the  lowest  leaf 
scar,  which  is  usually  done  by  one  stroke 
of  a  heavy  knife.  The  object  in  topping 
the  beets  is  to  remove  the  leaves,  which 
contain  but  a  small  amount  of  sugar,  and 
to  remove  the  crown  or  upper  part  of 
the  beet,  which  contains  a  large  percent- 
age of  the  mineral  matter  taken  up  from 
the  soil.  The  mineral  matter  prevents 
a  given  amount  of  sugar  from  crystal- 
lizing and  for  this  reason  should  not 
be  allowed  to  get  into  the  juices  in  the 
mill.  When  the  beets  are  topped  the 
roots  are  thrown  Into  piles,  from  which 
they  are  loaded  on  wagons  by  means  of 
specially  constructed  forks;  that  is,  the 
fork  tines  have  knobs  on  the  ends  to 
prevent  the  tines  from  puncturing  the 
roots.  Before  the  beets  are  topped  the 
ground  where  they  are  to  be  piled  should 
be  freed  from  clods  and  refuse  material, 
so  that  nothing  but  clean  beets  will  be 
forked  to  the  wagons.  If  the  beets  can 
not  be  hauled  immediately  after  topping 
they  should  be  covered  to  prevent  evapo- 
ration or  freezing.  If  the  weather  is  not 
cold  enough  to  freeze  the  beets  it  is 
usually  sufficient  to  cover  the  piles  with 
the  beet  tops,  but  if  there  is  danger  of 
freezing  a  sufficient  quantity  of  earth 
should  be  thrown  over  the  piles  to  pre- 
vent the  roots  from  becoming  frosted. 
When  the  beets  are  delivered  to  the 
sugar  mill  or  loading  station,  they  are 
tared.  The  tare  consists  of  two  parts, 
the  dirt  tare  and  the  crown  tare.  The 
dirt  tare  is  the  percentage  of  dirt  that 
clings  to  the  roots  when  loaded  and  the 
crown  tare  consists  of  the  percentage  of 
crown  left  on  the  roots,  due  to  improper 
topping. 

Crop  Rotation 

Every  farm  sliould  have  a  well-defined 
system  of  crop  rotation.  The  object  of 
crop  rotation,  if  properly  arranged,  is 
twofold.  Each  crop  should  leave  the 
ground  in  better  condition  for  the  next 
crop  than  it  was  before,  and  each  crop 
should  prevent  the  propagation  and  de- 
velopment of  plant  pests.  The  fallacy 
that  sugar  beets  injure  the  soil  has  not 


only  been  exploded,  but  just  the  reverse 
has  been  found  to  be  the  fact.  It  is  true 
that  sugar  beets  take  out  of  the  soil  the 
same  elements  that  are  removed  by  other 
crops,  but  in  slightly  different  propor- 
tions. But,  as  has  been  stated,  a  large 
part  of  these  mineral  elements  is  in  the 
top,  which,  if  properly  handled,  will  be 
returned  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  ma- 
nure, so  that  in  the  end  but  little  plant 
food  is  removed  from  the  soil  by  the 
beet  crop.  Furthermore,  the  beet  crop 
leaves  the  soil  in  good  tilth  for  the  next 
crop.  Experience  in  all  sugar  beet  coun- 
tries has  demonstrated  the  fact  that 
larger  crops  of  grain  can  be  grown  after 
beets  than  after  any  other  crop  so  far  as 
known.  This  seems  to  be  due  to  the  ex- 
cellent condition  in  which  the  soil  is  left 
by  the  beet  crop  and  to  the  depth  of  the 
root  bed  occupied  by  the  beet  roots.  It 
is  not  apparent  that  sugar  beets  add  any 
fertilizing  material  to  the  soil,  but  the 
fibrous  roots  that  are  left  in  the  ground 
when  the  beets  are  harvested  improve  its 
physical   condition. 

If  sugar  beets  are  to  be  one  of  the 
crops  in  the  rotation  system,  the  crop 
preceding  the  beets  should  be  of  such  a 
nature  that  it  can  be  harvested  in  time 
to  plow  the  ground  for  beets  in  the  fall. 
One  of  the  crops  in  the  system  should  be 
a  legume,  such  as  alfalfa,  peas,  beans,  etc. 
These  are  nitrogen-storing  crops,  and  if 
the  soil  is  deficient  in  humus,  as  is  the 
case  in  most  of  the  irrigated  sections,  a 
green  crop  should  be  plowed  under.  Not 
more  than  two  sugar  beet  crops  should  be 
grown  in  succession  on  the  same  field, 
chiefly  for  the  reason  that  a  continual 
cropping  with  sugar  beets  tends  to  pro- 
mote the  development  of  serious  pests, 
such  as  leaf  spot,  root  rot,  and  insects. 
It  is  true  that  more  than  two  crops  of 
beets  may  sometimes  be  grown  in  suc- 
cession, but  it  is  a  dangerous  practice 
and   should   be  avoided. 

Fertilizers 

As  a  rule,  the  soils  in  the  irrigated 
sections  of  the  country  are  rich — that  is, 
they  contain  in  abundance  the  mineral 
elements  necessary  for  plant  growth;  but 
in  many  cases  these  mineral  elements  are 


BEETS 


609 


not  soluble.  Under  such  circumstances 
the  soils,  while  rich,  are  not  fertile.  If 
one  or  more  of  the  required  elements  is 
lacking  or  is  not  present  in  the  soil  in 
sufficient  quantit.v  to  produce  a  normal 
plant  growth,  it  is  clear  that  such  ele- 
ment or  elements  should  be  added  in  an 
available  form.  If,  however,  the  neces- 
sary plant  foods  are  all  present  in  the 
soil  but  some  of  them  are  not  soluble,  the 
problem  is  entirely  different  and  consists 
in  so  treating  the  soil  that  all  the  ele- 
ments are  reduced  to  soluble  forms.  Fre- 
quently the  fertility  of  a  soil  may  be  in- 
creased by  giving  it  proper  tillage  at  the 
right  time  without  the  addition  of  any 
material. 

The  vegetable  fertilizers  in  common  use 
are  stable  manure  and  green  crops.  The 
principal  function  of  the  vegetable  fertil- 
izer is  to  so  improve  the  physical  condi- 
tion of  the  soil  that  the  elements  already 
in  the  soil  are  rendered  soluble  and  there- 
fore available  for  the  plant.  Nearly  all 
irrigated  soils  are  deficient  in  humus,  and 
for  this  reason  it  is  important  to  make 
use  of  the  greatest  possible  amount  of 
stable  manure. 

As  a  rule,  the  amount  of  stable  manure 
produced  upon  most  farms  is  insufficient 
to  supplj'  the  required  quantity  of  humus 
to  irrigated  soils.  For  this  reason  the 
stable  manure  should  be  supplemented  by 
plowing  under  green  crops.  If  the  sup- 
ply of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  as  well  as  the 
supply  of  humus  is  deficient,  nitrogen- 
storing  plants,  such  as  alfalfa,  clover, 
peas,  beans,  etc.,  should  be  used  as  a 
green  fertilizer.  If  the  humus  only  is 
deficient,  such  crops  as  rape,  rye,  sorg- 
hum, etc.,  may  be  used.  A  soil  which  is 
deficient  in  one  or  more  of  the  mineral 
elements  will  not  respond  to  the  fullest 
extent  to  the  addition  of  mineral  fertil- 
izer unless  there  is  a  sufficient  amount  of 
humus  present  to  put  the  soil  in  good 
physical  condition.  Therefore,  the  phys- 
ical condition  as  well  as  the  chemical 
composition  should  be  carefully  consid- 
ered in  the  effort  to  increase  the  fertility 

of  soils. 

Live   Stock 

One    of    the    most    important    adjuncts 

of    a    farm    on    which    sugar    beets    are 


grown  is  live  stock,  especially  dairy  cows. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  any  sugar  beet 
territory  can  build  up  a  permanent  agri- 
culture unless  considerable  attention  is 
given  to  the  production  of  live  stock. 
Not  only  will  the  live  stock,  if  properly 
handled,  produce  an  important  part  of  the 
farm  income,  but  they  are  very  essential 
in  the  matter  of  soil  improvement,  which 
is  brought  about  through  the  proper  use 
of  the  barnyard  manure.  The  keeping  of 
live  stock  enables  the  beet  grower  to 
make  the  best  possible  use  of  the  beet 
tops.  This  feed,  in  connection  with 
roughage  which  is  easily  produced,  keeps 
the  live  stock  in  good  condition  and  en- 
ables the  farmer  to  return  the  mineral 
elements  in  the  tops  to  the  soil  and  at 
the  same  time  to  increase  the  supply  of 
soil  humus. 

Sheep  as  well  as  cattle  thrive  on  beet 
tops,  but  it  is  wise  to  feed  them  sparingly 
at  first  and  to  increase  the  allowance  as 
the  stock  become  more  accustomed  to  this 
feed.  The  practice  in  some  localities  of 
pasturing  the  tops  after  the  beet  roots 
have  been  hauled  from  the  field  has  the 
advantage  that  it  saves  the  time  and 
labor  of  hauling  them,  but  it  is  more  or 
less  wasteful.  Furthermore,  the  ground 
is  often  injured  by  the  trampling  of  the 
stock,  so  that  altogether  the  most  satis- 
factory plan  is  to  gather  and  haul  the 
tops  to  the  feed  yard,  where  they  should 
be  fed  in  properly  constructed  racks  to 
avoid   waste. 

Bj-Products 

The  by-products  of  the  beet  field  and 
sugar  mill  that  are  of  special  importance 
to  the  farmer  are  the  beet  tops,  the  pulp, 
and  the  waste  lime.  Many  farmers  sell 
the  tops  for  a  cash  price  ranging  from 
$2.50  to  $5  per  acre.  In  this  case  the 
beet  grower  is  the  loser,  for  two  reasons. 
In  the  first  place,  the  tops  are  of  greater 
value  to  him  as  a  stock  food;  and,  in  the 
second  place,  if  he  allows  the  tops  to 
leave  his  farm  he  loses  their  manurial 
value. 

The  most  economical  way  to  handle  the 
tops  is  to  gather  them  into  piles  soon 
after  they  wilt  and  before  they  become 
thoroughly   dried.     However,   if  any   dis- 


610 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


ease,  especially  leaf  spot  or  crown  rot,  is 
noticeable  on  the  beet  leaves  and  crowns, 
the  manure  should  be  used  only  on 
ground  that  is  not  to  be  put  into  beets 
for  two  or  more  years;  or,  better,  the 
freshly  wilted  beet  tops  should  be  put 
into  the  silo,  preferably  mixed  with  cut 
straw  or  corn  stover.  Leaf  spot  pores 
are   all  killed  in  the   silo. 

Beet  pulp  is  likewise  an  excellent  stock 
food.  This  by-product  is  the  refuse  that 
remains  after  the  beet  roots  have  been 
sliced  and  the  sugar  extracted.  As  a 
stock  food  it  may  be  used  either  as  green 
pulp — that  %,  just  as  it  comes  from  the 
mill — or  it  may  be  dried.  The  composi- 
tion of  the  dried  pulp  as  guaranteed  by 
one  of  the  large  dealers  is  as  follows: 
Protein,  not  under  eight  per  cent;  fat, 
not  under  one-half  of  one  per  cent;  sugar 
and  starch,  not  under  four  per  cent; 
fiber,  not  over  20  per  cent;  extract  (carbo- 
hydrates), not  under  58  per  cent.  Total 
carbohydrates,  including  fiber,  not  under 
76  per  cent;  ashes,  two  and  one-half  per 
cent.  While  the  pulp,  either  green  or 
dried,  is  an  excellent  stock  food  it  is  not 
a  balanced  ration  and  should  therefore 
be  fed  with  other  protein  material. 

Waste  lime  is  a  by-product  of  the  sugar 
mill  which,  under  certain  conditions,  is 
of  considerable  value  to  the  farmer  in 
correcting  the  acid  condition  of  the  soil. 
It  is  well  known  that  a  soil  should  be 
neutral  or  slightly  alkaline  in  order  to 
produce  the  best  results.  Ordinarily,  an 
application  of  from  500  to  2.000  pounds 
of  waste  lime  per  acre  will  correct  the 
acidity   and    otherwise    improve   the   soil. 


.Sammary 

Sugar  beet  soil  should  be  selected  with 
reference  to  its  fertility,  its  physical  con- 
dition, its  previous  cropping,  and  its  abil- 
ity to  be  properly  drained  and  irrigated. 
The  ground  should  be  plowed  to  a  good 
depth  in  the  fall  and  every  effort  made 
to  retain  the  moisture  in  the  soil  from 
the  time  the  previous  crop  was  harvested 
until  the  beet  crop  is  laid  by. 

The  seed  and  root  beds  should  be  so 
prepared  that  they  will  be  fine,  firm, 
moist,  and  well  aerated,  with  a  sufficiently 
lumpy  mulch  on  the  surface  to  prevent 
blowing. 

Beet  ground  should  never  be  flooded 
after   the   seed   is   planted. 

The  soil  should  be  well  supplied  with 
humus. 

Beet  seed  should  be  planted  in  moist 
soil,  but  not  more  than  one  and  one-half 
inches   deep. 

Beets  should  be  spaced  and  thinned 
just  as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough  to 
handle. 

Beets  should  be  cultivated  and  hoed 
often  enough  to  destroy  all  weeds  and 
to  keep  the  entire  surface  of  the  ground 
covered  with  a  mulch. 

Beets  should  always  be  rotated  with 
other  crops  in  order  to  keep  the  soil  in 
good   tilth   and   free  from   pests. 

Live  stock,  especially  dairy  cows, 
should   always   be   found   on   beet   farms. 

The  by-products  of  the  sugar  beet  and 
of  the  sugar  mill  are  worthy  of  careful 
attention. 


Farmers'    Bulletin   567 


BEETS 
Beet-Sugrar  Crop  in  the  United  States  for  the  Tear  1911-12 


611 


Factories 

Area 

harvested 

Yield 

Value 
per 
ton 

Beets 
worked 

Suc- 
rose 

Sugar 
manu- 
factured 

Recovery 

Loss 
of 

Beets 

State 

No 

Run 

BeetsI  Suc- 
rose 

California. . . 
Colorado .  .  . 

Idaho 

Michigan . . . 
Utah....... 

Wisconsin. . . 
Other  States 

Days 

lo'  98.5 
14'  63.3 

3  91 
17122 

6  96 

4106 
12  83 

Acres 

99,545 
86,437 
17,052 
145,837 
33,950 
23,241 
67,815 

ShortI  Dol- 
tons  1  lars 
10.42'  5.54 
11.07|  5.55 
12. ll'  5.02 
9.90  5.74 
13.03  4.81 
11.02,  5.51 
10.61  5.48 

Short 
tons 

1,037,283 
957,142 
206,367 

1,443,856 
442,310 
256,124 
719,251 

Per 

cent 
.18.95 
15.44 
16.65 
14.59 
15.98 
14.23 
15.16 

Short 
tons 

161,300 

124,800 
26,730 

125,500 
57,280 
23,640 
80,250 

Per      Per 

cent  1  cent 
15.551  82.04 
13.04  81.22 
12.95  77.80 

8.69,  59.55 
I2.95I  81.04 

9.23  64.86 
11.16;  73.60 

Per 
cent 
3.40 
2.40 
3.70 
5.90 
3.02 
5.00 
4.00 

Total  or 

average. . . 

66  94+ 

473,877 

1 

10.68  5.50 

1 

5,062,333 

15.89 

599,500 

11.84 

73.92 

4.05 

Complied  In  the  office  of  Cotton  and  Truck  Disease  and  Sugar-Plant  Investigations,  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry. 

Sugar  Beets  in  Europe 

The  following  table  gives  the  area  and  production  of  sugar  beets  in  European 
countries  in  1912  and  1911,  according  to  a  report  of  the  International  Institute  of 
Agriculture: 

Area  and  production  of  sugar  beets  in  specified  countries,  1912-11. 


Country 


Area 


1912 


1911 


Production 


1912 


1911 


Prussia 

Belgium 

Bulgaria 

Denmark 

Spain 

France 

Croatia  and  Slavonia. 

Italy 

Roumania 

Russia 

Sweden 


Acres 

1,053,454 

163,086 

7,413 

74,871 

106,438 

606,346 

7,413 

130,963 

35,491 

1,860,196 


Acres 

865,559 

150,237 

7,331 

61,528 

82,121 

600,280 

7,413 

131,260 

3.3,613 

1,923,758 


Tons(2,0001bs. 
14,289,352 
2,094,370 
49,604 
885,729 
1,189,353 
7,037,204 
99,207 
1,818,795 
352,736 
14,523,444 
1,091,480 


)Tons(2,0001bs.) 
6,609,550 
1,626,995 
68,343 
805,208 
964,463 
4,669,083 
66,138 
1,587,753 
289,962 
14,343,901 
905,124 


— Crop  Reporter-.   .January.    1913. 


612 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


BEET  DISEASES 

Beet  Scab 

Thought  to  be  the  same  organism  as 
produces  the  potato  scab  and  affects  the 
roots   in   much   the  same  way. 

Rotation  of  crops  is  suggested. 

See  Scab  under  Potato. 

Crown  Rot 

Phoma  Betae 

Distributed  pretty  generally  through- 
out the  beet  growing  sections. 

Cdrly  Top.  See  Beet  Leaf  Hopper,  this 
section. 

Downy  Mildew 

Peronospora  schachtii 
Causes  a  stunting  of  the  inner  leaves. 
Occurs  during  the  rainy  season. 
Destroy   all  affected  plants. 

leaf  Spot 

Cercospora  heticola  Sacc. 

Produces  small  dead  spots  in  the  leaves 
followed  at  times  by  dying  of  the  leaves. 

Bordeaux  mixture  applied  at  intervals 
of  three  weeks. 

Root  Knot 

Caused  by  the  Nematode  gall  worm. 
See  under  Potato. 

Root  Rot 

Rhizoctonia  sp. 

Appears  in  the  young  plant  as  a  decay 
of  the  root.  Causes  the  root  to  fork  and 
become  misshapen. 

Crop  rotation,  or,  where  practicable,  soil 
disinfection  seem  the  best  remedies. 

Rnst 

Vromyces  betae 
Appears  as  a  red  rust  on  beet  leaves 
when   grown    in   the   rainy    season.     Not 
serious. 

BEET   PESTS 
Beet   Aphis.    Beet   Root   Aphis,    Cali- 
FOKKIA    Beet  Root    Aphis.     See    Aphids. 
See  also  Beet  Louse,  this  section. 

The  Beet  Army  Worm 

Laphygma  exigua  Hubn. 

Family  Noctuidae 

Caradrina  exigua  Hubn. 

General  .\ppearance 

The  adult  moth  is  mottled  gray  with 

distinct  light  markings  on  the  fore  wings. 

It   is   about  one   inch   in   length,   with   a 

■wing  expanse  of  one  and  one-half  Inches. 


The    larvae    are    slender,    dark    green    in 
color  and  distinctly  striped. 

life  History 

The  adult  moths  appear  during  the 
months  of  April  and  June  and  deposit 
eggs,  the  caterpillars  hatching  out  in  May 
and  the  last  of  June  and  becoming  most 
abundant  in  August.  There  are  probably 
three  generations  a  year — the  first  and 
last  doing  the  least  amount  of  damage. 

Food  Plants 

The  favorite  food  of  the  caterpillars  is 
the  sugar  beet  and  it  bids  fair  to  become 
quite  a  serious  pest  to  that  crop.  Table 
beets,  corn,  potatoes,  peas,  onions,  sun- 
flower, lambsquarters,  pigweed,  saltbush 
and  the  leaves  of  the  apple,  mallow,  wild 
tobacco,  plantain  and  wild  grasses  are 
also   attacked. 

Poison  mash  as  for  other  cut  worms. 
E.  O.  EssiG 
Beet  leaf  Hopper 
Eutettix  tenella  Baker 

The  adult  is  a  small,  pale  yellowish- 
green  species.  When  fresh  or  when  flying 
this  leaf  hopper  appears  almost  white,  and 
for  this  reason  it  has  often  been  called 
the  "white  fly." 

The  eggs  are  white,  elongate,  slightly 
curved  and  tapering  at  one  end,  and  are 
thrust  into  the  leaf  stem. 

The  nymphs  are  very  active,  pale 
creamy  white  or  variously  colored  forms. 
The  commonest  form  is  pale  creamy  In 
color  with  a  brown  saddle  on  the  middle 
of  the  abJomen. 

The  distribution  seems  to  be  general 
over  the  West. 

The  condition  called  "curly-leaf"  or 
"blight"  accompanies  the  attack  of  these 
insects  and  its  severity  is  in  proportion 
to  their  numbers. 

Remedy 

Spray  with  kerosene  emulsion  stock 
solution  one  to  five  parts  water,  using  a 
drag  to  turn  the  beet  leaves  up. 

Bureau  Entomoloj)r.v  Bulletin  66. 

Beet   louse 

Pemphigus  betae  Doane 
General  Appearance 

The  adult  wingless  lice  are  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  long:   somewhat  round- 


BEET  PESTS 


613 


Fig.   1.     Beet  Leaf  Hoppei-.     la.  Adult  o(  E.  teneUa;  lb.  Nympb;  2,  Adult  of  E.  scitula. 


ed  or  elongated  in  shape;  whitish  or  pale 
yellow  in  color  with  a  large  tuft  of  white 
flocculence  covering  the  posterior  end  of 
the  body.  The  legs,  antennae,  and  spots 
on  the  top  of  the  head  are  brown.  The 
winged  lice  are  a  little  larger,  more  elon- 
gated and  much  darker  in  color.  The 
head,  antennae,  legs  and  thorax  are  black 
and  being  usually  covered  with  a  fine, 
white  powder  appear  bluish-black;  ab- 
domen dark  green.  The  presence  of  this 
pest  is  easily  told  by  the  white  floccu- 
lence which  covers  the  lice  as  well  as  sur- 
rounding infested  areas  on  the  roots. 

Food  Plants 

As  this  is  a  subterranean  aphid,  only 
the  roots  are  affected,  but  often  in  such 
a  way  as  to  ruin  portions  of  the  crop. 
Sugar  beets  are  the  only  economic  plants 
attacked  to  any  injurious  degree.  Wild 
yarrow,  dock,  knotweed  (Polygonum  avi- 
ciilare)    are   also   attacked. 

Remedy 
Rotation. 

E.  O.  Essio 
Blister  Beetles 

The  striped  blister  beetle  or  what  is 
sometimes  called  the  old-fashioned  potato 
beetle,  frequently  attacks  the  beet.  They 
come  in  immense  numbers  and  are  likely 
to  do  serious  injury  before  their  presence 
is  observed.  They  are  long,  slender 
beetles  with  black  and  yellow  stripes. 
Apply  arsenate  of  lead  as  soon  as  the 
beetles  appear. 

Fle.\  Beetles.     See  Potato. 


Minute  False  Chinch  Bug 

Nysius  angustatus  minutus  Uhl. 
Family  Lygaeidae 
General  Appearance 
The    adults    are    very    small    grayish- 
brown    bugs,    about    one-sixteenth    of    an 
inch    long.      The    young    are    somewhat 
lighter    in    color,    having    reddish-brown 
abdomens   and   lacking  wings.     The  legs 
and    antennae   appear   very   long   and   are 
dark. 

Life  History 
The  eggs  are  deposited  in  the  spring 
and  early  summer  by  the  adults  which 
have  hibernated  during  the  winter.  The 
young  are  dull  gray  or  brownish-red,  and 
collect  in  great  numbers  upon  the  host 
plants.  The  life  cycle  is  short,  there  be- 
ing many  successive  broods  each  year. 

Food  Plants 

The  insect  is  especially  destructive  to 
sugar  beets  grown  for  seed.  It  has  been 
collected  in  large  numbers  on  cultivated 
flowers. 

Control 
Soap  emulsions  and  tobacco  sprays  are 
excellent    remedies.      Pyrethrum    is    also 
recommended,    but    is    too    expensive   for 
large  plantings. 

E.  O.  EssiG 

Plant  Bug 

Lygus  pratcnsis,  etc. 

Flattened,  sucking  bug,  nearly  one-fourth 

inch  long  when  full  grown,  brownish  in 

color,    marked    with    yellow    and    black. 

Hibernates     under     grass     and     rubbish. 


614 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Sucks  juices,  causing  plants  to  wither  and 
often  carries  disease  from  side  plants  to 
others. 

Burn  all  rubbish  in  spring  if  this  was 
omitted  in  fall.  Spray  young  bugs  with 
kerosene  emulsion  diluted  with  12  to  15 
parts  of  water.  Collect  old  bugs  by 
sweeping  plants  with  cheese  cloth  or  mus- 
lin net  when  insects  are  stupid  in  early 
morning  or  when  it  is  cold. 

H.   A.    GOSSABD, 
Woostor,    Obio 
Spinach  of  Beet  Leaf  Maggot.    See  un- 
der Spinach. 

Western  Army  Morm 

Chorizagrotis  agrestis  Grote 

Family  Noctuidae 

General  Appearance 

The  adult  moth  is  about  one  inch  long 

and  dark  brown  with  gray  markings.  The 

caterpillars    or    army    worms    attain     a 

length  of  two  inches  and  vary  from  pale 

green  to  dark  brown. 

Life  History 

The  general  life  history  is  practically 
the  same  as  that  of  the  variegated  cut 
worm  {Peridroma  margaritosa  var.  saucia 
Hubn.). 

Food  Plants 

This  is  a  rather  serious  vegetable  pest, 
attacking  beets,  cabbage,  horse-radish, 
radish,  mustard,  turnip,  peas,  tomatoes, 
potatoes,  onions,  celery,  rhubarb,  corn, 
grasses,  clover,  alfalfa  and  forest  and 
fruit  trees. 

Poisoned  bait,  composed  of  a  pound  of 
Paris  green  to  40  or  50  pounds  of  bran 
and  sweetened  either  with  cheap  sugar 
or  molasses  with  sufficient  water  added  to 
make  a  stiff  mash,  placed  in  the  infested 
areas,  will  kill  countless  numbers  of  the 

^°™^-  E.  O.  EssiG 

Beneficial  Insects 

The  California  State  Insectary  Proi)agat- 

inff  and  Distribntinjr  Beno- 

flcial   Insects 

The  California  State  Insectary  is  a  de- 
partment of  the  state  commission  of  hor- 
ticulture, equipped  and  maintained  for  the 
purpose  of  reducing  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion    of    horticultural     and    agricultural 


products  through  the  control  of  injurious 
insect  pests. 

The  primary  object  of  this  institution 
is  to  import,  collect,  propagate  and  dis- 
tribute beneficial  insects  that  will  prey 
upon  insects  destructive  to  our  fruit,  vine 
and  grain  products.  Information  is  also 
disseminated  as  to  the  best  artificial 
means  of  control,  where  the  natural 
methods  are  not  available,  both  for  insect 
pests  and  plant  diseases. 

The  state  of  California  leads  the  hor- 
ticultural world  in  the  science  of  con- 
trolling destructive  insects  by  natural  and 
artificial  methods. 

The  main  purpose  of  this  article  is  to 
give  the  reading  public  a  general  idea  of 
the  various  methods  employed  by  the  Cal- 
ifornia State  Insectary,  in  propagating, 
collecting,  holding  in  cold  storage  and 
distributing  the  tons  of  live  beneficial  in- 
sects that  are  annually  distributed  free, 
upon  application,  express  or  postage  paid, 
to  resident  growers  of  California. 

This  great  practical  work  and  its  com- 
mercial application  had  its  inception  in 
California.  The  history  of  its  inaugura- 
tion is  so  well  known  and  understood 
that,  for  the  purpose  of  the  present  article, 
it  may  be  passed  wW;h  the  brief  statement 
that,  early  in  the  horticultural  history  of 
the  state,  the  known  means  of  artificial 
control  or  eradication  proved  inadequate 
to  cope  with  the  invasion  of  a  very  serious 
insect  pest  of  citrus  and  other  trees, 
known  as  the  "cottony  cushion  scale" 
(Icerya  purchasi)  which  reduced  the 
citrus  output  from  8,000  cars  to  GOO  in  a 
single  year. 

The  idea  of  searching  the  world  for  a 
beneficial  insect  that  would  prey  upon 
and  control  this  pest  originated  in  Cali- 
fornia. The  idea  was  put  into  practical 
operation  by  the  introduction  of  a  species 
of  Coccinellidae  (Ladybird  family)  from 
Australia,  known  as  Novius  (Vedalia) 
cardinalis,  with  the  result  that  the  then 
doomed  citrus  industry  of  California  was 
saved  and  the  same  pest  which  is  always 
present  in  limited  numbers,  was  commer- 
cially and  continually  controlled  all  these 
years  at  no  expense  to  the  grower,  except 
a  two-cent  stamp  on  the  letter  to  the  In- 


BENEFICIAL  INSECTS 


615 


sectary  requesting  that  a  colony  of  Aus- 
tralian ladybirds  be  sent  to  him  to  check 
the  threatened  outbreak  of  the  pest. 

Encouraged  by  the  success  of  this  first 
undertaking,  the  work  has  been  success- 
fully prosecuted  for  many  years,  until  to- 
day California  has  the  largest  insectary 
in  the  world  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
introduction,  propagation  and  dissemina- 
tion of  beneficial  insects. 

By  careful  study  it  has  been  determined 
that,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  what  in  Cal- 
ifornia is  termed  an  "insect  pest"  Is 
usually  a  foreign  destructive  insect  that 
has  been  accidentally  introduced  into  the 
state  without  its  natural  Insect  check 
(who  used  It  not  only  for  food  for  itself. 
but  upon  which  to  feed  and  propagate 
its  young). 

The  introduced  species  increases  enor- 
mously and  in  a  remarkably  short  time, 
by  sheer  force  of  numbers,  becomes  what 
we  term  "an  insect  pest." 

From  the  above  statement  the  work  of 
the  state  Insectary  can  be  easily  under- 
stood. Its  first  duty  is  to  locate  the  home 
of  the  natural  insect  enemy,  which  is 
usually  the  country  from  which  the  pest 
was  introduced.  The  beneficial  form  is 
then  sent  to  the  Insectary,  either  through 
correspondence  with  some  foreign  ento- 
mologist or  by  sending  our  entomological 
explorer  direct  to  that  country. 

After  receipt  at  the  Insectary  several 
generations  must  be  bred  in  confinement 
in  order  to  segregate  the  secondary  and 
even  tertiary  forms  before  any  adults  of 
the  species  desired  may  be  liberated  in 
the  open. 


Fig.  1.  Field  Agents  with  300  Pounds  of 
Lad.vbirds  In  sacks  at  a  pack  train  station. 
Sacks  are  only  half  filled  to  allow  the  beetles 
to  move  slightl.T  and  to  avoid  crushing  when 
packed  on  the  mules.  Sieves,  pans,  brushes 
and  sacks  used  for  this  collecting  are  hanging 
on  the  fence. 


Fig.  2.  The  Vedalia  (Novius  cardinalis  Muls). 
Slightly  less  than  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in 
length  and  oval  in  shape.  The  color  pat- 
tern is  very  pronounced  and  striking,  being 
red  and  black.  In  the  females  red  predomi- 
nates while  in  the  males  there  is  mure 
black.  The  larvae  are  often  over  one-half 
of  an  inch  long  and  lead-gray  in  color  with 
reddish  sides.  They  are  often  covered  with 
whitish  nowder  from  the  egg  sacs  of  the 
cottony  cushion  scale.  The  eggs  are  a  little 
larger  than  those  of  Novius  koebelei.  but  are 
the  same  color  and  laid  in  similar  places. 
The  young  feed  upon  the  eggs  and  young 
scales  and  do  great  execution.  The  great 
pi-olificness  and  appetite  of  this  species 
enables  it  to  do  what  no  other  predator  has 
yet  done.  It  disappears  with  the  host  and 
IS  constantly  being  sent  out  by  the  State 
Insectary.  Introduced  in  California  by  Al- 
bert Koebele.  It  feeds  entirely  upoii  the 
eggs  and  young  of  the  cottmy  cushion  scale 
ilcenia  ptirchaxi).  To  this  beetle  is  ac- 
credited the  salvation  of  the  citrus  industry 
in  California,  which  was  threatened  with 
destruction    by    the   above   scale. 

To  this  part  of  the  work  too  much  care 
cannot  be  given,  as  the  success  or  failure 
of  the  entire  undertaking  hinges  on  the 
careful  segregation  of  the  species  at  this 
point. 

To  successfully  establish  an  introduced 
species,  several  additional  importations 
must  be  made  and  adults  liberated  as  in 
many  species  if  but  a  single  introduction 
is  made,  in-breeding  after  a  remarkably 
few  generations  will  not  only  dwarf  the 
species  but  actually  stop  reproduction. 

Many  failures  to  establish  foreign  spe- 
cies during  the  past  is  directly  traceable 
to  this  very  important  feature,  owing  to 
lack  of  sufficient  knowledge  on  the  part 
of  the  collector  who  has  been  content  with 
but  a  single  introduction.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  the  Coccinellidae  (Lady- 
bird)  family. 

We  find  then  the  main  essential  factors 
toward    successful    foreign    introductions 


616 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Fig.  3.  Koibele's  Ladybird  Beetle  (Novius 
Icoeblei  OlliUl.  Adult  male,  greatly  enlarged 
(original  drawing  by  BirdnekotE).  A  very 
small  species  being  not  longer  than  one- 
eiglitli  of  an  incli  ;  the  males  are  bright  red 
with  dark  markings;  the  females  red  with 
dark  bead,  protborax,  and  marginal  spot 
near  the  middle  of  each  wing  cover.  The 
larvae  are  dark  red  and  about  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  long.  The  small  oblong  red  eggs 
are  deposited  by  the  females  on  the  egg  sacs 
of  the  host  and  hatch  within  a  few  days. 
The  young  immediately  enter  the  egg  sac  and 
begin  feeding  upon  the  eggs  and  young 
hatched  scales.  It  was  first  introduced  by 
Albert  Koebele  and  is  continually  being  re- 
distributed by  the  State  Insectary.  It  feeds 
upon  the  cottony  cushion  scale.  (Iccrya  pur- 
chasi).  This  species  is  often  more  numer- 
ous and  does  greater  execution  than  does 
the  Vedalia  (yovius  cnrdinalis),  for  which 
it  is   usually   mistaken. 

are,  first,  the  careful  segregation  of  all 
secondary  forms,  which  must  be  imme- 
diately destroyed  and  not  a  single  in- 
dividual allowed  to  escape.  Packages  must 
be  opened  in  an  air-tight  room  or  tight 
glass  case;  one  end  covered  with  a  black 
cloth  curtain  into  which  holes  are  cut. 
The  package  is  placed  inside  the  case,  the 
operator  puts  his  arms  through  the  holes 
in  the  curtain  and  thus  works  inside  the 
case.  Second,  additional  importations  to 
enable  cross-breeding  and  to  prevent  in- 
breeding, also  to  give  the  species  the  ad- 
vantage of  different  seasons  in  which  to 
become  established,  or,  in  case  the  first 
shipment  would  meet  with  disaster  upon 
being  liberated. 

Our  foreign  importations  are  shipped 
almost  entirely  when  they  are  in  the 
larval  (young)  or  pupal  (quiescent)  stage 
and  are  placed  in  cold  storage  during 
transit. 

The  intricacies  of  cold  storaging  insect 
species  would  require  chapters  to  even 
begin  to  explain  the  various  processes  and, 
all  told,  it  is  a  subject  that  does  not  lend 


Fig.  4.  Dipterous  l*arasite  of  the  Cottony 
Cushion  Scale  iCn/ptochaetum  iceryae  Will. 
[Family  Agromyzidae].  Lestophonus  iceryae 
Will.).  The  adults  of  this  very  beneficial 
insect  are  exceedingly  small  two-winged  flies 
about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  long.  The 
head  and  thorax  are  metallic  blue  and  the 
abdomen  bright  iridescent  green.  The  an- 
tennae are  black  :  legs  black  or  dark  brown 
with  feet  light  ;  wings  grayish  hyaline  with 
dark  brown  veins.  The  eggs  are  deposited 
by  the  females  in  the  egg  sacs  of  the  cottony 
cushion  scale  and  the  young  maggots  feed 
upon  the  eggs  of  this  pest.  The  entire  life 
history  is  passed  within  the  protecting  sac 
of  the  host,  the  adults  emerging  as  b.y 
magic  from  the  masses  of  the  scale.  This 
fly  is  practically  confined  to  the  citrus- 
growing  sections  of  Southern  California  and 
is  more  often  found  in  Los  Angeles,  Orange 
and  San  Diego  counties.  Wliile  it  is  not  as 
consistent  and  reliable  in  its  work  upon  the 
cottony  cushion  scale  as  are  the  ladybird 
beetles  (Novius  cardinaKs  and  N.  Koebelei) 
yet  its  work  is  often  phenomenal.  Certainl.v 
its  rearing  and  distribution  is  well  worth 
while. 


Fig.  5.  Black  Ladybird  Beetle  (Rliizobius  ven- 
tralis  Er. ).  The  adults  are  smaller  than 
those  of  the  common  red  ladybird ;  rather 
oval  in  shape :  black  and  covered  with  fine 
hairs  which  give  them  a  grayish  appearance. 
The  abdomen  is  salmon  colored.  The  young 
are  dark  brown  or  black  and  covered  with 
many  spines.  The  eggs  are  deposited  singly 
or  a  few  at  a  place  among  the  egg  masses 
of  mealy  bugs,  under  the  bodies  of  the  black 
scale  or  among  other  scale  insects.  The 
numbers  of  the  host  are  so  great  that  the 
actual  good  done  is  not  so  marked  as  in  the 
cases  of  many  other  predators.  The  adults 
move  little  except  when  annoyed.  This 
species  was  imported  by  Albert  Koebele.  es- 
pecially as  an  enemy  of  black  scale  (Sais- 
setia  olcae).  The  young  feed  upon  the  eggs 
of  the  black  scale,  mealy  bugs,  hemispherical 
scale  and  other  similar   Insects. 


BENEFICIAL  INSECTS 


G17 


Fig.  C.  Tlic  Scutellista  itivuttilista  cyanea 
Motsch.  [Family  Eno.vrtidae] ).  Tlie  adult  is 
a  small  four-winged  parasite,  less  than  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  long,  robust  and  metallic 
steel-blue  to  nearly  black  in  color.  The  small 
oblong  white  eggs  are  placed  under  the  shell 
of  the  black  scale.  They  are  somewhat 
larger  than  the  eggs  of  the  scale  and  hatch 
in  from  five  to  sis  days  into  crescent-.ihaped 

.  white  legless  laryae.  which  feed  upon  the 
eggs  of  the  black  scale  for  15  to  20  days, 
when  they  pupate  and  after  another  like 
period  emerge  as  adults  from  the  shells  of 
the  scale  through  circular  holes  cut  for  this 
purpose.  The  adult  liyes  a  little  over  a  week. 
It  does  very  effective  work  on  the  black  scale 
in  certain  sections.  It  also  works  on  the 
hemispherical   scale. 

itself  readily  to  explanation  but  is  a  case 
of  knowing  "when  to"  and  "when  not  to," 
as  each  species  requires  different  care, 
treatment  and  temperature. 

At  the  Insectary  we  propagate  on  vari- 
ous host  plants,  the  destructive  forms 
upon  which  we  feed  the  beneficial  forms 
that  later  on  are  distributed  to  the  or- 
chards. 

The  several  pictures  accompanying  this 
article  will  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  the 
manner  in  which  this  work  is  carried  on. 

Still  another  very  interesting  phase  of 
the  work  is  the  conservation  and  dis- 
tribution of  native  species  of  beneficial 
insects. 

Many  native  species  propagate  or  hyber- 


nate  in  immense  quantities  in  certain  sec- 
tions of  the  state,  which  are  collected 
when  available,  held  in  a  state  of  artifi- 
cial hibernation  by  the  aid  of  cold  storage, 
later  to  be  judiciously  distributed  into 
new  sections,  where  they  will  thrive  and 
perform  wonderful  service  in  destroying 
destructive  forms  which  are  present. 

The  most  prominent  among  these  which 
we  will  use  to  illustrate  this  work  is  a 
native  species  of  Coccinellidae  (Ladybird) 
known  scientifically  as  Hippodamia  con- 
vergens.  This  phase  of  the  work  has  been 
set  forth  by  the  writer  in  Vol.  Ill  of  The 
Monthly  Bulletin,  published  by  the  state 
commission  of  horticulture,  of  which  the 
writer  is  assistant  editor,  and  from  which 
the  following  is  a  portion: 

Throughout  California  the  fact  is  quite 
well  known  that  the  State  Insectary  dis- 
tributes, each  year,  several  tons  of  coc- 
cinellids  of  the  species  Hippodamia  con- 
vergens,  commonly  known  as  ladybirds,  to 
growers  of  cantaloupes,,  prunes,  apples, 
pears,  vegetables,  seeds  and  garden  truck, 
for  the  destruction  of  aphid  species. 

Our  growers  know  that  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  make  application  to  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  Insectary,  for  colonies  of 
these  beneficial  insects,  stating  the  nature 
and  acreage  of  the  crop  grown,  to  receive, 
at  the  proper  time,  a  consignment  of 
30,000  for  each  ten  acres,  by  express, 
charges  paid,  and  with  a  free  return  on 
the  shipping  crates. 

This  new  and  very  remarkable  form  of 
enterprise  has  proven  a  great  practical 
success,  the  ladybirds  being  used  to  de- 
stroy aphids  or  plant  lice  that  attack  the 


Fig  7.  Wells  Fargo  Express  taking  a  load 
of  Ladybirds  from  the  Insectary  for  delivery 
to  the  fruit  growers  over  the  state.  Several 
loads  a  day  are  taken  during  the  shipping 
season.      Six   colonies   are   put   in   one   crate. 


618 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


above-mentioned  crops.  This  line  of  work 
had  its  origin  at  the  California  State  In- 
sectary,  together  with  the  process  of 
hibernating  this  and  various  other  species 
in  enormous  quantities  in  artificial  cold 
storage. 

Experiments  have  been  conducted  along 
this  line  at  the  Insectary,  whereby  the 
Hippodamia  convergens  has  been  success- 
fully kept  in  hibernation  in  cold  storage, 
without  impairing  the  vitality  of  the  spe- 
cies for  seven  months  and  14  days. 

This  particular  line  of  work  was  in- 
augurated through  practical  necessity,  ow- 
ing to  the  fact  that  the  chief  obstacle  to 
the  raising  of  cantaloupes  in  California, 
especially  in  Imperial  valley,  has  been  the 
attack  of  the  melon  aphis  (Aphis  gossy- 
pii),  often  ruining  whole  fields  in  three 
or  four  days,  and  no  mechanical  or  other 
means  of  fighting  them  had  been  found 
effective;  indeed,  it  was  only  possible  to 
get  rid  of  them  by  destroying  the  infested 
vines. 

The  use  of  ladybirds  for  the  destruction 
of  aphids  has  gradually  spread  from  their 


Fipr.  8.  One  Hundred  and  Thirty  Pounds  of 
Ladybirds  on  Pack  Mule.  Nine  miles  througb 
the  snow  to  the  pacliing  house. 

originally  appointed  work,  until  now  the 
Insectary  ships  crates  upon  crates  to  prac- 
tically every  county  in  the  state  of  Cali- 
fornia, and  to  growers  of  almost  every 
horticultural  product  subject  to  the  attack 
of  aphid  species,  even  including  city  (or- 
namental) street  trees  and  home  gardens. 

The  particular  coccinellids  {Hippodamia 
convergens)  used  in  fighting  aphid  infest- 
ations are  a  species  native  to  California. 
They  are  of  a  predatory  habit,  and  their 
special  prey  and  chosen  food  are  the 
aphids,  upon  which  they  feed  both  in  the 
larval   and  adult  stages. 

The  best  results  are  obtained  by  placing 
colonies  in  the  infested  fields  or  orchards 
at,  or  just  before,  the  first  appearance  of 
the  aphids;  the  object  being  to  prevent 
the  increase  of  these  destructive  insects. 

Again,  the  female  coccinellid,  if  the 
natural  food  is  scarce  in  an  orchard  or 
field,  is  thus  forced  to  search   diligently 


for  aphids,  and  will  distribute  her  eggs 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  aphids 
present;  whereas,  if  the  colonies  were  not 
placed  until  after  the  aphids  had  become 
abundant,  she  would  deposit  practically 
all  her  eggs  in  the  same  place.  The  same 
rule  will  apply  to  practically  all  cultivated 
crops,  and  therefore  it  is  important  that 
applicants  for  colonies  of  this  particular 
species  should  place  their  order  early,  and 
again  notify  the  Insectary  when  the  very 
first  aphids  are  noticed,  and  ask  that  their 
colony  be  sent  them  immediately. 

It  has  been  thoroughly  demonstrated 
that  by  following  such  a  procedure,  with 
the  help  of  the  ladybirds,  orchards  and 
fields  have  been  kept  commercially  clear 
of  this  obnoxious  insect.  So  great  is  the 
demand  for  ladybirds  by  growers  of 
melons  and  all  other  kinds  of  fruit,  that 
the  Insectary  has  been  obliged  to  organ- 
ize, upon  a  very  considerable  scale,  the 
work  of  collecting  these  insects. 

The  enormous  amount  of  work  con- 
nected with  the  locating,  collecting  and 
holding  in  hibernation,  the  boxing,  crat- 
ing, shipping  and  distributing  of  several 
tons  of  live  insects  is  little  realized  by 
the  average  reader.  The  illustrations 
accompanying  this  article,  together  with 
the  following,  will  give  some  idea  of  how 
this  work  is  conducted: 

Starting  about  November  1st,  the  field 
men  go  up  into  the  mountains  to  locate 
the  hibernating  colonies,  which  are  usual- 
ly found  among  pine-needles  on  sunny, 
well-drained  slopes,  usually  in  close  prox- 
imity to  running  water.  They  are  se- 
curely hidden,  and  inexperienced  collect- 
ors may  pass  and  repass  directly  over 
such  spots  and  the  presence  of  the  colony 
will  never  be  detected.  In  fact,  the  idea 
generally  prevails  in  the  minds  of  the 
mountain  residents  that  the  beetles  come 
to  the  sections  in  the  spring,  and  the 
idea  is  scouted  that  colonies  of  beetles 
spend  the  winter  under  the  snow. 

At  this  season,  however,  only  a  few  of 
the  beetles,  relatively  speaking,  are  dis- 
coverable. They  are  the  first  arrivals 
which  have  sought  winter  quarters  early, 
but  later  on  the  colonies  thus  started 
rapidly  grow  in  size.  Other  ladybirds 
join  them,  probably  attracted  by  a  pecu- 
liar insect  odor,  which  they  recognize, 
and  so  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  im- 
mense numbers  assemble. 

•Tust  how  these  over-wintering  colonies 
are  located,  if  explained,  would  hardly  be 
believed  by  the  general  reading  public. 
In  fact,  it  is  a  sort  of  sense  that  is  hardly 
subject  to  analysis.  Our  field  men  know, 
by  past  experience,  where  the  most  likely 
places  are.  and  how  also  to  find  the  bee- 
tles. We  can  at  least  immediately  tell 
where  they  are  not.  thus  eliminating  a 
great  deal  of  unproductive  territory  from 


BENEFICIAL  INSECTS 


619 


the  work  constituting  the  preliminary 
scouting. 

Whenever  a  colony  is  located,  we  dig 
into  the  pine-needles,  moss,  leaves,  etc., 
and  through  past  experience  we  are  en- 
abled to  estimate  about  how  many  pounds 
the  said  colony  will  yield.  A  little  map 
is  then  roughly  drawn  on  a  card,  a  tree 
is  blazed  marking  this  spot,  and  the  col- 
ony numbered  with  a  notation  on  the  back 
of  card,  giving  conditions,  probable 
amount  obtainable,  together  with  any  in- 
formation the  collector  thinks  would  be 
useful. 

It  will  be  understood  that  the  work 
above  described  is  but  the  beginning  of 
the  real  work  of  collecting,  which  starts 
the  last  of  December  and  continues  until 
the  last  of  February.  Our  field  men  at 
that  time  again  go  into  the  mountains  and 
establish  a  camp  as  a  center  of  opera- 
tions, and  proceed  to  make  collections 
from  colonies  previously  located. 

When  practicable  a  mule  is  taken  along 
from  the  camp  to  carry  the  ladybirds,  two 
men  usually  working  together,  and  with 
fairly  good  luck  they  will  collect  from 
50  to  100  pounds  of  the  beetles  in  a  day. 


Fig.  9.  Collecting  Ladybirds.  Showing  metliod 
of  using  sieve.  Note  tlie  masses  of  lady- 
birds upon  the  rocljs  and  rubbish. 

Various  methods  of  separating  the 
ladybirds  from  the  pine  needles  and 
debris  have  been  tried  out  and  discarded. 
The  most  successful  arrangement,  and  the 
one  now  in  use,  has  been  a  canvas  sack, 
open  at  both  ends,  with  a  coarse  mesh 
sieve  sewed  in  one  end  of  the  sack,  com- 
posed entirel.v  of  wire,  the  bottom  of  the 
sack  being  tied  with  a  drawstring  and 
securely  fastened.  The  use  of  this  is 
quickly  seen  when  the  men  get  to  work, 
for  the  beetles  are  found  in  clustered 
masses,  often  as  big  as  one's  two  fists, 
under  the  leaves  and  pine  needles  on  the 
ground.  Two  men  usually  work  together; 
one  man  scoops  them  up  and  throws  them 
into  the  sieve,  while  the  other  man  passes 
them  through,  rejecting  as  much  of  the 
vegetable  and  other  debris  as  he  can  pos- 
sibly get  rid  of. 

When    the   sieve-sack    is   full    they   are 


Fig.  10.  A  Single  Shipment  of  Ladybirds. 
The  crate  holds  33.000  individuals  and  con- 
stitutes  a  colon.v  for  live  acres  of  melons  or 
orchard  infested  with  aphids    (plant  lice). 

transferred  to  ordinary  flour  sacks,  se- 
curely fastened  at  the  end,  and  laid  out 
on  the  snow,  later  to  be  taken  out  via 
the  mule  pack  train  to  the  railroad. 

Inasmuch  as  the  colonies  in  December 
and  January  are  usually  buried  beneath 
several  feet  of  snow,  it  would  not  be  pos- 


Fig.  11.  The  Ladybirds  (HU'Poflamia  rnn- 
vergens)  are  Measured  in  a  Chute-like  grain. 
The  machine  is  operated  with  slides  and 
counts  .'13.000  at  each  operation.  They  are 
packed  in  excelsior. 


620 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


sible  to  find  them  but  for  the  maps  previ- 
ously made  on  the  cards  in  the  manner 
already  described.  Provided  with  these 
maps,  our  field  men  know  just  where  to 
look  and  lose  no  time.  Their  task,  how- 
ever, is  difficult  and  laborious. 

Usually  once  a  week  a  mule  pack  train 
comes  over  the  mountain  trail  to  the 
camp  to  bring  supplies  and  to  carry  away 
the  sacks  of  beetles  which  have  been 
accumulated.  By  this  means  the  insects 
are  conveyed  to  the  nearest  railway  sta- 
tion, which  is  a  distance  of  about  12 
miles,  where  a  small  building  has  been 
rented  and  equipped  as  a  packing  house. 
Here  the  crop  is  cleaned,  put  up  in  suit- 
able packages,  and  made  ready  for  the 
long  hibernation. 

Between  the  time  that  the  field  men 
return  from  the  preliminary  location  and 
the  time  the  real  collecting  begins,  the 
insectary  force,  assisted  by  the  field  men, 
are  busily  engaged  in  making  the  ship- 
ping crates.  Each  one  is  13  inches  long, 
eight  inches  wide,  and  12  inches  deep, 
covered  on  two  sides  with  fine  mesh  wire 
netting  and  loosely  filled  with  dry,  clean 
excelsior.  These  receptacles  are  eventu- 
ally   to    contain    the    ladybird    crop,    and 


<=-nica,  <3ii:3^^ 


Fig.  13.  The  Golden  Chalcid  (Ai)ltelinus  dias- 
phlis  Howard  [Family  Eulophidael  ).  The 
adults  are  esceedinely  small  and  delicate, 
bright  yellow  insects.  Common  throughout 
the  south  part  o£  California,  though  it  prob- 
ably occurs  in  many  central  and  northern 
sections.  Parasitic  upon  red  scale  (Chrysam- 
phalus  auiantiit  and  rose  scale  tAulacaspis 
rosae ) . 

when  completed  they  are  shipped  to  the 
packing  house  in  the  mountains. 

During  the  packing  season  one  man  is 
left  in  charge  of  the  packing  house,  who 
attends  to  recleaning  and  resacking  the 
insects.  He  then  proceeds  with  the  next 
step  in  the  packing  process,  which  is  to 
pour  the  bugs  from  the  sacks  into  an 
ingenious  machine  which  counts  them: 
they  are  counted,  that  is  to  say,  by  meas- 
urement. Dropping  into  a  sort  of  hopper, 
made  of  tin  and  glass,  they  are  measured 
as  they  pass  through  this  machine  (which 
is  operated  by  a  system  of  slides)  into 
the  shipping  crates  before  mentioned. 


Fig.  1'-.  .\  I'ullect.ir  Coming  into  Camp  with 
a  Day's  Catch.  Each  collector  carries  a 
sieve  and  wears  rubber  boots  to  keep  out 
the  snow. 


Fig.  14.  The  Two  Stabbed  Ladybird  Beetle 
(Chiloconis  biridnerus  Muls).  The  adults 
are  broadly  oval  and  about  three-sixteenths 
of  an  incti  long.  The  color  is  shiny  black 
with  two  round  blood-red  spots  upon  the 
wing  covers.  The  extreme  margins  of  the 
prothorax  are  pale.  The  under  side  of  the 
abdomen  is  red.  The  larvae  are  very  shiny, 
dark  in  color,  with  a  yellow  tranverse  band 
across  the  middle.  This  is  one  of  the  na- 
tive ladybird  beetles  and  is  to  be  found  in 
almost  every  part  of  California.  The  larvae 
and  adults  are  voracious  feeders  upon  the 
San  Jose  scale  (Aspiiliotun  pcrniciosus), 
young  of  the  black  scale  (Saissetia  olcac), 
inealy  bugs  < Pseudococcus  cUri  and  P.  lonn- 
ispinus),  oyster  shell  scale  {Lepidosaphcs 
ulmi),  European  elm  scale  (Gosst/paria 
spuna^   and  other  scale  insects. 


BENEFICIAL  INSECTS 


621 


Fig.  15.  The  Pui'ple  Scale  Tarasite  (Aspidio- 
Uplumus  citrinus  Craw  [Family  Eulophi- 
dae]).  An  exceedingly  small  insect,  almost 
microscopic  in  size,  lisht  and  brownish  yel- 
low in  color  with  winjrs,  antennae  and  legs 
pale.  Generally  distributed  throughout  the 
purple  scale-infested  citrus  districts  in  the 
southern  part  of  California,  but  often  limited 
or  totally  absent  in  certain  localities.  Works 
uncertainly  but  often  very  effectually  on 
purple  scale.  (Lepidosaphes  beckit)  in  small 
localities,  but  of  little  consequence  in  con- 
trolling this  pest.  It  also  works  on  yellow 
scale  (Chrysomphalus  citrinus),  red  scale 
(Chrysoniphahis  aurantii).  and  pernicious 
scale  (Aspi<Iiotus   Pcfniciosus). 


Fig.  16.  Parasite  of  the  Soft  Brown  Scale 
(Encjp'ius  flavus  Howard  [Family  Encyrti- 
<Jae]).  A  small  parasite  scarcely  one-six- 
teenth of  an  inch  long.  The  general  color 
of  the  female  is  ochre :  compound  eyes 
brown  :  ocelli  red  :  antennae  yellow  with  tips 
black  :  the  tips  of  the  feet  black.  The  basal 
third  of  the  fore  wines  are  clear  with  the 
remainder  clouded  with  brown :  the  hind 
wings  are  clear.  The  males  are  consider- 
ably smaller  than  the  females,  and  shiny 
metallic  sreen  in  color  with  legs  and  anten- 
nae very  light :  wings  clear  with  brown 
veins.  Quite  common  throughout  California, 
but  especially  abundant  in  the  southern  part. 
The  soft  brown  scale  (Coccus  hesperidum) 
is  often  very  effectually  checked  by  its 
attacks. 

The  beetles  are  now  in  their  final  pack- 
ages ready  for  distribution.  But  the 
time  when  they  are  needed  will  not  ar- 
rive for  six  months,  and  meanwhile  they 
must  be  kept  alive  and  in  first  class  condi- 
tion. This,  Indeed,  is  the  most  difficult 
part  of  the  whole  business,  the  great 
problem  being,  as  will  be  understood,  to 
extend  by  artificial  means,  the  natural 
hibernating  period  of  the  beetles  in  such 
a  way  that  they  may  not  lose  any  of 
their  vitality. 


In  order  that  this  may  be  accomplished 
they  must  be  kept  cold,  without  exposure 
to  any  marked  change  in  temperature.  If 
they  are  allowed  to  become  warm,  even 
for  a  little  while,  or  moisture  comes  in 
contact  with  them,  they  will  heat  and 
cake  into  a  solid  mass,  thus  killing  the 
entire  colony  in  a  remarkably  short  time. 

A  temperature  slightly  under  40  de- 
grees Fahrenheit  and  plenty  of  ventilation 
is  an  absolute  necessity,  and  the  air  must 
also  be  slightly  moist,  and  the  "crop" 
requires  continual  attention  and  at  times 
the  conditions  must  be  changed  quickly, 
or  the  entire  lot  will  be  lost. 


Fig.  17.  Parasite  of  the  Brown  Apricot  Scale 
iComys  fusca  Howard  [Family  Encyrtidae] ), 
The  adults  of  this  parasite  are  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  long  and  rich  brown 
throughout  in  color.  The  wings  are  clouded 
with  brownish  markings,  the  bases  remain- 
ing clear  and  when  folded  over  the  back, 
form  a  silverlike  spot  which  is  very  notice- 
able when  the  insects  are  walking.  The  veins 
are  black.  The  tips  of  the  legs  are  yellow- 
ish with  dark  claws.  One  of  the  mist  com- 
mon parasites  occurring  in  all  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia. Of  all  the  internal  parasites  of  scale 
insects  this  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  and 
is  often  quite  a  controlling  factor  in  keeping 
down  the  brown  apricot  scale  (Leacnium 
rorpi}. 


Fig.  18.  Scale  Parasite  iCoccophatjus  Iccanii 
Fitch  [Family  Eulophidael ).  Tlie  adults 
are  scarcel.y  one-eightli  of  an  inch  long,  dark 
bluish-black  in  color  with  a  very  noticeable 
and  characteristic  yellow  scutellum.  The 
antennae  and  the  legs,  excepting  the  dark 
femora,  are  amber.  Exceedingly  common 
throughout  the  entire  southern  and  central 
parts  of  California.  A  very  effective  parasite 
on  soft-brown  scale  (Coccus  hesperidum  J , 
European  fruit  scale  (Lecanium  corni)  and 
frosted  scale  (Eulecanium  pruinosum).  In 
fact  It  may  be  reared  from  almost  any  of  the 
members  of  the  above  genera. 


622 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


The  Insects  are  packed  in  colonies  on 
an  average  of  33.000  to  each  colony.  They 
are  distributed  in  various  ways;  the  small 
individual  colonies  being  sent  direct  to 
the  applicants,  while  large  consignments 
intended  to  Cover  an  entire  district,  such 
as  the  Imperial  valley,  are  usually  pre- 
ceded by  an  agent  from  the  Insectary,  who 
figures  out  the  acreage  and  prorates  the 
amount  that  can  be  supplied  to  each 
grower  or  association,  and  personally  at- 
tends to  the  distributing  of  the  colonies. 

Last  season's  crop  (1912)  was  excep- 
tionally large,  and  when  massed  at  the 
state  Insectary,  just  prior  to  the  actual 
shipping  season,  this  lot  of  insect  friends, 
combined  with  all  the  other  various  spe- 
cies of  beneficial  insects  propagated  at 
the  Insectary,  constituted  what  was  un- 
doubtedly the  largest  number  of  beneficial 
insects  ever  assembled  at  one  place  in 
the  history  of  the  world. 

Many  other  species  of  ladybirds,  both 
native  and  imported,  are  propagated,  col- 
lected and  distributed  into  the  various 
fruit  growing  sections  of  California  to 
assist  our  growers  in  maintaining  the 
continuous  warfare  against  the  inroads  of 
destructive  forms. 

Other  species  belonging  to  the  Hyme- 
noptera  (four-winged  flies)  and  Diptera 
(two-winged  flies)  have  proven  of  in- 
calculable benefit  to  the  grower  of  fruit 
in  this  state,  as  well  as  various  species 
of  Syrphus  flies.  Lace-wing  flies  and 
Tachinid  flies. 

A  few  of  the  more  important  species, 
with  explanatory  notes  accompanied  by 
illustrations,  will  give  a  general  idea  of 
the  scope  of  the  work  and  the  variety  of 
forms  handled. 

The  work  of  propagating  the  various 
species  calls  for  ingenuity  of  the  highest 
order  in  every  case.  With  no  precedent 
to  be  guided  by,  methods  and  apparatus 
have  to  be  improvised  as  we  go  along. 
The  artificial  propagation  work  has  not 
resolved  itself  into  any  systematic  ar- 
rangement, except:  Try  to  produce  arti- 
ficially, conditions  as  near  natural  as  pos- 
sible in  which  to  propagate  your  species. 

While  the  work  of  the  California  State 
Insectary  has  made  wonderful  progress 
in  the  few  years  it  has  been  commer- 
cially established,  we  are  only  at  the 
threshold  of  the  science  and  undoubtedly 
the  future  will  show   even  greater  prog- 


ress than  has  the  past,  at  least,  that  is 
the  sincere  wish  of  the  first  and  only 
superintendent  of  the  California  State 
Insectary. 

The  Codling  Moth  Parasite 

Caliephialtes  messor 
This  insect  is  a  member  of  the  Ichneu- 
monidae,   a   parasitic   family   of   the   Hy- 


tssis 

Fis.  1!>.  Tbe  Codling  Moth  Tarasite  (Callie- 
lihialtis  messor  Gi-av.  [Family  Iclineu- 
monidael).  Tlie  minute  eggs  deposited  in 
the  cocoons  of  the  codling  moth  are  shiny 
white,  almost  transparent  in  color  and  long 
and  narrow,  with  one  end  slightly  enlarged. 
The  adults  are  very  active,  four-winged  para- 
sites, averaging  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in 
length,  exclusive  of  the  ovipositor  which  is 
slightly  longer  than  the  body  in  the  females. 
The  males  are  slightly  smaller.  Tbe  gen- 
eral color  is  black  with  reddish-yellow  legs. 
The  female,  with  her  long  ovipositor,  inserts 
an  egg  into  the  cocoon  of  the  codling  moth. 
In  a  few  days  this  egg  hatches  into  a  small, 
legless  grub,  which  begins  to  feed  upon  the 
larva.  The  subsequent  development  Is  very 
rapid  and  at  the  end  of  from  nine  to  sixteen 
days  the  larva  spins  a  cocoon  within  the  old 
shell  and  after  another  like  period  emerges 
as  an  adult.  The  males  emerge  first  and 
await  the  females,  when  mating  occurs  and 
the  life  cycle  repeated  ;  the  females  continu- 
ally searching  for  cocoons  into  which  to  de- 
posit their  supply  of  eggs.  This  parasite  was 
discovered  in  Southern  Europe  by  George 
Compere,  who  collected  large  numbers  and 
.sent  them  to  the  State  Insectary  some  eight 
years  ago.  During  this  period  tlie  Insectary 
has  been  breeding  and  sending  it  out  to  all 
parts  of  Califoi-nia  where  the  codling  moth 
is  a  factor  in  fruit  growing.  It  was  espe- 
cially thoroughly  distributed  in  the  central 
and  southern  parts.  The  larvae  enclosed  In 
the  cocoons  are  the  only  stages  of  the  cod- 
ling moth  attacked.  These  are  carefully 
searched  out  by  the  females  which  have  a 
wonderful  instinct  to  locate  them  as  well  as 
to  ascertain  whether  they  have  already  been 
parasitized  or  not. 


BENEFICIAL  INSECTS— BIRDS  USEFUL  TO  FARM  AND  ORCHARD       623 


menoptera.  Introduced  from  Europe, 
where  it  is  a  very  effective  check  upon 
the  codling  moth  (Carpcapsa  pomonella), 
the  apple  worm. 

Ichneumon  species  are  the  most  difficult 
to  establish  of  all  our  beneficial  species, 
often  requiring  several  years  to  become 
numerous  enough  to  be  of  great  benefit. 

A  large  stock  of  this  particular  species 
is  reared  each  year  and  distributed 
throughout  the  apple  and  pear  growing 
sections  of  the  state. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
species  propagated  at  the  Insectary  and 
we  hope  to  eventually  establish  it  in  all 
sections  of  the  state.  Marked  results  are 
expected  from  its  introduction  as  soon  as 
it  can  adjust  itself  to  our  unnatural  con- 
ditions that  at  present  prevail  in  our 
commercial  orchards. 

Edward  K.  Ca^bnes 

December   20,   1912. 


Note — The  etchings  and  descriptions  in  fine 
print  of  insects  in  this  article  are  from  the 
Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  California  Commis 
sion  of  Horticulture,  Vol.  II,  Nos.  1  and  'J. 
The  photos  are  by  the  author,  except  Pig. 
19,  which  is  from   the  above  source — Editor. 

Birds  Useful  To  Farm  and 
Orchzu-d 

Entomologists  estimate  that  insects 
"yearly  cause  a  loss  of  over  $700,000,000 
to  the  agriculture  of  the  United  States. 
Were  it  not  for  our  birds,  the  loss  would 
be  very  much  greater,  and  it  is  doubtful 
if  agriculture  would  be  possible.  A 
knowledge  of  the  birds  that  protect  the 
crops,  is  therefore  as  important  as  a 
knowledge  of  the  pests  that  destroy  them. 
Such  knowledge  is  the  more  important, 
because  some  birds  are  injurious,  some 
are  partly  useful  and  partly  injurious, 
and  others,  a  few,  are  always  useful. 
For  instance,  there  are  insects  that  are 
parasitic  and  predatory,  feeding  upon 
other  insects  that  injure  the  crops,  but 
insectiverous  birds  destroy  the  useful  and 
harmful  alike.  However,  the  good  they 
do  by  the  destruction  of  harmful  insects, 
is  far  greater  than  the  harm  they  do  by 
the  destruction  of  useful  kinds.  Even 
the  birds  called  noxious,  possess  some  re- 
deeming qualities  and  traits.  Thus  the 
crow  is  mischievous  in  spring,  pulling  up 


the  newly  planted  corn,  and  destroying 
the  eggs  of  useful  birds.  But  on  the 
other  hand,  he  eats  insects,  grubs,  cut 
worms,  meadow  mice,  gophers  and  other 
rodents,  so  that  he  is  more  useful  than 
harmful. 

Because  their  powers  of  flight  enable 
them  to  gather  rapidly  at  points  where 
there  are  abnormal  outbreaks  of  insects, 
birds  are  especially  useful  in  protecting 
certain  localities  from  scourges  of  grass- 
hoppers and  other  pests;  for  an  unusual 
number  of  insects  in  any  particular  lo- 
cality attracts  the  birds,  and  they  never 
leave  until  the  insects  are  under  control. 

America  is  greatly  favored  in  the  num- 
ber and  character  of  its  birds,  which  not 
only  include  some  of  the  gems  of  the  bird 
world,  as  warblers  and  humming  birds, 
but  on  the  whole  embrace  few  destruct- 
ive species.  Not  only  do  many  birds  sat- 
isfy our  esthetic  sense  through  their 
beautiful  plumage  and  their  sweet  voices, 
but  they  are  marvelously  adapted  to  their 
respective  fields  of  activity.  No  other 
creatures  are  so  well  fitted  to  capture 
flying  insects  as  swallows,  swifts  and 
nighthawks.  Among  the  avian  ranks  also 
are  wrens,  trim  of  body  and  agile  of 
movement,  that  creep  in  and  out  of  holes 
and  crevices  and  explore  rubbish  heaps 
for  hidden  insects.  The  woodpecker,  whose 
whole  body  exhibits  wonderful  adaptation 
of  means  to  an  end,  is  provided  with 
strong  claws  for  holding  firmly  when  at 
work,  a  chisel-like  bill  driven  by  power- 
ful muscles  to  dig  out  insects,  and  a  long 
extensible  tongue  to  still  further  explore 
the  hidden  retreats  of  insects  and  drag 
forth  the  concealed  larvae,  safe  from 
other  foes.  The  creepers,  titmice,  warb- 
lers, flycatchers,  quails,  doves,  and  other 
families  have  each  their  own  special  field 
of  activity.  However  unlike  they  may  be 
in  appearance,  structure,  and  habits,  all 
are  similar  in  one  respect — they  possess 
a  never  flagging  appetite  for  insects  and 
weed  seeds. 

One  of  the  most  useful  groups  of  native 
birds  is  the  sparrow  family.  While  some 
of  the  tribe  wear  gay  suits  of  many  hues, 
most  of  the  sparrows  are  clad  in  modest 
brown  tints,  and  as  they  spend  much  of 


624 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the  time  in  grass  and  weeds  are  com- 
monly overlooked.  Unobtrusive  as  they 
are,  they  lay  the  farmer  under  a  heavy 
debt  of  gratitude  by  their  food  habits, 
since  their  chosen  fare  consists  largely 
of  the  seeds  of  weeds.  Selecting  a  typi- 
cal member  of  the  group,  the  tree  spar- 
row, for  instance,  one-fourth  ounce  of 
weed  seed  per  day  is  a  conservative  esti- 
mate of  the  food  of  an  adult.  On  this 
basis,  in  a  large  agricultural  state  like 
Iowa  tree  sparrows  annually  eat  approx- 
imately 875  tons  of  weed  seeds.  Only  the 
farmer,  upon  whose  shoulders  falls  the 
heavy  burden  of  freeing  his  land  of  noxi- 
ous weeds,  can  realize  what  this  vast  con- 
sumption of  weed  seeds  means  in  the 
saving  and  cost  of  labor.  Some  idea  of 
the  money  value  of  this  group  of  birds  to 
the  country  may  be  gained  from  the  state- 
ment that  the  total  value  of  the  farm 
products  in  the  United  States  in  1910 
reached  the  amazing  sum  of  $8,926,000,- 
000.  If  we  estimate  that  the  total  con- 
sumption of  weed  seed  by  the  combined 
members  of  the  sparrow  family  resulted 
in  a  saving  of  only  one  per  cent  of  the 
crops — not  a  violent  assumption — the  sum 
saved  to  farmers  by  these  birds  in  1910 
was  $89,260,000. 

The  current  idea  in  relation  to  hawks 
and  owls  is  erroneous.  These  birds  are 
generally  classed  as  thieves  and  robbers, 
whereas  a  large  majority  of  them  are  the 
farmer's  friends  and  spend  the  greater  part 
of  their  long  lives  in  pursuit  of  injurious 
Insects  and  rodents.  The  hawks  work 
by  day,  the  owls  chiefly  by  night,  so  that 
the  useful  activities  of  the  two  classes 
are  continued  practically  throughout  the 
24  hours.  As  many  as  100  grasshoppers 
have  been  found  in  the  stomach  of  a 
Swainson's  hawk,  representing  a  single 
meal ;  and  in  the  retreat  of  a  pair  of  barn 
owls  have  been  found  more  than  3,000 
skulls,  97  per  cent  of  which  were  of  mam- 
mals, the  bulk  consisting  of  field  mice, 
house  mice  and  common  rats.  Nearly  half 
a  bushel  of  the  remains  of  pocket  goph- 
ers— animals  which  are  very  destructive 
in  certain  parts  of  the  United  States^ 
was  found  near  a  nest  of  this  species.  The 
notable  increase  of  noxious  rodents  during 


the  last  few  years  in  certain  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  the  consequent  dam- 
age to  crops  are  due  in  no  small  part  to 
the  diminished  number  of  birds  of  prey, 
which  formerly  destroyed  them  and  aided 
in  keeping  down  their  numbers.  A  few 
hawks  are  injurious,  and  the  bulk  of  the 
depredations  on  birds  and  chickens 
chargeable  against  hawks  is  committed 
by  three  species  —  the  cooper's  hawk, 
the  sharp-shinned  hawk,  and  the  gos- 
hawk. The  farmer's  boy  should  learn 
to  know  these  daring  robbers  by  sight, 
so  as  to  kill  them  whenever  possible. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  at  once  ap- 
pear that  the  practice  of  offering  boun- 
ties indiscriminately  for  the  heads  of 
hawks  and  owls,  as  has  been  done  by 
some  States,  is  a  serious  mistake,  the 
result  being  not  only  a  waste  of  public 
funds  but  the  destruction  of  valuable 
birds  which  can  be  replaced,  if  at  all, 
only  after  the  lapse  of  years. 

As  a  rule  birds  do  not  live  very  long, 
but  they  live  fast.  They  breathe  rapid- 
ly and  have  a  higher  temperature  and  a 
more  rapid  circulation  than  other  verte- 
brates. This  is  a  fortunate  circum- 
stance, since  to  generate  the  requisite 
force  to  sustain  their  active  bodies  a 
large  quantity  of  food  is  necessary,  and 
as  a  matter  of  fact  birds  have  to  devote 
most  of  their  waking  hours  to  obtaining 
insects,  seeds,  berries,  and  other  kinds  of 
food.  The  activity  of  birds  in  the  pur- 
suit of  insects  is  still  further  stimulated 
by  the  fact  that  the  young  of  most 
species,  even  those  which  are  by  no 
means  strictly  insectivorous,  require 
great  quantities  of  animal  food  in  the 
early  weeks  of  existence,  so  that  during 
the  summer  months — the  flood  time  of  in- 
sect life — birds  are  compelled  to  redouble 
their  attacks  on  our  insect  foes  to  satisfy 
the   wants  of  their  clamorous  young. 

Field  observations  of  the  food  habits 
of  birds  serve  a  useful  purpose,  but  they 
are  rarely  accurate  enough  to  be  fully 
reliable.  The  presence  of  certain  birds 
in  a  corn  or  wheat  field  or  in  an  orchard 
is  by  no  means  proof,  as  is  too  often  as- 
sumed, that  they  are  devastating  the 
grain  or  fruit.     They  may  have  been  at- 


BIRDS  USEFUL  TO  FARM  AND  ORCHARD 


625 


tracted  by  insects  which,  unknown  to 
the  farmer  or  orchardist,  are  fast  ruin- 
ing his  crop.  Hence  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  examine  the  stomachs  and 
crops  of  birds  to  ascertain  definitely 
what  and  how  much  they  eat.  The  Bio- 
logical Survey  has  in  this  way  examined 
upward  of  50,000  birds,  most  of  which 
have  been  obtained  during  the  last  25 
years  from  scientific  collectors,  for  our 
birds  are  too  useful  to  be  sacrificed  when 
it  can  possibly  be  avoided,  even  for  the 
sake  of  obtaining  data  upon  which  to 
base  legislation  for  their  protection. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  hungry 
birds — and  birds  are  hungry  most  of  the 
time — are  not  content  to  fill  their  stom- 
achs with  insects  or  seeds,  but  after  the 
stomach  is  stuffed  until  it  will  hold  no 
more  continue  to  eat  till  the  crop  or 
gullet  also  is  crammed.  It  is  often  the 
case  that  when  the  stomach  is  opened 
and  the  contents  piled  up  the  pile  is  two 
or  three  times  as  large  as  the  stomach 
was  when  filled.  Birds  may  truly  be  said 
to  have  healthy  appetites.  To  show  the 
astonishing  capacity  of  birds'  stomachs 
and  to  reveal  the  extent  to  which  man  is 
indebted  to  birds  for  the  destruction  of 
noxious  insects,  the  following  facts  are 
given  as  learned  by  stomach  examina- 
tions made  by  assistants  of  the  Biologi- 
cal Survey: 

A  tree  swallow's  stomach  was  found  to 
contain  40  entire  chinch  bugs  and  frag- 
ments of  many  others,  besides  10  other 
species  of  insects.  A  bank  swallow  in 
Texas  devoured  68  cotton-boll  weevils, 
one  of  the  worst  insect  pests  that  ever 
invaded  the  United  States  and  35  cliff 
swallows  had  taken  an  average  of  18 
boll  weevils  each.  Two  stomachs  of  pine 
siskins  from  Haywards,  Cal.,  contained 
1.900  black  olive. scales  and  300  plant  lice. 
A  killdeer's  stomach  taken  in  November 
in  Texas  contained  over  300  mosquito 
larvae.  A  flicker's  stomach  held  28 
white  grubs.  A  nighthawk's  stomach  col- 
lected in  Kentucky  contained  34  May 
beetles,  the  adult  form  of  white  grubs. 
Another  nighthawk  from  New  York  had 
eaten  24  clover-leaf  weevils  and  375  ants. 
Still    another    nighthawk    had    eaten    340 


grasshoppers,  52  bugs,  3  beetles.  2  wasps 
and  a  spider.  A  boat-tailed  grackle  from 
Texas  had  eaten  at  one  meal  about  100 
cotton  boUworms,  besides  a  few  other  in- 
sects. A  ring-necked  pheasant's  crop 
from  Washington  contained '8,000  seeds  of 
chickweed  and  a  dandelion  head.  More 
than  72,000  seeds  have  been  found  in  a 
single  duck  stomach  taken  in  Louisiana 
in  February. 

A  knowledge  of  his  bird  friends  and 
enemies,  therefore,  is  doubly  important 
to  the  farmer  and  orchardist  in  order 
that  he  may  protect  the  kinds  that  earn 
protection  by  their  services  and  may 
drive  away  or  destroy  the  others.  At  the 
present  time  many  kinds  of  useful  birds 
need  direct  intervention  in  their  behalf 
as  never  before.  The  encroachments  of 
civilization  on  timbered  tracts  and  the 
methods  of  modern  Intensive  cultivation 
by  destroying  or  restricting  breeding 
grounds  of  birds  tend  to  diminish  their 
ranks.  The  number  of  insect  pests,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  all  the  time  increasing 
by  leaps  and  bounds  through  importa- 
tions from  abroad  and  by  migration  from 
adjoining  territories.  Every  effort,  there- 
fore, should  be  made  to  augment  the 
numbers  of  our  useful  birds  by  protect- 
ing them  from  their  enemies,  by  provid- 
ing nesting  facilities,  and  by  furnishing 
them  food  in  times  of  stress,  especially 
in  winter. 

Important  in  this  connection  is  the 
planting  near  the  house  and  even  in  out- 
of-the-way  places  on  the  farm  of  various 
berry-bearing  shrubs,  many  of  which  are 
ornamental,  which  will  supply  food  when 
snow  is  on  the  ground.  Other  species 
which  are  not  berry  eaters,  like  the  wood- 
peckers, nuthatches,  creepers,  and  chick- 
adees, can  be  made  winter  residents  of 
many  farms,  even  in  the  North,  by  put- 
ting out  at  convenient  places  a  supply  of 
suet,  of  which  they  and  many  other  birds 
are  very  fond,  even  in  summer.  Hedges 
and  thickets  about  the  farm  are  impor- 
tant to  furnish  nesting  sites  and  shelter 
both  from  the  elements  and  from  the 
numerous  enemies  of  birds. 

Few  are  aware  of  the  difficulty  often 
experienced  by  birds  in  obtaining  water 


626 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


for  drinking  and  bathing,  and  a  constant 
supply  of  water  near  the  farmhouse  will 
materially  aid  in  attracting  birds  to  the 
neighborhood  and  in  keeping  them  there, 
at  least  till  the  time  of  migration.  Shal- 
low trays  of  wood  or  metal  admirably 
serve  the  purpose,  especially  as  birds  de- 
light to  bathe  in  them. 

Considerable  success  has  been  met  with 
in  Germany  and  elsewhere  in  Europe  by 
supplying  artificial  nest  boxes  for  birds, 
and  the  same  method  of  increasing  the 
number  of  birds  and  attracting  them  to 
farms  and  orchards  where  their  services 
are  most  needed  should  be  extensively 
employed  in  this  country.  The  experi- 
ment can  the  more  easily  be  tried  since 
several  firms  in  the  United  States  are 
now  prepared  to  make  and  deliver  boxes 
specially  designed  for  martins,  swallows, 
bluebirds,  wrens,  woodpeckers,  and  other 
species.  The  average  farmer's  boy,  how- 
ever, if  provided  with  a  few  tools,  is  quite 
equal  to  the  task  of  making  acceptable 
boxes  for  the  commoner  species,  which 
are  far  from  fastidious  as  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  box  intended  for  their  oc- 
cupancy. 

One  of  the  worst  foes  of  our  native 
birds  is  the  house  cat,  and  probably  none 
of  our  native  wild  animals  destroys  as 
many  birds  on  the  farm,  particularly 
fledglings,  as  cats.  The  household  pet  is 
by  no  means  blameless  in  this  respect, 
for  the  bird-hunting  instinct  is  strong 
even  in  the  well-fed  tabby;  but  much  of 
the  loss  of  our  feathered  life  is  attribut- 
able to  the  half-starved  stray,  which  in 
summer  is  as  much  at  home  in  the  groves 
and  fields  as  the  birds  themselves. 
Forced  to  forage  for  their  own  livelihood, 
these  animals,  which  are  almost  as  wild 
as  the  ancestral  wildcat,  inflict  an  ap- 
palling loss  on  our  feathered  allies  and 
even  on  the  smaller  game  birds  like  the 
woodcock  and  bobwhite.  If  cats  are  to 
find  place  In  the  farmer's  household 
every  effort  should  be  made  by  careful 
feeding  and  watching  them  to  insure  the 
safety  of  the  birds.  The  cat  without  a 
home  should  be  mercifully  put  out  of  the 
way. 

In   the   present  article   50   of  our  com- 


moner birds  are  discussed,  including 
some  that  are  destructive.  They  inhabit 
various  parts  of  the  country,  and  it  is 
for  the  interest  of  the  farmers  of  the  re- 
spective localities  to  be  familiar  with 
them.  The  accounts  of  the  birds'  habits 
are  necessarily  brief,  but  they  are  be- 
lieved to  be  sufficient  to  acquaint  the 
reader  with  the  most  prominent  charac- 
teristics of  the  several  species,  at  least 
from  the  standpoint  of  their  relation  to 
man. 

Bluebird 

Sialia  sialis 

Length,*  about  six  and  one-half  inches. 

Kaugre 

Breeds  in  the  United  States  (west  to 
Arizona,  Colorado,  W5-oming,  and  Mon- 
tana), Southern  Canada,  Mexico,  and 
Gautemala:  winters  in  the  southern  half 
of  the  Eastern  United  States  and  south 
to  Gautemala. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  bluebird  is  one  of  the  most 
familiar  tenants  of  the  farm  and  door- 
yard.  This  bird,  like  the  robin,  phoebe, 
house  wren,  and  some  swallows,  is  very 
domestic  in  its  habits.  Its  favorite  nest- 
ing sites  are  crannies  in  the  farm  build- 
ings or  boxes  made  for  its  use  or  natural 
cavities  in  old  apple  trees.  For  rent  the 
bird  pays  amply  by  destroying  insects, 
and  it  takes  no  toll  from  the  farm  crop. 
The  bluebird's  diet  consists  of  68  per 
cent  of  insects  to  32  per  cent  of  vege- 
table matter.  The  largest  items  of  in- 
sect food  are  grasshoppers  first  and 
beetles  next,  while  caterpillars  stand  third. 
All  of  these  are  harmful  except  a  few 
of  the  beetles.  The  vegetable  food  con- 
sists chiefly  of  fruit  pulp,  only  an  in- 
significant portion  of  which  is  of  cul- 
tivated varieties.  Among  wild  fruits  el- 
derberries are  the  favorite.  From  the 
above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  bluebird 
does  no  essential  harm,  but  eats  many 
harmful   and   annoying   insects. 

Robin 

Planfsticus    migratorius 
Length,   10   inches. 


•  Measured  from   tip  of  bill   to  tip  of  tail. 


BIRDS  USEFUL  TO  FARM  AND  ORCHARD 


627 


Breeds  in  the  United  States  (except 
the  Gulf  states),  Canada,  Alaska,  and 
Mexico;  winters  in  most  o(  the  United 
States  and  south  to  Gautemala. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

In  the  North  and  some  parts  of  the 
West  the  robin  is  among  the  most  cher- 
ished of  our  native  birds.  The  robin  is 
an  omnivorous  feeder,  and  its  food  in- 
cludes many  orders  of  insects,  with  no 
very  pronounced  preference  for  any.  It 
is  very  fond  of  earthworms,  but  its  real 
economic  status  is  determined  by  the 
vegetable  food,  which  amounts  to  about 
58  per  cent  of  all.  The  principal  item  is 
fruit,  which  forms  more  than  51  per  cent 
of  the  total  food.  The  fact  that  in  the 
examination  of  over  1,200  stomachs  the 
percentage  of  wild  fruit  was  found  to  be 
5  times  that  of  the  cultivated  varieties 
suggests  that  berry-bearing  shrubs,  if 
planted  near  the  orchard,  will  serve  to 
protect  more  valuable  fruits.  The  bird's 
general  usefulness  is  such,  however,  that 
all  reasonable  means  of  protecting  or- 
chard fruit  should  be  tried  before  killing 
the   birds. 

Ensset-Backed  Tlirnsh 
Hylocichla  ustulata 

Length,  seven  and  one-fourth  inches. 
Among  thrushes  having  the  top  of  head 
and  tail  nearly  the  same  color  as  the 
back,  this  one  is  distinguished  by  its 
tawny  eye  ring  and  cheeks.  The  Pacific 
coast  subspecies  is  russet  brown  above, 
while  the  other  suspecies  is  the  olive- 
backed  thrush.  The  remarks  below  apply 
to  the   species   as   a  whole. 

Range 

Breeds  in  the  forested  parts  of  Alaska 
and  Canada  and  south  to  California,  Colo- 
rado, Michigan,  New  York,  West  Virginia 
(mountains),  and  Maine;  winters  from 
Mexico  to  South  America. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

This  is  one  of  a  small  group  of  thrushes 
the  members  of  which  are  by  many 
ranked  first  among  American  songbirds. 
The  several  members  resemble  one  an- 
other in  size,  plumage,  and  habits.  While 
this    thrush    is    very    fond    of    fruit,    its 


partiality  for  the  neighborhood  of  streams 
keeps  it  from  frequenting  orchards  far 
from  water.  It  is  most  troublesome  dur- 
ing the  cherry  season,  when  the  young  are 
in  the  nest.  From  this  it  might  be  in- 
ferred that  the  young  are  fed  on  fruit, 
but  such  is  not  the  case.  The  adults  eat 
fruit,  but  the  nestlings,  as  usual,  are 
fed  mostly  upon  insects.  Beetles  con- 
stitute the  largest  item  of  animal  food, 
and  ants  come  next.  Many  caterpillars 
also  are  eaten.  The  great  bulk  of  vege- 
table food  consists  of  fruit,  of  which  two- 
fifths  is  of  cultivated  varieties.  Where 
these  birds  live  in  or  near  gardens  or 
orchards,  they  may  do  considerable  dam- 
age, but  they  are  too  valuable  as  insect 
destroyers  to  be  killed  if  the  fruit  can 
be   protected   in   any  other  way. 

Ruby-Crowned  Kinglet 

Regulus  calendula 

Length,  about  four  and  one-fourth 
inches.  Olive  green  above,  soiled  whitish 
below,  concealed  feathers  on  head  (crest) 
bright  red. 

Range 

Breeds  in  Southern  Canada,  Southern 
Alaska,  and  the  higher  mountains  of 
the  Western  United  States;  winters  in 
much  of  the  United  States  and  south  to 
Gautemala. 

Habits   and   Economic   Status 

In  habits  and  haunts  this  tiny  sprite 
resembles  a  chickadee.  It  is  an  active, 
nervous  little  creature,  flitting  hither  and 
yon  in  search  of  food,  and  in  spring 
stopping  only  long  enough  to  utter  its 
beautiful  song,  surprisingly  loud  for  the 
size  of  the  musician.  Three-fourths  of  its 
food  consists  of  wasps,  bugs,  and  flies. 
Beetles  are  the  only  other  item  of  impor- 
tance (12  per  cent).  The  bugs  eaten  by 
the  kinglet  are  mostly  small,  but,  happily, 
they  are  the  most  harmful  kinds.  Tree 
hoppers,  leaf  hoppers,  and  jumping  plant 
lice  are  pests  and  often  do  great  harm 
to  trees  and  smaller  plants,  while  plant 
lice  and  scale  insects  are  the  worst 
scourges  of  the  fruit  grower — in  fact,  the 
prevalence  of  the  latter  has  almost  risen 
to  the  magnitude  of  a  national  peril.  It 
is  these  small  and  seemingly  insignificant 
birds   that  most   successfully   attack   and 


628 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


hold  in  check  these  insidious  foes  of  hor- 
ticulture. The  vegetable  food  consists  of 
seeds  of  poison  ivy,  or  poison  oak,  a  few 
weed  seeds,  and  a  few  small  fruits, 
mostly  elderberries. 

Chickadee 

Penthestes  atricapiUus 
Length,     about     five     and     one-fourth 
inches. 

Range 
Resident  in  the  United   States    (except 
the    southern    half    east    of    the    plains), 
Canada  and  Alaska. 

Habits  and  Economic  Statns 

Because  of  its  delightful  notes,  its  con- 
fiding ways,  and  its  fearlessness,  the 
chickadee  is  one  of  our  best-known  birds. 
It  responds  to  encouragement,  and  by 
hanging  within  its  reach  a  constant  sup- 
ply of  suet  the  chickadee  can  be  made  a 
regular  visitor  to  the  garden  and  orchard. 
Though  insignificant  in  size,  titmice  are 
far  from  being  so  from  the  economic 
standpoint,  owing  to  their  numbers  and 
activity.  While  one  locality  is  being 
scrutinized  for  food  by  a  larger  bird,  10 
are  being  searched  by  the  smaller  species. 
The  chickadee's  food  is  made  up  of  in- 
sects and  vegetable  matter  in  the  pro- 
portion of  7  of  the  former  to  3  of  the 
latter.  Moths  and  caterpillars  are  fav- 
orites and  form  about  one-third  of  the 
whole.  Beetles,  ants,  wasps,  bugs,  flies, 
grasshoppers,  and  spiders  make  up  the 
rest.  The  vegetable  food  is  composed  of 
seeds,  largely  those  of  pines,  with  a  few 
of  the  poison  ivj-  and  some  weeds.  There 
are  few  more  useful  birds  than  the  chick- 
adees. 

White-Breasted    \nthatch 

Sitta  carolinensis 
Length,  six  inches.    White  below,  above 
gray,  with   a  black  head. 

Range 

Resident  in  the  United  States,  Southern 
Canada  and  Mexico. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

This  bird  might  readily  be  mistaken 
by  a  careless  observer  for  a  small  wood- 
pecker, but  its  note,  an  oft-repeated  yank. 
is  very  unwoodpecker-like.  and,  unlike 
either  woodpeckers  or  creepers  it  climbs 


downward  as  easily  as  upward  and  seems 
to  set  the  laws  of  gravity  at  defiance. 
The  name  was  suggested  by  the  habit  of 
wedging  nuts,  especially  beechnuts,  in 
the  crevices  of  bark  so  as  to  break  them 
open  by  blows  from  the  sharp,  strong 
bill.  The  nuthatch  gets  its  living  from 
the  trunks  and  branches  of  trees,  over 
which  it  creeps  from  daylight  to  dark. 
Insects  and  spiders  constitute  a  little 
more  than  50  per  cent  of  its  food.  The 
largest  items  of  these  are  beetles,  moths, 
and  caterpillars,  with  ants  and  wasps. 
The  animal  food  is  all  in  the  bird's  favor 
except  a  few  ladybird  beetles.  More  than 
half  of  the  vegetable  food  consists  of  mast, 
i.  e.,  acorns  and  other  nuts  or  large 
seeds.  One-tenth  of  the  food  is  grain, 
mostly  waste  corn.  The  nuthatch  does 
no  injury,  so  far  as  known,  and  much 
good. 

Brown  Creeper 
Certhia   familiaris   americana   and    other 
subspecies 
Length  five  and  one-half  inches. 

Range 

Breeds  from  Nebraska,  Indiana,  North 
Carolina  (mountains),  and  Massachusetts 
north  to  Southern  Canada,  also  in  the 
mountains  of  the  Western  United  States, 
north  to  Alaska,  south  to  Nicaragua; 
winters  over  most  of  its  range. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

Rarely  indeed  is  the  creeper  seen  at 
rest  It  appears  to  spend  its  life  in  an 
incessant  scramble  over  the  trunks  and 
branches  of  trees,  from  which  it  gets  all 
its  food.  It  is  protectively  colored  so 
as  to  be  practically  invisible  to  its 
enemies  and.  though  delicately  built,  pos- 
sesses amazingly  strong  claws  and  feet. 
Its  tiny  eyes  are  sharp  enough  to  detect 
insects  so  small  that  most  other  species 
pass  them  by,  and  altogether  the  creeper 
fills  a  unique  place  in  the  ranks  of  our 
insect  destroj-ers.  The  food  consists  of 
minute  insects  and  insects'  eggs,  also 
cocoons  of  tineid  moths,  small  wasps,  ants, 
and  bugs,  especially  scales  and  plant  lice, 
with  some  small  caterpillars.  As  the 
creeper  remains  in  the  United  States 
throughout  the  year,  it  naturally  secures 


BIRDS  USEFUL  TO  FARM  AND  ORCHARD 


629 


hibernating  insects  and  insects'  eggs,  as 
well  as  spiders  and  spiders'  eggs,  that  are 
missed  by  the  summer  birds.  On  its  bill 
of  fare  we  find  no  product  of  husbandry 
nor  any  useful  insects. 

House  Wren 

Troglodytes  aedon 

Length,  four  and  three-fourths  inches. 
The  only  one  of  our  wrens  with  wholly 
whitish  underparts  that  lacks  a  light  line 
over  the  eye. 

Baii^re 

Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
(except  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
states)  and  Southern  Canada;  winters 
in  the  Southern  United  States  and  Mexico. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  rich,  bubbling  song  of  the  familiar 
little  house  wren  is  one  of  the  sweetest 
associations  connected  with  country  and 
suburban  life.  Its  tiny  body,  long  bill, 
sharp  eyes,  and  strong  feet  peculiarly 
adapt  it  for  creeping  into  all  sorts  of 
nooks  and  crannies  where  lurk  the  in- 
sects it  feeds  on.  A  cavity  in  a  fence 
post,  a  hole  in  a  tree,  or  a  box  will  be 
welcomed  alike  by  this  busybody  as  a 
nesting  site;  but  since  the  advent  of  the 
quarrelsome  English  sparrow  such  domi- 
ciles are  at  a  premium  and  the  wren's 
eggs  and  family  are  safe  only  in  cavities 
having  entrances  too  small  to  admit  the 
sparrow.  Hence  it  behooves  the  farmer's 
boy  to  provide  boxes  the  entrances  to 
which  are  about  an  inch  in  diameter, 
nailing  these  under  gables  of  barns  and 
outhouses  or  in  orchard  trees.  In  this 
way  the  numbers  of  this  useful  bird  can 
be  increased,  greatly  to  the  advantage  of 
the  farmer.  Grasshoppers,  beetles,  cater- 
pillars, bugs,  and  spiders  are  the  prin- 
cipal elements  of  its  food.  Cutworms, 
weevils,  ticks,  and  plant  lice  are  among 
the  injurious  forms  eaten.  The  nestlings 
of  house  wrens  consume  great  quantities 
of  insects. 

Brown  Tbraslier 

Toxostoma  rufum 
Length,    about    11    inches.      Brownish 
red  above,  heavily  streaked  with  black  be- 
low. 


Ran^e 

Breeds  from  the  Gulf  states  to  Southern 
Canada  and  west  to  Colorado,  Wyoming, 
and  Montana;  winters  in  the  southern 
half  of  the  Eastern  United  States. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  brown  thrasher  is  more  retiring 
than  either  the  mocking  bird  or  catbird, 
but  like  them,  is  a  splendid  singer.  Not 
infrequently,  indeed,  its  song  is  taken 
for  that  of  its  more  famed  cousin,  the 
mocking  bird.  It  is  partial  to  thickets 
and  gets  much  of  its  food  from  the 
ground.  Its  search  for  this  is  usually  ac- 
companied by  much  scratching  and  scat- 
tering of  leaves;  whence  its  common 
name.  Its  call  note  is  a  sharp  sound  like 
the  smacking  of  lips,  which  is  useful  in 
identifying  this  long-tailed,  thicket-haunt- 
ing bird,  which  does  not  much  relish 
close  scrutiny.  The  brown  thrasher  is 
not  so  fond  of  fruit  as  the  catbird  and 
mocker,  but  devours  a  much  larger  per- 
centage of  animal  food.  Beetles  form 
one-half  of  the  animal  food,  grasshop- 
pers and  crickets  one-fifth,  caterpillars, 
including  cutworms,  somewhat  less  than 
one-fifth,  and  bugs,  spiders,  and  millipeds 
comprise  most  of  the  remainder.  The 
brown  thrasher  feeds  on  such  coleopter- 
ous pests  as  wire  worms,  May  beetles,  rice 
weevils,  rose  beerles,  and  figeaters.  By 
its  destruction  of  these  and  other  insects, 
which  constitute  more  than  60  per  cent 
of  its  food,  the  thrasher  much  more  than 
compensates  for  that  portion  (about  one- 
tenth)  of  its  diet  derived  from  cultivated 
crops. 

Catbird 
Dumetella  caroUnensis 

Length,  about  nine  inches.  The  slaty 
gray  plumage  and  black  cap  and  tail  are 
distinctive. 

Range 

Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
west  to  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Oregon  and 
Washington,  and  in  Southern  Canada; 
winters  from  the  Gulf  states  to  Panama. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

In  many  localities  the  catbird  is  one 
of  the  commonest  birds.  Tangled  growths 
are    its    favorite    nesting    places    and    re- 


630 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


treats,  but  berry  patches  and  ornamental 
shrubbery  are  not  disdained.  Hence  the 
bird  is  a  familiar  dooryard  visitor.  The 
bird  has  a  fine  song,  unfortunately 
marred  by  occasional  cat  calls.  With 
habits  similar  to  those  of  the  mocking 
bird  and  a  song  almost  as  varied,  the 
catbird  has  never  secured  a  similar  place 
in  popular  favor.  Half  of  its  food  con- 
sists of  fruit,  and  the  cultivated  crops 
most  often  injured  are  cherries,  straw- 
berries, raspberries  and  blackberries. 
Beetles,  ants,  crickets  and  grasshoppers 
are  the  most  important  element  of  Its 
animal  food.  The  bird  is  known  to  at- 
tack a  few  pests,  as  cutworms,  leaf  bee- 
tles, clover-root  curculio,  and  the  peri- 
odical cicada,  but  the  good  it  does  in  this 
way  probably  does  not  pay  for  the  fruit 
it  steals.  The  extent  to  which  it  should 
be  protected  may  perhaps  be  left  to  the 
individual  cultivator;  that  is,  it  should 
be  made  lawful  to  destroy  catbirds  that 
are   doing  manifest   damage  to   crops. 

Mocking  Bird 

Mimus  polyglottos 

Length,  10  inches.  Most  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  similarly  colored 
loggerhead  shrike  by  the  absence  of  a 
conspicuous  black  stripe  through  the  eye. 

Ran^e 

Resident  from  Southern  Mexico  north 
to  California,  Wyoming,  Iowa,  Ohio  and 
Maryland;    casual   farther  north. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

Because  of  its  incomparable  medleys 
and  imitative  powers,  the  mocking  bird 
is  the  most  renowned  singer  of  the  West- 
ern hemisphere.  Even  in  confinement  it 
Is  a  masterly  performer,  and  formerly 
thousands  were  trapped  and  sold  for  cage 
birds,  but  this  reprehensible  practice  has 
been  largely  stopped  by  protective  laws. 
It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the 
mocking  bird  should  receive  protection 
principally  because  of  its  ability  as  a 
songster  and  its  preference  for  the  vicin- 
ity of  dwellings.  Its  place  in  the  affec- 
tions of  the  South  is  similar  to  that  occu- 
pied by  the  robin  in  the  North.  It  is 
well  that  this  is  true,  for  the  bird  ap- 
pears   not    to    earn    protection    from    a 


strictly  economic  standpoint.  About  halt 
of  its  diet  consists  of  fruit,  and  many 
cultivated  varieties  are  attacked,  such  as 
oranges,  grapes,  figs,  strawberries,  black- 
berries and  raspberries.  Somewhat  less 
than  a  fourth  of  the  food  is  animal  mat- 
ter, and  grasshoppers  are  the  largest 
single  element.  The  bird  is  fond  of  cot- 
ton worms,  and  is  known  to  feed  also  on 
the  chinch  bug,  rice  weevil  and  bollworm. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  it  does  not  feed 
on  injurious  insects  to  an  extent  suffi- 
cient to  offset  its   depredations  on   fruit. 

Myrtle  Warbler 

Deyidroica  coronata 
Length,  five  and  one-half  inches.     The 
similarly  colored  Audubon's  warbler  has 
a  yellow  throat  instead  of  a  white  one. 

Range 

Breeds  throughout  most  of  the  for- 
ested area  of  Canada  and  south  to  Minne- 
sota, Michigan,  New  York  and  Massachu- 
setts; winters  in  the  southern  two-thirds 
of  the  United  States  and  south  to 
Panama. 

Habits  and  Economic  Statns 

This  member  of  our  beautiful  wood 
warbler  family,  a  family  peculiar  to 
America,  has  the  characteristic  voice, 
coloration  and  habits  of  its  kind.  Trim 
of  form  and  graceful  of  motion,  when 
seeking  food  it  combines  the  methods  of 
the  wrens,  creepers  and  flycatchers.  It 
breeds  only  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
Eastern  United  States,  but  in  migration 
it  occurs  in  every  patch  of  woodland  and 
is  so  numerous  that  it  is  familiar  to 
every  observer.  Its  place  is  taken  in  the 
West  by  Audubon's  warbler.  More  than 
three-fourths  of  the  food  of  the  myrtle 
warbler  consists  of  insects,  practically 
all  of  them  harmful.  It  is  made  up  of 
small  beetles,  including  some  weevils, 
with  many  ants  and  wasps.  This  bird  is 
so  small  and  nimble  that  it  successfully 
attacks  insects  too  minute  to  be  prey  for 
larger  birds.  Scales  and  plant  lice  form 
a  very  considerable  part  of  its  diet.  Flies 
are  the  largest  item  of  food;  in  fact,  only 
a  few  flycatchers  and  swallows  eat  as 
many  flies  as  this  bird.  The  vegetable 
food    (22   per  cent)    is  made  up  of  fruit 


BIRDS  USEFUL  TO  FARM  AND  ORCHARD 


631 


and  the  seeds  of  poison  oak  or  ivy,  also 
the  seeds  of  pine  and  of  the  bayberry. 

Loggerhead   Shrike 

Lanius  ludovicianus 

Length,  about  nine  inches.  A  gray, 
black  and  white  bird,  distinguished  from 
the  somewhat  similarly  colored  mocking 
bird  by  the  black  stripe  on  side  of  head. 

Range 

Breeds  throughout  the  United  States, 
Mexico  and  Southern  Canada;  winters  in 
the  southern  half  of  the  United  States 
and  in  Mexico. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  loggerhead  shrike,  or  Southern 
butcher  bird,  is  common  throughout  its 
range  and  is  sometimes  called  "French 
mocking  bird"  from  a  superficial  resem- 
blance and  not  from  its  notes,  which  are 
harsh  and  unmusical.  The  shrike  is 
naturally  an  insectivorous  bird  which  has 
extended  its  bill  of  fare  to  include  small 
mammals,  birds  and  reptiles.  Its  hooked 
beak  is  well  adapted  to  tearing  its  prey, 
while  to  make  amends  for  the  lack  of 
talons  it  has  hit  upon  the  plan  of  forcing 
its  victim,  if  too  large  to  swallow,  into 
the  fork  of  a  bush  or  tree,  where  it  can 
tear  it  asunder.  Insects,  especially  grass- 
hoppers, constitute  the  larger  part  of  its 
food,  though  beetles,  moths,  caterpillars, 
ants,  wasps  and  a  few  spiders  also  are 
taken.  While  the  butcher  bird  occasion- 
ally catches  small  birds,  its  principal 
vertebrate  food  is  small  mammals,  as 
field  mice,  shrews,  and  moles,  and  when 
possible  it  obtains  lizards.  It  habitually 
Impales  its  surplus  prey  on  a  thorn, 
sharp  twig,  or  barb  of  a  wire  fence. 

Barn  Swallow 

Hirundo  erythrogastra 

Length,  about  seven  inches.  Dis- 
tinguished among  our  swallows  by  deeply 
forked  tail. 

Bange 

Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
(except  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
states)  and  most  of  Canada;  winters  in 
South    America. 


Habits  and  Economic  Status 

This  is  one  of  the  most  familiar  birds 
of  the  farm  and  one  of  the  greatest  in- 
sect destroyers.  From  daylight  to  dark 
on  tireless  wings  it  seeks  its  prey,  and 
the  insects  destroyed  are  countless.  Its 
favorite  nesting  site  is  a  barn  rafter, 
upon  which  it  sticks  its  mud  basket. 
Most  modern  barns  are  so  tightly  con- 
structed that  swallows  cannot  gain  en- 
trance, and  in  New  England  and  some 
other  parts  of  the  country  barn  swallows 
are  much  less  numerous  than  formerly. 
Farmers  can  easily  provide  for  the  en- 
trance and  exit  of  the  birds  and  so  add 
materially  to  their  numbers.  It  may  be 
well  to  add  that  the  parasites  that  some- 
times infest  the  nests  of  swallows  are 
not  the  ones  the  careful  housewife 
dreads,  and  no  fear  need  be  felt  of  the 
infestation  spreading  to  the  houses.  In- 
sects taken  on  the  wing  constitute  the 
almost  exclusive  diet  of  the  barn  swal- 
low. More  than  one-third  of  the  whole 
consists  of  flies,  including  unfortunately 
some  useful  parasitic  species.  Beetles 
stand  next  in  order  and  consist  of  a  few 
weevils  and  many  of  the  small  dung 
beetles  of  the  May  beetle  family  that 
swarm  over  the  pastures  in  the  late  after- 
noon. Ants  amount  to  more  than  one- 
fifth  of  the  whole  food,  while  wasps  and 
bees  are  well   represented. 

Purple  Martin 

Progne  subis 
Length,  about  eight  inches. 

Range 
Breeds    throughout    the    United    States 
and    Southern   Canada,    south   to   Central 
Mexico;    winters   in   South   America. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

This  is  the  largest  as  it  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  swallow  tribe.  It 
formerly  built  its  nests  in  cavities  of 
trees,  as  it  still  does  in  wild  districts, 
but  learning  that  man  was  a  friend  it 
soon  adopted  domestic  habits.  Its  pres- 
ence about  the  farm  can  often  be  secured 
by  erecting  houses  suitable  for  nesting 
sites  and  protecting  them  from  usurpa- 
tion by  the  English  sparrow,  and  every 
effort    should    be    made    to    increase    the 


632 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


number  of  colonies  of  this  very  useful 
bird.  The  boxes  should  be  at  a  reason- 
able height,  say  15  feet  from  the  ground, 
and  made  inaccessible  to  cats.  A  colony 
of  these  birds  on  a  farm  makes  great  in- 
roads upon  the  insect  population,  as  the 
birds  not  only  themselves  feed  upon  in- 
sects but  rear  their  young  upon  the  same 
diet.  Fifty  years  ago  in  New  England  it 
was  not  uncommon  to  see  colonies  of  50 
pairs  of  martins,  but  most  of  them  have 
now  vanished  for  no  apparent  reason  ex- 
cept that  the  martin  houses  have  de- 
cayed and  have  not  been  renewed.  More 
than  three-fourths  of  this  bird's  food  con- 
sists of  wasps,  bugs,  and  beetles,  their 
importance  being  in  the  order  given.  The 
beetles  include  several  species  of  harmful 
weevils,  as  the  clover-leaf  weevils  and  the 
nut  weevils.  Besides  these  are  many 
crane  flies,  moths.  May  flies,  and  dragon 
flies. 

Black-Headed  Grosbeak 
ZameJodia  melanocephala 

Length,  about  eight  and  one-fourth 
inches. 

Range 

Breeds  from  the  Pacific  coast  to  Ne- 
braska and  the  Dakotas,  and  from  South- 
ern Canada  to  Southern  Mexico;  winters 
in  Mexico. 

Habits  and  Economic  Statns 

The  black-headed  grosbeak  takes  the 
place  in  the  West  of  the  rosebreast  in  the 
East,  and  like  it  is  a  fine  songster.  Like 
it  also  the  blackhead  readily  resorts  to 
orchards  and  gardens  and  is  common  in 
agricultural  districts.  The  bird  has  a 
very  jjowerful  bill  and  easily  crushes  or 
cuts  into  the  firmest  fruit.  It  feeds  upon 
cherries,  apricots  and  other  fruits,  and 
also  does  some  damage  to  green  peas  and 
beans,  but  it  is  so  active  a  foe  of  certain 
horticultural  pests  that  we  can  afford  to 
overlook  its  faults.  Several  kinds  of 
scale  insects  are  freely  eaten,  and  one, 
the  black  olive  scale,  constitutes  a  fifth 
of  the  total  food.  In  May  many  canker 
worms  and  codling  moths  are  consumed, 
and  almost  a  sixth  of  the  bird's  seasonal 
food  consists  of  flower  beetles,  which  do 
incalculable  damage  to  cultivated  flowers 
and    to    ripe    fruit.      For    each    quart    of 


fruit  consumed  by  the  black-headed  gros- 
beak it  destroys  in  actual  bulk  more  than 
one  and  one-half  quarts  of  black  olive 
scales  and  one  quart  of  flower  beetles, 
besides  a  generous  quantity  of  codling 
moth  pupae  and  cankerworms.  It  is 
obvious  that  such  work  as  this  pays  many 
times  over  for  the  fruit  destroyed. 

Rose-Breasted  Grosbeak 

Zamelodia  ludoviciana 
Length,   eight   inches. 

Range 

Breeds  from  Kansas.  Ohio,  Georgia 
(mountains),  and  New  Jersey,  north  to 
Southern  Canada:  winters  from  Mexico 
to   South   America. 

Habits  and  Economic  Statns 

This  beautiful  grosbeak  is  noted  for  its 
clear,  melodious  notes,  which  are  poured 
forth  in  generous  measure.  The  rose- 
breast  sings  even  at  midday  during  sum- 
mer, when  the  intense  heat  has  silenced 
almost  every  other  songster.  Its  beauti- 
ful plumage  and  sweet  song  are  not  its 
sole  claim  on  our  favor,  for  few  birds 
are  more  beneficial  to  agriculture.  The 
rosebreast  eats  some  green  peas  and  does 
some  damage  to  fruit.  But  this  mischief 
is  much  more  than  balanced  by  the  de- 
struction of  insect  pests.  The  bird  is  so 
fond  of  the  Colorado  potato  beetle  that  it 
has  earned  the  name  of  "potato-bug 
bird."  and  no  less  than  a  tenth  of  the 
total  food  of  the  rosebreasts  examined 
consists  of  potato  beetles — evidence  that 
the  bird  is  one  of  the  most  important 
enemies  of  the  pest.  It  vigorously  at- 
tacks cucumber  beetles  and  many  of  the 
scale  insects.  It  proved  an  active  enemy 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  locust  during  that 
insect's  ruinous  invasions,  and  among 
the  other  pests  it  consumes  are  the 
spring  and  fall  cankerworms.  orchard  and 
forest  tent  caterpillars,  tussock,  gipsy  and 
brown-tail  moths,  plum  curculio,  army 
worm  and  chinch  bug.  In  fact,  not  one 
of  our  birds  has  a  better  record. 

Song  Sparrow 

Melospiza  melodia 
Length,      about     six     and      one-fourth 
inches.     The  heavily  spotted  breast  with 
heavy  central  blotch  is  characteristic. 


BIRDS  USEFUL  TO  FARM  AND  ORCHARD 


633 


Bange 

Breeds  in  the  United  States  (except 
the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states), 
Southern  Canada,  Southern  Alaslia,  and 
Mexico;  winters  in  Alaska  and  most  of 
the  United  States  southward. 

Habits  and  Ecouomic  Status 

Like  the  familiar  little  "chippy,"  the 
song  sparrow  is  one  of  our  most  domestic 
species,  and  builds  its  nest  in  hedges  or 
in  garden  shrubbery  close  to  houses, 
whenever  it  is  reasonably  safe  from  the 
house  cat.  which,  however,  takes  heavy 
toll  of  the  nestlings.  It  is  a  true  har- 
binger of  spring,  and  its  delightful  little 
song  is  thrilled  forth  from  the  top  of 
some  green  shrub  in  early  March  and 
April,  before  most  of  our  other  songsters 
bave  thought  of  leaving  the  sunny  South. 
Song  sparrows  vary  much  in  habits,  as 
well  as  in  size  and  coloration.  Some 
forms  live  along  streams  bordered  by 
deserts,  others  'U  swamps  among  bul- 
rushes and  tules,  others  in  timbered  reg- 
ions, othei's  on  rocky  barren  hillsides,  and 
still  others  in  rich,  fertile  valleys.  With 
such  a  variety  of  habitat,  the  food  of  the 
species  naturally  varies  considerably. 
About  three-fourths  of  its  diet  consists 
of  the  seeds  of  noxious  weeds  and  one- 
fourth  of  insects.  Of  these,  beetles,  espe- 
cially weevils,  constitute  the  major  por- 
tion. Ants,  wasps,  bugs  (including  the 
black  olive  scale),  and  caterpillars  are 
also  eaten.  Grasshoppers  are  taken  by 
the  Eastern  birds,  but  not  by  the  West- 
ern ones. 

Cbipping  Sparrow 
Spizella  pa.ssej-i)ia 

Length,  about  five  and  one-fourth 
inches.  Distinguished  by  the  chestnut 
crown,  black  line  through  eye.  and  black 
bill. 

Ran^e 

Breeds  throughout  the  United  States, 
south  to  Nicaragua,  and  north  to  South- 
ern Canada:  winters  in  the  Southern 
United  States  and  southward. 

Habits  and  Eronomic  Status 

The  chipping  sparrow  is  very  friendly 
and  domestic,  and  often  builds  its  nest 
in  gardens  and  orchards  or  in  the  shrub- 
bery close  to   dwellings.     Its  gentle   and 


confiding  ways  endear  it  to  all  bird 
lovers.  It  is  one  of  the  most  insectivor- 
ous of  all  the  sparrows.  Its  diet  consists 
of  about  42  per  cent  of  insects  and 
spiders  and  58  per  cent  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter. The  animal  food  consists  largely  of 
caterpillars,  of  which  it  feeds  a  great 
many  to  its  young.  Besides  these,  it  eats 
beetles,  including  many  weevils,  of 
which  one  stomach  contained  30.  It  also 
eats  ants,  wasps,  and  bugs.  Among  the 
latter  are  plant  lice  and  black  olive 
scales.  The  vegetable  food  is  practically 
all  weed  seed.  A  nest  with  four  young 
of  this  species  was  watched  at  different 
hours  on  four  days.  In  the  seven  hours 
of  observation  119  feedings  were  noted, 
or  an  average  of  17  feedings  per  hour,  or 
four  and  one-half  feedings  per  hour  to 
each  nestling.  This  would  give  for  a  day 
of  14  hours  at  least  238  Insects  eaten  by 
the  brood. 

White-Crowned  Sparrow 

Zonotrichia  leucophrys 
Length,  seven  inches.    The  only  similar 
sparrow,   the   white-throat,   has   a   yellow 
spot  in  front  of  eye. 

Bange 

Breeds  in  Canada,  the  mountains  of 
New  Mexico,  Colorado.  Wyoming  and 
Montana,  and  thence  to  the  Pacific  coast; 
winters  in  the  southern  half  of  the 
United   States   and   Northei'n   Mexico. 

Habits    and   Economic    Status 

This  beautiful  sparrow  is  much  more 
numerous  in  the  Western  than  in  the 
Eastern  states,  where,  indeed,  it  is  rather 
rare.  In  the  East  it  is  shy  and  retiring, 
but  it  is  much  bolder  and  more  conspicu- 
ous in  the  far  West  and  there  often  fre- 
quents gardens  and  parks.  Like  most  of 
its  family  it  is  a  seed  eater  by  preference, 
and  insects  comprise  very  little  more 
than  seven  per  cent  of  its  diet.  Cater- 
pillars are  the  largest  item,  with  some 
beetles,  a  few  ants  and  wasps,  and  some 
bugs,  among  which  are  black  olive  scales. 
The  great  bulk  of  the  food,  however, 
consists  of  weed  seeds,  which  amount  to 
74  per  cent  of  the  whole.  In  California 
this  bird  is  accused  of  eating  the  buds 
and  blossoms  of  fruit  trees,  but  buds  or 
blossoms   were   found   in   only   30   out  of 


634 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


516  stomachs,  and  probably  it  is  only 
under  exceptional  circumstances  that  it 
does  any  damage  in  this  way.  Evidently 
neither  the  farmer  nor  the  fruit  grower 
has  much  to  fear  from  the  white-crowned 
sparrow.  The  little  fruit  it  eats  is  mostly 
■wild,  and  the  grain  eaten  is  waste  or  vol- 
unteer. 

English  Sparrovr 

Passer  domesticus 

Length,  about  six  and  one-fourth 
inches.  Its  incessant  chattering,  quarrel- 
some disposition,  and  abundance  and  fa- 
miliarity about  human  habitations  dis- 
tinguish it  from  our  native  sparrows. 

Kange 

Resident  throughout  the  United  States 
and   Southern   Canada. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

Almost  universally  condemned  since 
its  introduction  into  the  United  States, 
the  English  sparrow  has  not  only  held 
its  own,  but  has  ever  increased  in  num- 
bers and  extended  its  range  in  spite  of 
all  opposition.  Its  habit  of  driving  out  or 
even  killing  more  beneficial  species  and 
the  defiling  of  buildings  by  its  droppings 
and  by  its  own  unsightly  structures,  are 
serious  objections  to  this  sparrow.  More- 
over, in  rural  districts,  it  is  destructive 
to  grain,  fruit,  peas,  beans  and  other 
vegetables.  On  the  other  hand,  the  bird 
feeds  to  some  extent  on  a  large  number 
of  insect  pests,  and  this  fact  points  to 
the  need  of  a  new  investigation  of  the 
present  economic  status  of  the  species, 
especially  as  it  promises  to  be  of  service 
in  holding  in  check  the  newly  introduced 
alfalfa  weevil,  which  threatens  the  alfalfa 
industry  in  Utah  and  neighboring  states. 
In  cities  most  of  the  food  of  the  English 
sparrow  is  waste  material  secured  from 
the  streets. 

CroTV  Blackbird 
Quiscalus  guiscula 

Length,  12  inches.  Shorter  by  at  least 
three  inches  than  the  other  grackles  with 
trough-shaped  tails.  Black,  with  purplish, 
bluish  and  bronze  reflections. 

Range 

Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
west    to    Texas,    Colorado    and    Montana, 


and  in  Southern  Canada;   winters  in  the 
southern  half  of  the  breeding  range. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

This  blackbird  is  a  beautiful  species, 
and  is  well  known  from  its  habit  of  con- 
gregating in  city  parks  and  nesting  there 
year  after  year.  Like  other  species  which 
habitually  assemble  in  great  flocks,  it  is 
capable  of  inflicting  much  damage  on  any 
crop  it  attacks,  and  where  it  is  harmful  a 
judicious  reduction  of  numbers  is  prob- 
ably sound  policy.  It  shares  with  the 
crow  and  blue  jay  the  evil  habit  of  pillag- 
ing the  nests  of  small  birds  of  eggs  and 
young.  Nevertheless  it  does  much  good 
by  destroying  insect  pests,  especially 
white  grubs,  weevils,  grasshoppers  and 
caterpillars.  Among  the  caterpillars  are 
army  worms  and  other  cutworms.  When 
blackbirds  gather  in  large  flocks,  as  in 
the  Mississippi  valley,  they  may  greatly 
damage  grain,  either  when  first  sown  or 
when  in  the  milk.  In  winter  they  sub- 
sist mostly  on  weed  seed  and  waste 
grain. 

Brewer's   Blackldrd 
Euphagus  cyanocephalus 

Length,  10  inches.  Its  glossy  purplish 
head  distinguishes  it  from  other  black- 
birds that  do  not  show  in  flight  a  trough- 
shaped  tail. 

Range 

Breeds  in  the  West,  east  to  Texas,  Kan- 
sas and  Minnesota,  and  north  to  South- 
ern Canada:  winters  over  most  of  the 
United  States  breeding  range,  south  to 
Guatemala. 

Habits   and   Economic   Status 

Very  numerous  in  the  West  and  in  fall 
gathers  in  immense  flocks,  especially 
about  barnyards  and  corrals.  During  the 
cherry  season  in  California  Brewer's 
blackbird  is  much  in  the  orchards.  In 
one  case  they  were  seen  to  eat  freely  of 
cherries,  but  when  a  neighboring  fruit 
raiser  began  to  plow  his  orchard  almost 
every  blackbird  in  the  vicinity  was  upon 
the  newly  opened  ground  and  close  at 
the  plowman's  heels  in  its  eagerness  to 
get  the  insects  exposed  by  the  plow. 
Caterpillars  and  pupae  form  the  largest 
item  of  animal  food  (about  12  per  cent). 
Many  of  these  are  cutworms,  and  cotton 


BIRDS  USEFUL  TO  FARM  AND  ORCHARD 


635 


bollworms  or  corn  earworms  were  found 
in  10  stomachs  and  codling  motli  pupae 
in  11.  Beetles  constitute  over  11  per 
cent  of  the  food.  The  vegetable  food  is 
practically  contained  in  three  items — 
grain,  fruit  and  weed  seeds.  Grain, 
mostly  oats,  amounts  to  54  per  cent; 
fruit,  largely  cherries,  four  per  cent;  and 
weed  seeds,  not  quite  nine  per  cent.  The 
grain  is  probably  mostly  wild,  volunteer 
or  waste,  so  that  the  bird  does  most  dam- 
age  by    eating   fruit. 

Bullock's  Oriole 

Irtei-us   buUocki 
Length,  about  eight  inches.     Our  only 
oriole  with  top  of  head  and  throat  black 
and  cheeks  orange. 

Range 
Breeds   from    South    Dakota,   Nebraska 
and    Kansas    to    the    Pacific    ocean    and 
from  Southern  Canada  to  Northern  Mex- 
ico;   winters   in  Mexico. 

Haliits   and   Economic   Status 

In  the  West  this  bird  takes  the  place 
occupied  in  the  East  by  the  Baltimore 
oriole.  In  food,  nesting  habits,  and  song 
the  birds  are  similar.  Both  are  migratory 
and  remain  on  their  summer  range  only 
some  five  or  six  months.  They  take 
kindly  to  orchards,  gardens,  and  the 
vicinity  of  farm  buildings  and  often  live 
in  villages  and  city  parks.  Their  diet  is 
largely  made  up  of  insects  that  infest 
orchards  and  gardens.  When  fruit  trees 
are  in  bloom  they  are  constantly  busy 
among  the  blossoms  and  save  many  of 
them  from  destruction.  In  the  food  of 
Bullock's  oriole  beetles  amount  to  35  per 
cent  and  nearly  all  are  harmful.  Many 
of  these  are  weevils,  some  of  which  live 
upon  acorns  and  other  nuts.  Ants  and 
wasps  amount  to  15  per  cent  of  the  diet. 
The  black  olive  scale  was  found  in  45  of 
the  162  stomachs  examined.  Caterpillars, 
with  a  few  moths  and  pupae,  are  the 
largest  item  of  food  and  amount  to  over 
41  per  cent.  Among  these  were  codling 
moth  larvae.  The  vegetable  food  is  prac- 
tically all  fruit  (19  per  cent)  and  in 
cherry  season  consists  largely  of  that 
fruit.  Eating  small  fruits  is  the  bird's 
worst  trait,  but  it  will  do  harm  in  this 
way   only   when   very   numerous. 


Meadowlarks 

Stiirnella    mniina   and    Sturnella   neglecta 
Length,   about   10%    inches. 

Range 

Breed  generally  in  the  United  States, 
Southern  Canada,  and  Mexico  to  Costa 
Rica;  winter  from  the  Ohio  and  Potomac 
valleys  and   British  Columbia  southward. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

Our  two  meadowlarks,  though  differ- 
ing much  in  song,  resemble  each  other 
closely  in  plumage  and  habits.  Grassy 
plains  and  uplands  covered  with  a  thick 
growth  of  grass  or  weeds,  with  nearby 
water,  furnish  the  conditions  best  suited 
to  the  meadowlark's  taste.  The  song  of 
the  Western  bird  is  loud,  clear  and  melo- 
dious. That  of  its  Eastern  relative  is 
feebler  and  loses  much  by  comparison. 
In  many  localities  the  meadowlark  is 
classed  and  shot  as  a  game  bird.  From 
the  farmer's  standpoint  this  is  a  mistake, 
since  its  value  as  an  Insect  eater  is  far 
greater  than  as  a  game  bird.  Both  the 
bollweevil,  the  foe  of  the  cotton  grower, 
and  the  alfalfa  weevil  are  among  the 
beetles  it  habitually  eats.  Twenty-five 
per  cent  of  the  diet  of  this  bird  is 
beetles,  half  of  which  are  predaceous 
ground  beetles,  accounted  useful  insects, 
and  one-fifth  are  destructive  weevils. 
Caterpillars  form  11  per  cent  of  the  food 
and  are  eaten  in  every  month  in  the 
year.  Among  these  are  many  cutworms 
and  the  well  known  army  worm.  Grass- 
hoppers are  favorite  food  and  are  eaten 
in  every  month  and  almost  every  day. 
The  vegetable  food  (24  per  cent  of  the 
whole)   consists  of  grain  and  weed  seeds. 

Red-AVinged  Blackbird 

Agelaius  phoeniceus 

Length,  about  nine  and  one-half  inches. 
Range 

Breeds  in  Mexico  and  North  America 
south  of  the  Barren  Grounds;  winters  in 
southern  half  of  United  States  and  south 
to  Costa  Rica. 

Habits   and   Economic   Status 

The  prairies  of  the  upper  Mississippi 
valley,  with  their  numerous  sloughs  and 
ponds,    furnish    ideal    nesting    places    for 


636 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


redwings,  and  consequently  this  region 
has  become  the  great  breeding  ground 
for  the  species.  These  prairies  pour  forth 
the  vast  flocks  that  play  havoc  with 
grainflelds.  East  of  the  Appalachian 
range,  marshes  on  the  shores  of  lakes, 
rivers,  and  estuaries  are  the  only  avail- 
able breeding  sites  and,  as  these  are 
comparatively  few  and  small,  the  species 
is  much  less  abundant  than  in  the  West. 
Redwings  are  eminently  gregarious,  liv- 
ing in  flocks  and  breeding  in  communi- 
ties. The  food  of  the  redwing  consists 
of  27  per  cent  animal  matter  and  73  per 
cent  vegetable.  Insects  constitute  prac- 
tically one-fourth  of  the  food.  Beetles 
(largely  weevils,  a  most  harmful  group) 
amount  to  10  per  cent.  Grasshoppers  are 
eaten  in  every  month  and  amount  to 
about  five  per  cent.  Caterpillars  (among 
them  the  injurious  army  worm)  are  eaten 
at  all  seasons  and  aggregate  six  per  cent. 
Ants,  wasps,  bugs,  flies,  dragon  flies,  and 
spiders  also  are  eaten.  The  vegetable 
food  consists  of  seeds,  including  grain,  of 
which  oats  is  the  favorite,  and  some 
small  fruits.  When  in  large  flocks  this 
bird  is  capable  of  doing  great  harm  to 
grain. 

Bobolink 
Dolichonyx  oryzivorus 
Length,  about  seven  inches. 

Range 

Breeds  from  Ohio  northeast  to  Nova 
Scotia,  north  to  Manitoba,  and  northwest 
to  British  Columbia:  winters  in  South 
America. 

Ilaliifs  and  Econoniif  Status 

When  American  writers  awoke  to  the 
beauty  and  attractiveness  of  our  native 
birds,  among  the  first  to  be  enshrined  in 
song  and  story  was  the  bobolink.  Few 
species  show  such  striking  contrasts  in 
the  color  of  the  sexes,  and  few  have  songs 
more  unique  and  whimsical.  In  its  north- 
ern home  the  bird  is  loved  for  its  beauty 
and  its  rich  melody;  in  the  South  it 
earns  deserved  hatred  by  its  destructive- 
ness.  Bobolinks  reach  the  southeastern 
coast  of  the  United  States  the  last  half 
of  April  just  as  rice  is  sprouting,  and  at 
once  begin  to  pull  up  and  devour  the 
sprouting    kernels.      Soon    they    move    on 


to  their  northern  breeding  grounds, 
where  they  feed  upon  insects,  weed  seeds, 
and  a  little  grain.  When  the  young  are 
well  on  the  wing,  they  gather  in  flocks 
with  the  parent  birds  and  gradually  move 
southward,  being  then  generally  known 
as  reed  birds.  They  reach  the  rice  fields 
of  the  Carolinas  about  August  20,  when 
the  rice  is  in  the  milk.  Then,  until  the 
birds  depart  for  South  America,  planters 
and  birds  fight  for  the  crop,  and  in  spite 
of  constant  watchfulness  and  innumer- 
able devices  for  scaring  the  birds  a  loss 
of  10  per  cent  of  the  rice  is  the  usual 
result. 

Common  Crow 

Corviis  hrachyrhynchos 

Length,  19  inches. 

'Range 

Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
and  most  of  Canada;  winters  generally 
in   the   United   States. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  general  habits  of  the  crow  are  uni- 
versally known.  Its  ability  to  commit 
such  misdeeds  as  pulling  corn  and  steal- 
ing eggs  and  fruit  and  to  get  away  un- 
scathed is  little  short  of  marvelous.  Much 
of  the  crow's  success  in  life  is  due  to  co- 
operation, and  the  social  instinct  of  the 
species  has  its  highest  expression  in  the 
winter  roosts,  which  are  sometimes  fre- 
quented by  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
crows.  From  these  roosts  daily  flights  of 
many  miles  are  made  in  search  of  food. 
Injury  to  sprouting  corn  is  the  most  fre- 
quent complaint  against  this  species,  but 
by  coating  the  seed  grain  with  coal  tar 
most  of  this  damage  may  be  prevented. 
Losses  of  poultry  and  eggs  may  be  avert- 
ed by  proper  housing  and  the  judicious 
use  of  wire  netting.  The  insect  food  of 
the  crow  includes  wireworms,  cutworms, 
white  grubs,  and  grasshoppers,  and  dur- 
ing outbreaks  of  these  insects  the  crow 
renders  good  service.  The  bird  is  also 
an  efficient  scavenger.  But  chiefly  he- 
cause  of  its  destruction  of  beneficial  wild 
birds  and  their  eggs  the  crow  must  be 
classed  as  a  criminal,  and  a  reduction  in 
its  numbers  in  localities  where  it  is  seri- 
ously  destructive   is  justifiable. 


BIRDS  USEFUL  TO  FARM  AND  ORCHARD 


637 


California  Jay 

Aiihelucuiiia  (.(illfuniica 

Length,  12  inches.  Distinguished  from 
other  jays  within  its  range  by  its  decid- 
edly whitish  underparts  and  brown  patch 
on  the  bacli. 

Range 

Resident  in  California,  north  to  South- 
ern Washington,  and  south  to  Southern 
Lower  California. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

This  jay  has  the  same  general  traits 
of  character  as  the  Eastern  blue  jay.  He 
is  the  same  noisy,  rollicking  fellow  and 
occupies  a  corresponding  position  in  bird 
society.  Robbing  the  nests  of  smaller 
birds  is  a  favorite  pastime,  and  he  is  a 
persistent  spy  upon  domestic  fowls  and 
well  knows  the  meaning  of  the  cackle  of 
a  hen.  Not  only  does  he  steal  eggs  but 
he  kills  young  chicks.  The  insect  food 
of  this  jay  constitutes  about  one-tenth 
of  its  annual  sustenance.  The  inclusion 
of  grasshoppers  and  caterpillars  makes 
this  part  of  the  bird's  food  in  its  favor. 
But  the  remainder  of  its  animal  diet  in- 
cludes altogether  too  large  a  proportion 
of  beneficial  birds  and  their  eggs,  and 
in  this  respect  it  appears  to  be  worse 
thun  its  Eastern  relative,  the  blue  jay. 
While  its  vegetable  food  is  composed 
largely  of  mast,  at  times  its  liking  for 
cultivated  fruit  and  grain  makes  it  a 
most  unwelcome  visitor  to  the  orchard 
and  farm.  In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said 
that  over  much  of  its  range  this  jay  is 
too  abundant  for  the  best  interests  of 
agriculture   and   horticulture. 

Blue  Jay 

Cyanocitta  cristata 

Length,  11%  inches.  The  brilliant  blue 
of  the  wings  and  tail  combined  with  the 
black  crescent  of  the  upper  breast  and 
the  crested  head  distinguish  this  species. 

Range 

Resident  in  the  Eastern  United  States 
and  Southern  Canada,  west  to  the  Da- 
kotas,  Colorado  and  Texas. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  blue  jay  is  of  a  dual  nature.  Cau- 
tious   and    silent    in    the    vicinity    of    its 


nest,  away  from  it  it  is  bold  and  noisy. 
Sly  in  the  commission  of  mischief,  it  is 
ever  ready  to  scream  "thief"  at  the  slight- 
est disturbance.  As  usual  in  such  cases, 
its  remarlis  are  applicable  to  none  more 
than  itself,  a  fact  neighboring  nest  hold- 
ers know  to  their  sorrow,  for  during  the 
breeding  season  the  jay  lays  heavy  toll 
upon  the  eggs  and  young  of  other  birds, 
and  in  doing  so  deprives  us  of  the  serv- 
ices of  species  more  beneficial  than  itself. 
Approximately  three-fourths  of  the  an- 
nual food  of  the  blue  jay  is  vegetable 
matter,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  com- 
posed of  mast,  i.  e.,  acorns,  chestnuts, 
beechnuts,  and  the  like.  Corn  is  the 
principal  cultivated  crop  upon  which  this 
bird  feeds,  but  stomach  analysis  indi- 
cates that  most  of  the  corn  taken  is  waste 
grain.  Such  noxious  insects  as  wood- 
boring  beetles,  grasshoppers,  eggs  of  vari- 
ous caterpillars,  and  scale  insects  consti- 
tute about  one-fifth  of  its  food. 

Horned  Lark 

Otocoris  alpestris 

Length,  about  seven  and  three-fourths 
inches.  The  black  mark  across  the  breast 
and  the  small,  pointed  tufts  of  dark 
feathers  above  and  behind  the  eyes  dis- 
tinguish the  bird. 

Range 

Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
(except  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
states)  and  Canada;  winters  in  all  the 
United  States  except  Florida. 

Habits  and  Eeonomic  Status 

Horned  larks  frequent  the  open  coun- 
try, especially  the  plains  and  deserts. 
They  associate  in  large  flocks,  are  hardy, 
apparently  delighting  in  exposed  situa- 
tions in  winter,  and  often  nest  before 
snow  disappears.  The  flight  is  irregular 
and  hesitating,  but  in  the  breeding  sea- 
son the  males  ascend  high  in  air,  singing 
as  they  go,  and  pitch  to  the  ground  in 
one  thrilling  dive.  The  preference  of 
horned  larks  is  for  vegetable  food,  and 
about  one-sixth  of  this  is  grain,  chiefly 
waste.  Some  sprouting  grain  is  pulled, 
but  drilled  grain  is  safe  from  injury. 
California  horned  larks  take  much  more 
grain   than   the   Eastern   birds,    specializ- 


638 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


ing  on  oats,  but  this  is  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  oats  grow  wild  over  much 
of  the  state.  Weed  seeds  are  the  largest 
single  element  of  food.  The  insect  food, 
about  20  per  cent  of  the  whole,  includes 
such  pests  as  May  beetles  and  their 
larvae  (white  grubs),  leaf  beetles,  clover- 
leaf  and  clover-root  weevils,  the  potato- 
stalk  borer,  nut  weevils,  billbugs,  and  the 
chinch  bug.  Grasshoppers  are  a  favorite 
food,  and  cutworms  are  freely  eaten.  The 
horned  larks,  on  the  whole,  may  be  con- 
sidered  useful   birds. 

Arkansas   Kiugbird 

Tyrannus  verticals 
Length,  nine  inches.  The  white  edge 
of  the  feather  on  each  side  of  the  tail 
distinguishes  this  from  all  other  fly 
catchers  except  the  gray  and  salmon- 
colored  scissortail  of  Texas. 

Range 

Breeds  from  Minnesota,  Kansas  and 
Texas  to  the  Pacific  ocean  and  from 
Northern  Mexico  to  Southern  Canada; 
winters  from  Mexico  to  Guatemala. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  Arkansas  kingbird  is  not  so  do- 
mestic as  its  Eastern  relative  and  seems 
to  prefer  the  hill  country  with  scattered 
oaks  rather  than  the  orchard  or  the  vi- 
cinity of  ranch  buildings,  but  it  some- 
times places  its  rude  and  conspicuous  nest 
In  trees  on  village  streets.  The  bird's 
yearly  food  is  composed  of  87  per  cent 
animal  matter  and  13  per  cent  vegetable. 
The  animal  food  is  composed  almost  en- 
tirely of  insects.  Like  the  Eastern  spe- 
cies, it  has  been  accused  of  destroying 
honeybees  to  a  harmful  extent,  and  re- 
mains of  honeybees  were  found  to  con- 
stitute five  per  cent  of  the  food  of  the 
individuals  examined,  but  nearly  all  those 
eaten  were  drones.  Bees  and  wasps,  in 
general,  are  the  biggest  item  of  food  (38 
per  cent),  grasshoppers  and  crickets 
stand  next  (20  per  cent),  and  beetles, 
mostly  of  noxious  species,  constitute  14 
per  cent  of  the  food.  The  vegetable  food 
consists  mostly  of  fruit,  such  as  the  elder 
and  other  berries,  with  a  few  seeds.  This 
bird   should   be   strictly   preserved. 


Kin§r')ird 

Tyrannus  tyrannus 

Length,  about  eight  and  one-half 
inches.  The  white  lower  surface  and 
white-tipped  tail  distinguish  this  fly 
catcher. 

Range 

Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
(except  the  southwestern  part)  and 
Southern  Canada;  winters  from  Mexico 
to   South  America. 

Habits  and  Economic  Statns 

The  kingbird  is  a  pronounced  enemy  of 
hawks  and  crows,  which  it  vigorously  at- 
tacks at  every  opportunity,  thereby  af- 
fording efficient  protection  to  nearby 
poultry  yards  and  young  chickens  at 
large.  It  loves  the  open  country  and  is 
especially  fond  of  orchards  and  trees 
about  farm  buildings.  No  less  than  85 
per  cent  of  its  food  consists  of  insects, 
mostly  of  a  harmful  nature.  It  eats  the 
common  rose  chafer  or  rose  bug,  and 
more  remarkable  still  it  devours  blister 
beetles  freely.  The  bird  has  been  accused 
of  eating  honeybees  to  an  injurious  ex- 
tent, but  there  is  little  ground  for  the 
accusation,  as  appears  from  the  fact  that 
examination  of  634  stomachs  showed  only 
61  bees  in  22  stomachs.  Of  these  51  were 
useless  drones.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
devours  robber  flies,  which  catch  and  de- 
stroy honeybees.  Grasshoppers  and 
crickets,  with  a  few  bugs  and  some  cut 
worms,  and  a  few  other  insects,  make  up 
the  rest  of  the  animal  food.  The  veget- 
able food  consists  of  fruit  and  a  few 
seeds.  The  kingbird  deserves  full  pro- 
tection. 

Nightliawk 

Chordei  les  v  i  rp  i  n  ia  »  u  s 

Length,  10  inches.  Not  to  be  confused 
with  the  whippoorwill.  The  latter  lives 
in  woodland  and  is  chiefly  nocturnal.  The 
nighthawk  often  flies  by  day,  when  the 
white  bar  across  the  wing  and  its  nasal 
cry    are   distinguishing. 

Range 

Breeds  throughout  most  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada;  winters  in  South 
America. 


BIRDS  USEFUL  TO  FARM  AND  ORCHARD 


639 


Ilaliits  and  Economic  Status 

The  skillful  evolutions  ot  a  company 
of  nighthawks  as  the  birds  gracefully 
cleave  the  air  in  intersecting  circles  is  a 
sight  to  be  remembered.  So  expert  are 
they  on  the  wing  that  no  insect  is  safe 
from  them,  even  the  swift  dragonfly  be- 
ing captured  with  ease.  Unfortunately 
their  erratic  flight  tempts  men  to  use 
them  for  targets,  and  this  inexcusable 
practice  is  seriously  diminishing  their 
numbers,  which  is  deplorable,  since  no 
birds  are  more  useful.  This  species  makes 
no  nest,  but  lays  its  two  spotted  eggs  on 
the  bare  ground,  sometimes  on  the  gravel 
roof  of  the  city  house.  The  nighthawk 
is  a  voracious  feeder  and  is  almost  ex- 
clusively insectivorous.  Some  stomachs 
contained  from  30  to  50  different  kinds 
of  insects,  and  more  than  600  kinds  have 
been  identified  from  the  stomachs  thus 
far  examined.  From  500  to  1,000  ants 
are  often  found  in  a  stomach.  Several 
species  of  mosquitoes,  including  Ano- 
pheles, the  transmitter  of  malaria,  are 
eaten.  Other  well  known  pests  destroyed 
by  the  nighthawk  are  the  Colorado  po- 
tato beetle,  cucumber  beetles,  chestnut, 
rice,  clover-leaf  and  cotton-boll  weevils, 
billbugs,  bark  beetles,  squash  bugs,  and 
nioths  of  the  cotton  worm. 

Flicker 

Colaptes  auratus 
Length,   13   inches.     The  yellow   under 
surface   of   the   wing,   yellow  tail   shafts, 
and  white  rump  are  characteristic. 

Ran^e 

Breeds  in  the  Eastern  United  States 
west  to  the  plains  and  in  the  forested 
parts  of  Canada  and  Alaska;  winters  in 
most  of  the  Eastern  United  States. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  flicker  inhabits  the  open  country 
rather  than  the  forest  and  delights  in 
park-like  regions  where  trees  are  numer- 
ous and  scattered.  It  nests  in  any  large 
cavity  in  a  tree  and  readily  appropriates 
an  artificial  box.  It  is  possible,  there- 
fore, to  insure  the  presence  of  this  useful 
bird  about  the  farm  and  to  increase  its 
numbers.  It  is  the  most  terrestrial  of 
our  woodpeckers   and   procures   much   of 


its  food  from  the  ground.  The  largest 
item  of  animal  food  is  ants,  of  which  the 
flicker  eats  more  than  any  other  common 
birds.  Ants  were  found  in  524  of  the  684 
stomachs  examined  and  98  stomachs  con- 
tained no  other  food.  One  stomach  con- 
tained over  5,000  and  two  others  held 
over  3,000  each.  While  bugs  are  not 
largely  eaten  by  the  flicker,  one  stomach 
contained  17  chinch  bugs.  Wild  fruits 
are  next  to  ants  in  importance  in  the 
flicker's  dietary.  Of  these  sour  gum  and 
wild  black  cherry  stand  at  the  head.  The 
food  habits  of  this  bird  are  such  as  to 
recommend   it  to  complete   protection. 

Yellow-Bellied  Sapsucker 

Sphyrapicus   varius 

Length,  about  eight  and  one-half 
inches.  Only  woodpecker  having  top  of 
head  from  base  of  bill  red,  combined  with 
a  black  patch  on  breast. 

Range 

Breeds  in  northern  half  ot  the  United 
States  and  southern  half  of  Canada;  win- 
ters in  most  of  the  states  and  south  to 
Costa  Rica. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  yellow-bellied  sapsucker  is  rather 
silent  and  suspicious  and  generally  man- 
ages to  have  a  tree  between  himself  and 
the  observer.  Hence  the  bird  is  much 
better  known  by  its  works  than  its  ap- 
pearance. The  regular  girdles  of  holes 
made  by  this  bird  are  common  on  a  great 
variety  of  trees;  in  all  about  250  kinds 
are  known  to  be  attacked.  Occasionally 
young  trees  are  killed  outright,  but  more 
loss  is  caused  by  stains  and  other  blem- 
ishes in  the  wood  which  result  from  sap- 
sucker punctures.  These  blemishes,  which 
are  known  as  bird  pecks,  are  especially 
numerous  in  hickory,  oak.  cypress  and 
yellow  poplar.  Defects  due  to  sapsucker 
work  cause  an  annual  loss  to  the  lumber 
industry  estimated  at  $1,250,000.  The 
food  of  the  yellow-bellied  sapsucker  is 
about  half  animal  and  half  vegetable.  Its 
fondness  for  ants  counts  slightly  in  its 
favor.  It  eats  also  wasps,  beetles  (in- 
cluding, however,  very  few  wood-boring 
species),  bugs,  and  spiders.  The  two 
principal    components    of    the    vegetable 


640 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


food  are  wild  fruits  of  no  importance  and 
cambium  (the  layer  Just  beneath  the 
bark  of  trees).  In  securing  the  cambium 
the  bird  does  the  damage  above  described. 
The  yellow-bellied  sapsucker,  unlike 
other  woodpeckers,  thus  does  compara- 
tively  little   good   and   much   harm. 

Downy  Woodpecker 

Dryoiates  pubescens 
Length,  six  inches.  Our  smallest  wood- 
pecker; spotted  with  black  and  white. 
Dark  bars  on  the  outer  tail  feathers  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  similarly  colored  but 
larger  hairy  woodpecker. 

Bange 

Resident  in  the  United  States  and  the 
forested  parts  of  Canada  and  Alaska. 
Habits  and  Economic  Status 

This  woodpecker  is  commonly  distrib- 
uted, living  in  woodland  tracts,  orchards 
and  gardens.  The  bird  has  several  char- 
acteristic notes,  and,  like  the  hairy 
woodpecker,  is  fond  of  beating  on  a  dry 
resonant  tree  branch  a  tattoo  which  to 
appreciative  ears  has  the  quality  of  wood- 
land music.  In  a  hole  excavated  in  a 
dead  branch  the  downy  woodpecker  lays 
four  to  six  eggs.  This  and  the  hairy 
woodpecker  are  among  our  most  valu- 
able allies,  their  food  consisting  of  some 
of  the  worst  foes  of  orchard  and  wood- 
land, which  the  woodpeckers  are  espe- 
cially equipped  to  dig  out  of  dead  and 
living  wood.  In  the  examination  of  723 
stomachs  of  this  bird,  animal  food,  most- 
ly Insects,  was  found  to  constitute  76  per 
cent  of  the  diet  and  vegetable  matter  24 
per  cent.  The  animal  food  consists 
largely  of  beetles  that  bore  into  timber 
or  burrow  under  the  bark.  Caterpillars 
amount  to  16  per  cent  of  the  food  and 
include  many  especially  harmful  species. 
Grasshopper  eggs  are  freely  eaten.  The 
vegetable  food  of  the  downy  woodpecker 
consists  of  small  fruit  and  seeds,  mostly 
of  wild  species.  It  distributes  seeds  of 
poison  ivy,  or  poison  oak,  which  is  about 
the   only   fault  of  this   very   useful   bird. 

Tellow-Billed  fnekoo 

Cocryzus  amcricaniis 
Length,   about   12    inches.     The   yellow 
lower  part  of  the  bill   distinguishes  this 


bird    from    its    near    relative,    the    black- 
billed  cuckoo. 

Range 
Breeds  generally   in   the  United   States 
and  Southern  Canada;    winters  in   South 
America. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

This  bird  lives  on  the  edges  of  wood- 
land, in  groves,  orchards,  parks,  and  even 
in  shaded  village  streets.  It  is  some- 
times known  as  rain  crow,  because  its 
very  characteristic  notes  are  supposed  to 
foretell  rain.  The  cuckoo  has  sly,  furtive 
ways  as  it  moves  among  the  bushes  or 
flits  from  tree  to  tree,  and  is  much  more 
often  seen  than  heard.  Unlike  its  Euro- 
pean relative,  it  does  not  lay  its  eggs  in 
other  birds'  nests,  but  builds  a  nest  of 
its  own.  This  is,  however,  a  rather  crude 
and  shabby  affair — hardly  more  than  a 
platform  of  twigs  sufficient  to  hold  the 
greenish  eggs.  The  cuckoo  is  extremely 
useful  because  of  its  insectivorous  habits, 
especially  as  it  shows  a  marked  prefer- 
ence for  the  hairy  caterpillars,  which  few 
birds  eat.  One  stomach  that  was  exam- 
ined contained  250  American  tent  cater- 
pillars; another,  217  fall  webworms.  In 
places  where  tent  caterpillars  are  abun- 
dant they  seem  to  constitute  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  food  of  this  and  the  black- 
billed  cuckoo. 

Screech  Owl 

Otus  asio 
Length,  about  eight  inches.     Our  small- 
est  owl   with   ear   tufts.     There   are   two 
distinct  phases   of  plumage,   one  grayish 
and  the  other  bright  rufous. 

Range 

Resident  throughout  the  United  States, 
Southern   Canada,   and   Northern   Mexico. 

Habits  and  Economic  Statos 

The  little  screech  owl  inhabits  or- 
chards, groves  and  thickets,  and  hunts 
for  its  prey  in  such  places  as  well  as 
along  hedgerows  and  in  the  open.  Dur- 
ing warm  spells  in  winter  it  forages 
quite  extensively  and  stores  up  in  some 
hollow  tree  considerable  quantities  of 
food  for  use  during  inclement  weather. 
Such  larders  frequently  contain  enough 
mice    or    other    prey    to    bridge    over    a 


BIRDS   USEFL'L   TO   FARM   AND   ORCHARD 


641 


period  of  a  week  or  more.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  burrowing  owl  it  is  prob- 
ably the  most  insectivorous  of  the  noc- 
turnal birds  of  pre>.  It  feeds  also  upon 
small  mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  batrach- 
ians,  fish,  spiders,  crawfish,  scorpions  and 
earthworms.  Grasshoppers,  ground-dwell- 
ing beetles,  crickets,  and  caterpillars  are 
its  favorites  among  insects,  as  are  field 
mice  among  mammals  and  sparrows 
among  birds.  Out  of  324  stomachs  exam- 
ined, 169  were  found  to  contain  insects; 
142.  small  mammals:  56,  birds;  and  15, 
crawfish.  The  screech  owl  should  be  en- 
couraged to  stay  near  barns  and  out- 
houses, as  it  will  keep  in  check  house 
mice  and  wood  mice,  which  frequent  such 
places. 

Bam  Owl 

Altico  pratincola 

Length,  about  17  inches.  Facial  disk 
not  circular  as  in  our  other  owls;  plum- 
age above,  pale  yellow:  beneath,  varying 
from  silky  white  to  pale  bright  tawny. 

Range 

Resident  in  Mexico,  in  the  Southern 
United  States,  and  north  to  New  York, 
Ohio,  Nebraska  and  California. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  barn  owl,  often  called  monkey- 
faced  owl,  is  one  of  the  most  beneficial 
of  the  birds  of  prey,  since  it  feeds  almost 
exclusively  on  small  mammals  that  in- 
jure farm  produce,  nursery,  and  orchard 
stock.  It  hunts  principally  in  the  open 
and  consequently  secures  such  mammals 
as  pocket  gophers,  field  mice,  common 
rats,  house  mice,  harvest  mice,  kangaroo 
rats  and  cotton  rats.  It  occasionally  cap- 
tures a  few  birds  and  insects.  At  least 
a  half  bushel  of  the  remains  of  pocket 
gophers  have  been  found  in  the  nesting 
cavity  of  a  pair  of  these  birds.  Remem- 
bering that  a  gopher  has  been  known  in 
a  short  time  to  girdle  seven  apricot  trees 
worth  $100  it  is  hard  to  overestimate  the 
value  of  the  service  of  a  pair  of  barn 
owls.  1,247  pellets  of  the  barn  owl  col- 
lected from  Smithsonian  towers  contained 
3,100  skulls,  of  which  3,004,  or  97  per 
cent,  were  of  mammals;  92,  or  three  per 
cent,   of  birds;    and   four  were   of   frogs. 


The  bulk  consisted  of  1,987  field  mice, 
656  house  mice,  and  210  common  rats. 
The  birds  eaten  were  mainly  sparrows 
and  blackbirds.  This  valuable  owl  should 
be  rigidly  protected  throughout  its  entire 
range. 

Sparrow  Hawk 

Falco  sparrerius 

Length,  about  10  inches.  This  is  one 
of  the  best  known  and  handsomest,  as 
well  as  the  smallest,  of  North  American 
hawks. 

Range 

Breeds  throughout  the  United  States, 
Canada  and  Northern  Mexico;  winters  in 
the  United  States  and  south  to  Gaute- 
niala. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  sparrow  hawk,  which  is  a  true  fal- 
con, lives  in  the  more  open  country  and 
builds  its  nest  in  hollow  trees.  It  is 
abundant  in  many  parts  of  the  West, 
where  telegraph  poles  afford  it  conven- 
ient perching  and  feeding  places.  Its 
food  consists  of  insects,  small  mammals, 
birds,  spiders  and  reptiles.  Grasshop- 
pers, crickets,  and  terrestrial  beetles  and 
caterpillars  make  up  considerably  more 
than  half  its  subsistence,  while  field  mice, 
house  mice,  and  shrews  cover  fully  25  per 
cent  of  its  annual  supply.  The  balance 
of  the  food  includes  birds,  reptiles,  and 
spiders.  Contrary  to  the  usual  habits 
of  the  species,  some  individuals  during 
the  breeding  season  capture  nestling 
birds  for  food  for  their  young  and  create 
considerable  havoc  among  the  songsters 
of  the  neighborhood.  In  agricultural  dis- 
tricts when  new  ground  is  broken  by  the 
plow,  they  sometimes  become  very  tame, 
even  alighting  for  an  instant  under  the 
horses  in  their  endeavor  to  seize  a  worm 
or  insect.  Out  of  410  stomachs  examined. 
314  were  found  to  contain  insects;  129, 
small  mammals;  and  70,  small  birds.  This 
little  falcon  renders  good  service  in  de- 
stroying noxious  insects  and  rodents  and 
should   be   encouraged   and   protected. 

Red-Tailed  Hawk 

Buieo   borealis 

Length,  about  two  feet.  One  of  our  larg- 
est hawks;  adults  with  tail  reddish  brown. 


642 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Range 

Breeds  in  the  United  States,  Mexico, 
Costa  Rica,  Canada,  and  Alaska;  winters 
generally  in  the  United  States  and  south 
to  Gautemala. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  red-tailed  hawk,  or  "hen  hawk,"  as 
it  is  commonly  called,  is  one  of  the  best 
known  of  all  our  birds  of  prey,  and  is  a 
widely  distributed  species  of  great  econ- 
omic importance.  Its  habit  of  sitting  on 
some  prominent  limb  or  pole  in  the  open, 
or  flying  with  measured  wing  beat  over 
prairies  and  sparsely  wooded  areas  on  the 
lookout  for  its  favorite  prey,  causes  it 
to  be  noticed  by  the  most  indifferent  ob- 
server. Although  not  as  omnivorous  as 
the  red-shouldered  hawk,  it  feeds  on  a 
variety  of  food,  as  small  mammals, 
snakes,  frogs,  insects,  birds,  crawfish, 
centipedes,  and  even  carrion.  In  regions 
where  rattlesnakes  abound  it  destroys 
considerable  numbers  of  the  reptiles. 
Although  it  feeds  to  a  certain  extent  on 
poultry  and  birds,  it  is  nevertheless  en- 
titled to  general  protection  on  account  of 
the  insistent  warfare  it  wages  against 
field  mice  and  other  small  rodents  and 
insects  that  are  so  destructive  to  young 
orchards,  nursery  stock,  and  farm  prod- 
uce. Out  of  530  stomachs  examined,  457, 
or  85  per  cent,  contained  the  remains  of 
mammal  pests  such  as  field  mice,  pine 
mice,  rabbits,  several  species  of  ground 
squirrels,  pocket  gophers,  and  cotton  rats, 
and  only  62  contained  the  remains  of 
poultry  or  game  birds. 

Cooper's  Hawk 

Accipiter  cooperi 
Length,  about  15  inches.    Medium  sized, 
with    long    tail     and    short    wings,    and 
without  the  white  patch  on  rump  which 
is  characteristic  of  the  marsh  hawk. 

Kange 

Breeds  throughout  most  of  the  United 
States  and  Southern  Canada;  winters 
from  the  United  States  to  Costa  Rica. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  Cooper's  hawk,  or  "blue  darter," 
as  it  is  familiarly  known  throughout  the 
South,  is  preeminentl.v  a  poultry  and  bird- 
eating  species,  and  its  destructiveness  in 


this  direction  is  surpassed  only  by  that 
of  its  larger  congener,  the  goshawk,  which 
occasionally  in  autumn  and  winter  enters 
the  United  States  from  the  North  in 
great  numbers.  The  almost  universal 
prejudice  against  birds  of  prey  is  largely 
due  to  the  activities  of  these  two  birds, 
assisted  by  a  third,  the  sharp-shinned 
hawk,  which  in  habits  and  appearance 
might  well  pass  for  a  small  Cooper's 
hawk.  These  birds  usually  approach  un- 
der cover  and  drop  upon  unsuspecting 
victims,  making  great  inroads  upon 
poultry  j'ards  and  game  coverts  favorably 
situated  for  this  style  of  hunting.  Out  of 
123  stomachs  examined,  38  contained  the 
remains  of  poultry  and  game  birds,  66  the 
remains  of  other  birds,  and  12  the  re- 
mains of  mammals.  Twenty-ei.ght  species 
of  wild  birds  were  identified  in  the  above- 
mentioned  material.  This  destructive 
hawk,  together  with  its  two  near  rela- 
tives, should  be  destroyed  by  every  pos- 
sible means. 

Mourning  Dove 

y.enai rlu ra  macron ra 

Length,  12  inches.  The  dark  spot  on 
the  side  of  the  neck  distinguishes  this 
bird  from  all  other  native  doves  and 
pigeons  except  the  white-winged  dove. 
The  latter  has  the  upper  third  of  wing 
white. 

Range 

Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
and  in  Mexico,  Gautemala,  and  Southern 
Canada;  winters  f;om  the  Central  United 
States  to  Panama. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  food  of  the  mourning  dove  is  prac- 
tically all  vegetal)le  matter  (over  99  per 
cent),  principally  seeds  of  plants,  includ- 
ing grain.  'Wheat,  oats,  rye,  corn,  bar- 
ley, and  buckwheat  were  found  in  150  out 
of  237  stomachs,  and  constituted  32  per 
cent  of  the  food.  Three-fourths  of  this 
was  waste  grain  picked  up  after  harvest. 
The  principal  and  almost  constant  diet 
is  weed  seeds,  which  are  eaten  through- 
out the  year  and  constitute  64  per  cent  of 
the  entire  food.  In  one  stomach  were 
found  7,500  seeds  of  yellow  wood  sor- 
rel, in  another  6,400  seeds  of  barn  grass 
or  foxtail,  and  in  a  third  2,600  seeds  of 


BIRDS   USEFUL   TO   FARM   AND   ORCHARD 


643 


slender  paspaUim,  4,820  of  orange  hawk 
weed.  950  of  hoary  vervain,  120  of  Caro- 
lina cranesbill,  50  of  yellow  wood  sorrel, 
620  of  panic  grass,  and  40  of  various 
other  weeds.  None  of  these  are  useful, 
and  most  of  them  are  troublesome  weeds. 
The  dove  does  not  eat  insects  or  other 
animal  food.  It  should  be  jirotected  in 
every  possible  way. 

Ruffed   Oronse 

Bonasa  iimbeUiis 
Length,    17    inches.      The    broad    black 
band   near  tip  of   tail   distinguishes   this 
from  other  grouse. 

'Range 
Resident    in     the     northern     two-thirds 
of  the  United  States  and  in  the  forested 
parts  of  Canada. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  ruffed  grouse,  the  famed  drummer 
and    finest    game    bird    of    the    northern 
woods,  is  usually  wild  and  wary  and  un- 
der reasonable  protection  well  withstands 
the  attacks  of  hunters.     Moreover,  when 
reduced  in  numbers,  it  responds  to  protec- 
tion   in    a    gratifying    manner    and    has 
proved  to  be  well  adapted  to  propagation 
under  artificial   conditions.     Wild   fruits, 
mast,   and   browse  make   up   the   bulk   of 
the  vegetable  food  of  this  species.     It  is 
very  fond  of  hazelnuts,  beechnuts,  chest- 
nuts and  acorns,   and   it  eats  practically 
all  kinds  of  wild  berries  and  other  fruits. 
Nearly    60    kinds    of    fruits    have    been 
identified  from  the  stomach  contents  ex- 
amined.   Various  weed  seeds  also  are  con- 
sumed.    Slightly   more  than   10   per   cent 
of  the  food  consists  of  insects,  about  half 
being  beetles.     The  most  important  pests 
devoured    are    the    potato    beetle,    clover- 
root   weevil,   the   pale-striped   flea   beetle, 
grapevine  leaf  beetle,  May  beetles,  grass- 
hoppers, cotton  worms,  army  worms,  cut- 
worms, the  red-humped  apple  worm,  and 
sawfly  larvae.  While  the  economic  record 
of  the   ruffed   grouse   is   fairly  commend- 
able, it  does  not  call  for  more  stringent 
protection  than  is  necessary  to  maintain 
the  species  in  reasonable  numbers. 


Boltwliite 

Col  ill  IIS  rinjinianus 

Length,  10  inches.  Known  everywhere 
by  the  clear  whistle  that  suggests  its 
name. 

Bsinti'e 

Resident  in  the  United  States  east  of 
the  plains;  introduced  in  many  places  in 
the  West. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  bobwhite  is  loved  by  every  dweller 
in  the  country  and  is  better  known  to 
more  hunters  in  the  United  States  than 
any  other  game  bird.  It  is  no  less  appre- 
ciated on  the  table  than  in  the  field,  and 
in  many  states  has  unquestionably  been 
hunted  too  closely.  Fortunately  it  seems 
to  be  practicable  to  propagate  the  bird  in 
captivity,  and  much  is  to  be  hoped  for  in 
this  direction.  Half  the  food  of  this  quail 
consists  of  weed  seeds,  almost  a  fourth  of 
grain,  and  about  a  tenth  of  wild  fruits. 
Although  thus  eating  grain,  the  bird  gets 
most  of  it  from  stubble.  Fifteen  per  cent 
of  the  bobwhite's  food  is  composed  of  in- 
sects, including  several  of  the  most  seri- 
ous pests  of  agriculture.  It  feeds  freely 
upon  Colorado  potato  beetles  and  chinch 
bugs;  it  devours  also  cucumber  beetles, 
wireworms,  billbugs,  clover-leaf  weevils, 
cotton-boll  weevils,  army  worms,  boll- 
worms,  cutworms,  and  Rocky  Mountain 
locusts.  Take  it  all  in  all,  bobwhite  is 
very  useful  to  the  farmer,  and  while  it 
may  not  be  necessary  to  remove  it  from 
the  list  of  game  birds  every  farmer  should 
see  that  his  own  farm  is  not  depleted  by 
eager  sportsmen. 

Kildeer 

Oj-ypchiis  rociferus 

Length,  10  inches.  Distinguished  by  its 
piercing  and  oft-repeated   cry — kildee. 

Kange 

Breeds  throughout  the  XTnited  States 
and  most  of  Canada;  winters  from  Cen- 
tral United  States  to  South  America. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

The  killdeer  is  one  of  the  best  known 
of  the  shorebird  family.  It  often  visits 
the  farmyard  and  commonly  nests  in 
pastures  or  cornfields.     It  is  rather  sus- 


644 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


picious,  however,  and  on  being  approached 
takes  flight  with  loutl  cries.  It  is  noisy 
and  restless,  but  fortunately  most  of  its 
activities  result  in  benefit  to  man.  The 
food  is  of  the  same  general  nature  as 
that  of  the  upland  plover,  but  is  more 
varied.  The  killdeer  feeds  upon  beetles, 
grasshoppers,  caterpillars,  ants,  bugs, 
caddis  flies,  dragon  flies,  centipedes,  spi- 
ders, ticks,  oyster  worms,  earthworms, 
snails,  crabs  and  other  rrustacea.  Among 
the  beetles  consumed  are  such  pests  as 
the  alfalfa  weevil,  cotton-boll  weevil, 
clover-root  weevil,  clover-leaf  weevil,  pine 
weevil,  billbugs,  white  grubs,  wireworms, 
and  leaf  beetles.  The  bird  also  devours 
cotton  worms,  cotton  cutworms,  horse- 
flies, mosquitoes,  cattle  ticks,  and  craw- 
fish. One  stomach  contained  hundreds  of 
larvae  of  the  saltmarsh  mosquito,  one  of 
the  most  troublesome  species.  The  kill- 
deer  preys  extensively  upon  insects  that 
are  annoying  to  man  and  injurious  to  his 
stock  and  crops,  and  this  should  be 
enough  to  remove  it  from  the  list  of 
game   birds   and   insure   its   protection. 

Upland  PIOTer 

Baitramia   loiigicaiida 

Length,  12  Inches.  The  only  plainly 
colored  shorebird  which  occurs  east  of 
the  plains  and  inhabits  exclusively  dry 
fields  and  hillsides. 

Range 

Breeds  from  Oregon,  Utah,  Oklahoma, 
Indiana  and  Virginia,  north  to  Alaska; 
winters   in   South   America. 

Haliifs  and  Economic  Status 

This,  the  most  terrestrial  of  our  waders, 
is  shy  and  wary,  but  it  has  the  one  weak- 
ness of  not  fearing  men  on  horseback 
or  in  a  vehicle.  One  of  these  methods 
of  approach,  therefore,  is  nearly  always 
used  by  the  sportsman,  and.  since  the 
bird  is  highly  prized  as  a  table  delicacy, 
it  has  been  hunted  to  the  verge  of  exter- 
mination. As  the  upland  plover  is  strictly 
beneficial,  it  should  no  longer  be  classed 
as  a  game  bird  and  allowed  to  be  shot. 
Ninety-seven  per  cent  of  the  food  of  this 
species  consists  of  animal  forms,  chiefly 
of  injurious  and  neutral  species.  The 
vegetable  food  is  mainly  weed  seeds.  Al- 


most half  of  the  total  subsistence  is  made 
up  of  grasshoppers,  crickets  and  weevils. 
Among  the  weevils  eaten  are  the  cotton- 
boll  weevil,  greater  and  lesser  clover-leaf 
weevils,  cowpea  weevils,  and  billbugs. 
This  bird  devours  also  leaf  beetles,  wire 
worms,  white  grubs,  army  worms,  cotton 
worms,  cotton  cutworms,  sawfly  larvae, 
horseflies,  and  cattle  ticks.  In  brief,  it 
injures  no  crop,  but  consumes  a  host  of 
the  worst  enemies  of  agriculture. 

Black  Tern 

Hydrochelidon  nigra  surinamensis 
Length,  10  inches.  In  autumn  occurs 
as  a  migrant  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
United  States,  and  then  is  in  white  and 
gray  plumage.  During  the  breeding  sea- 
son it  is  confined  to  the  interior,  is  chiefly 
black,  and  is  the  only  dark  tern  occurring 
inland. 

Range 

Breeds  from  California.  Colorado,  Mis- 
souri, and  Ohio,  north  to  Central  Canada; 
winters  from  Mexico  to  South  America; 
migrant  in  the  Eastern  United  States. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

This  tern,  unlike  most  of  its  relatives, 
passes  much  of  its  life  on  fresh-water 
lakes  and  marshes  of  the  interior.  Its 
nests  are  placed  among  the  tules  and 
weeds,  on  floating  vegetation,  or  on  musk- 
rat  houses.  It  lays  from  two  to  four 
eggs.  Its  food  is  more  varied  than  that 
of  any  other  tern.  So  far  as  known  it 
preys  upon  no  food  fishes,  but  feeds  ex- 
tensively upon  such  enemies  of  fish  as 
dragon  fly  nymphs,  fish-eating  beetles,  and 
crawfishes.  Unlike  most  of  its  family,  it 
devours  a  great  variety  of  insects,  many 
of  which  it  catches  as  it  fiies.  Dragon 
flies.  May  flies,  grasshoppers,  predaceous 
diving  beetles,  scarabaeid  beetles,  leaf 
beetles,  gnats,  and  other  flies  are  the 
principal  kinds  preyed  upon.  Fishes  of 
little  economic  value,  chiefly  minnows 
and  mummichogs,  were  found  to  compose 
only  a  little  more  than  19  per  cent  of  the 
contents  of  145  stomachs.  The  great  con- 
sumption of  insects  by  the  black  tern 
places  it  among  the  beneficial  species 
worthy   of   protection. 


BIRDS  USEFUL  TO  FARM  AND  ORCHARD— BLACKBERRY 


645 


Friinkliirs  Gull 

Larus  fraiiklini 

Length.  15  inches.  During  its  residence 
in  the  United  States  Franl\lin's  gull  is 
practically  contined  to  the  interior  and  is 
the  only  inland  gull  with  black  head  and 
red  bill. 

Raii^e 

Breeds  in  the  Dakotas,  Iowa,  Minnesota 
and  the  neighboring  parts  of  Southern 
Canada;  winters  from  the  Gulf  coast  to 
South  America. 

Habits  and  Economic  Status 

Nearly  all  of  our  gulls  are  coast-loving 
species  and  spend  comparativel.v  little  of 
their  time  in  fresh  water,  but  Franklin's 
is  a  true  inland  gull.  Extensive  marshes 
bordering  shallow  lakes  are  its  chosen 
breeding  grounds,  and  as  many  such 
areas  are  being  reclaimed  for  agricultural 
purposes  it  behooves  the  tillers  of  the 
soil  to  protect  this  valuable  species.  When 
undisturbed  this  gull  becomes  quite  fear- 
less and  follows  the  plowman  to  gather 
the  grubs  and  worms  from  the  newly 
turned  furrows.  It  lives  almost  exclus- 
ively upon  insects,  of  which  it  consumes 
great  quantities.  Its  hearty  appetite  is 
manifest  from  the  contents  of  a  few 
stomachs:  A,  327  nymphs  of  dragon  flies; 
B.  340  grasshoppers.  52  bugs,  three  bee- 
tles, two  wasps,  and  one  spider:  C,  82 
beetles,  87  bugs,  984  ants,  one  cricket, 
one  grasshopper,  and  two  spiders.  About 
four-fifths  of  the  total  food  is  grasshop- 
pers, a  strong  point  in  favor  of  this  bird. 
Other  injurious  creatures  eaten  are  bill- 
bugs,  squash  bugs,  leaf  hoppers,  click 
beetles  (adults  of  wire  worms).  May 
beetles  (adults  of  white  grubs),  and 
weevils.  Franklin's  gull  is  probably  the 
most  beneficial  bird  of  its  group. 

Henry  W.  Hexshaw, 

WashinEton.    D.    C. 

The  above  descriptions  are  taken  from  T'.  R. 
Dept.  Agri.  Farm.  Bui.  513.  Other  references 
to   Oovemment   literature   are : 

Farm.  Buls.  .54.  497  :  Biolosical  Survey  Buls. 
3.  n.  l.'i.  l.i.  21,  2S.  24,  .^0.  32.  34,  37,  '39.  44 

Dept.   Affri.   Yr.   Book   1S9.", 


Blackberry 


Anyone  who  is  familiar  with  farming 
conditions  in  the  Eastern  states  knows 
by  experience  that  the  blackberry  is  one 


of  the  most  common  and  one  of  the  most 
tenacious  of  American  native  fruits.  In 
Tennessee,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Ken- 
tucky. Pennsylvania,  and  other  states, 
they  spring  up  in  abandoned  fields  and 
are   difficult  to  eradicate. 

The  leading  representative  of  this 
group  is  Rubus  nigrobaccus. 

All  varieties  change  rapidly  under  cul- 
tivation and  are.  therefore,  being  rapidly 
improved.  The  blackberry  thrives  best 
usually  on  a  northern  slope,  on  heavy 
loamy  soil,  retentive  of  moisture.  If  the 
soil  is  rich  in  nitrogenous  foods  it  tends 
to  heavy  wood  growth,  and  but  little 
fruit;  if,  however,  there  is  little  humus 
in  the  soil,  it  tends  to  fruit  and  less  wood 
growth.  In  this  particular  it  follows  the 
law  of  most  other  fruits,  for  this  is  true 
of  peaches,  pears,  apples  and  plums,  as 
well   as   of  berries. 

Propaffation 

Propagation  is  almost  always  by  means 
of  sprouts  or  suckers  that  spring  up  from 
the  roots.  These  grow  in  great  abun- 
dance and  when  rot  desired  for  propaga- 
tion are  a  hindrance,  causing  considerable 
work  to  keep  them  down.  They  also  take 
strength  from  the  parent  stock  and  pre- 
vent the  best  development  of  the  fruit. 
If  the  finest  fruit  is  desired  these  suckers 
must  be  kept  down:  if  suckers  are  desired 
for  the  market,  they  injure  the  fruit  just 
the  same;  but  the  grower  will  decide 
whether  his  profits  come  mostly  from 
fruits  or  plants  and  will  give  the  prefer- 
ence to  that  which  seems  most  valuable. 

Medicinal   Qualities 

Blackberries  are  esteemed  for  their 
tendency  to  counteract  bowel  trouble, 
chronic  diarrhoea,  and  were  formerly  used 
extensively  for  this  purpose. 

Planting 

The  setting  of  blackberries  is  not  a  dif- 
ficult task.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  de- 
termine whether  they  are  to  be  set  in 
rows,  or  in  squares,  which  some  call  the 
check  system.  This  question  would  prob- 
ably be  determined  by  the  contour  of  the 
land  on  which  the  orchard  was  to  he 
located.  If  the  land  is  rough,  it  may  be 
found  impracticable  to  use  the  check  sys- 


646 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


tern  in  cultivating;  but  if  it  is  smooth  or 
level  so  that  it  can  be  cultivated  both 
ways,  the  check  system  is,  to  our  mind. 
preferable.  The  row  system  consists  of 
setting  the  plants  in  rows,  from  five  to 
ten  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  from  three 
to  five  feet  apart  in  the  row.  The  check 
system  is  one  in  which  the  plants  are  set 
five  to  seven  feet  apart  each  way.  The 
distances  apart  should  be  determined 
largely  by  the  nature  of  the  plants.  Some 
varieties  tend  to  grow  large  and  tall  while 
others  grow  short  and  stocky.  It  is  prac- 
ticable to  put  twice  as  many  of  the  small 
varieties  on  a  given  area,  as  of  the  largest 
growers.  Distances  apart  will  also  be  de- 
termined in  part  by  the  character  of  the 
soil.  A  very  rich  soil  will  support  more 
plants  than  a  poor  soil.  When  the  nature 
and  habits  of  the  varieties  are  determined 
and  when  the  character  of  the  soil  is  con- 
sidered, then  the  question  of  distances  will 
be  determined,  and  the  method  of  plant- 
ing will  logically  follow.  Our  preference 
is  toward  the  check,  or  square  system,  if 
the  land  is  suited  to  that  style  of  planting. 
Our  reasons  are  that,  by  that  method, 
more  fruit  and  better  fruit  can  be  pro- 
duced with  a  given  amount  of  labor  than 
by  any  other.  By  this  method  the  land 
can  be  cultivated  both  ways  and  the  work 
of  hoeing  largely  eliminated.  By  this 
method  also  the  sun  shines  more  evenly 
upon  all  parts  of  the  plant  and  tends  to- 
ward a  fuller  and  more  uniform  develop- 
ment of  the  fruit. 

If  the  row  method  is  adopted,  run  a 
deep  furrow  where  the  plants  are  to  be 
placed.  If  the  square  or  check  method  is 
adopted,  mark  off  the  land  both  ways  and 
run  a  deep  furrow  one  way.  Then  prune 
the  broken  roots  and  cut  back  the  top  to 
about  four  to  eight  inches  in  height:  they 
are  then  ready  for  setting.  In  setting  the 
plants,  care  should  be  used  to  prevent  the 
drying  of  the  roots.  Perhaps  the  best 
method  is  to  place  the  roots  in  water, 
having  one  man  to  drop  them  and  two  to 
set  them.  The  three  working  together 
make  a  team.  This  will  set  the  plants 
with  less  labor  than  a  smaller  number 
working  a  longer  period  of  time.  Some 
recommend  that  the  "dropper"  carry  the 


plants  in  a  bucket  of  water.  This  will  do 
if  only  a  small  number  are  to  be  set,  but 
if  a  large  field  is  to  be  planted  it  is  easier 
to  have  a  broad  water-tight  box  on  a 
sled,  in  which  the  plants  are  placed,  and 
drawn  by  a  horse.  For  the  number  of 
plants  per  acre,  see  our  "Table  of  Dis- 
tances," page  155.  Set  the  plants  from 
a  half  to  one  inch  deeper  than  they 
grow  in  the  nursery. 

Cultivation 

The  cultivation  blackberries  should  re- 
ceive depends  mostl.v  on  the  conditions 
under  which  they  grow.  If  they  grow 
where  there  is  a  lack  of  moisture,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  keep  the  ground  thor- 
oughly pulverized,  so  as  to  form  a  dust 
mulch  and  conserve  the  moisture.  Some- 
times it  will  be  necessary  also  to  mulch 
with  straw,  barnyard  manure  or  leaves. 

In  portions  of  the  country  where  irriga- 
tion is  practiced  and  where  there  is 
plenty  of  moisture,  the  land  should  be 
cultivated  after  each  and  every  irriga- 
tion, which  would  probably  be  about  every 
20  to  30  days.  In  any  event,  the  weeds 
and  the  suckers  must  be  kept  down  and 
the  land  kept  well  pulverized,  so  that  by 
the  process  of  aeration,  the  roots  are 
properly   supplied   with   food. 

Training  and  Staking 

Upon  this  subject  we  quote  here  from 
W.  S.  Thornber,  formerly  professor  of 
horticulture  at  Pullman,  Wash. 

"The  'Upright  Growers'  where  planted 
in  hills  can  best  be  staked  by  a  single 
strong  stake  from  four  to  six  feet  in 
height  and  the  canes  loosely  but  securely 
fastened  to  the  stake.  Some  growers  pre- 
fer to  set  two  stakes  about  15  inches  apart 
at  each  hill  of  blackberries  with  the  idea 
of  training  the  fruiting  canes  on  one  and 
the  growing  canes  on  the  other.  Where 
the  'Upright  Growers'  are  planted  in  a 
continuous  row  they  may  be  trained  to 
and  supported  by  a  two-wire  trellis  con- 
sisting of  a  single  row  of  posts  four  to 
five  feet  high  with  a  single  No.  10  wire 
stapled  to  the  top  and  another  from  18 
to  24  inches  from  the  top.  The  more  com- 
mon method  however,  is  to  set  a  single 
line  of  posts  four  or  five  feet  high  in  the 
row,  nail  an  IS-inch  cross-arm  three  feet 


BLACKBERRY 


647 


from  the  ground  and  another  at  the  top 
of  the  posts,  and  to  the  ends  of  these 
arms  staple  heavy  wires,  thus  forming 
firm  lateral  supports  for  the  canes. 

"The  four-wire  trellis  with  the  addition 
of  notched  cross  pieces  to  lay  on  the 
lower  wires  makes  an  excellent  support 
for  the  'Viny  Growers,'  the  purpose  being 
to  suspend  the  growing  canes  by  means 
of  small  cloth  strings  under  the  upper 
•wires  for  the  first  year  and  at  pruning 
time  lower  them  to  rest  on  the  notched 
pieces  on  the  lower  wires  for  their  fruit- 
ing period.  This  makes  an  easy  system 
to  work  and  keeps  the  growing  and  fruit- 
ing canes  separate,  thereby  simplifying 
the  picking." 

Pruning: 

The  pruning  of  the  blackberry  is  a 
simple  matter,  if  only  a  few  rules  are 
observed. 

The  first  is  to  keep  the  tops  cut  back, 
or  pinched  back  to  the  proper  height, 
during  the  growing  season  while  they 
are  young  and  tender.  This  allows  the 
plant  to  grow  stocky,  and  to  mature  bet- 
ter fruit  than  if  the  strength  of  the  plant 
had  been  allowed  to  produce  more  wood 
growth.  The  second  is  to  remove  the  old 
canes  in  winter  or  spring. 

Some  varieties  of  plants  will  grow  on 
good  soils  from  10  to  20  feet  in  height. 
This  makes  the  picking  of  the  fruit  im- 
possible. These  should  be  cut  back  dur- 
ing the  growing  season.  Others  tend  to 
grow  shaggj-  and  bushy.  In  such  a  case 
it  might  be  found  advisable  to  train  them 
to  grow  taller. 

In  very  cold  climates  the  pruning 
should  be  done  in  the  autumn,  the  plants 
laid  down  and  given  a  covering  of  straw 
or  earth  to  prevent  freezing,  but  where 
this  is  done,  berries  are  grown  mostly 
for  home  use,  as  it  does  not  pay  to  grow 
fruits  for  the  general  markets  in  com- 
petition with  those  sections  where  the 
conditions  are  more  favorable  and  the 
fruit  can  be  produced  with  less  labor. 

Picking  and  Marketing 

For  long  shipments  the  berries  should 
be  picked  as  soon  as  colored.  However, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  blackber- 


ries color  before  they  are  ripe  enough  to 
have  a  pleasant  taste.  It  is  regrettable 
that  so  many  varieties  of  fruits,  in  order 
to  reach  the  markets  in  good  condition, 
must  be  picked  before  they  are  ripe,  but 
in  many  cases  this  is  true.  However,  by 
the  use  of  refrigerator  cars,  pre-cooling 
methods  and  rapid  transit,  the  fruit  may 
be  left  to  ripen,  unless  intended  for  long 
distance  shipment. 

After  picking,  the  berries  should  not  be 
allowed  to  stand  in  the  sun  because,  if 
thus  exposed,  they  develop  a  bitter  taste. 

Perhaps  the  most  convenient  package 
for  blackberries,  strawberries  or  any  kind 
of  small  fruit,  is  the  strawberry  box.  It 
is  a  size  to  which  the  public  is  accus- 
tomed and  which  manufacturers  are  pre- 
pared for  making  without  readjusting 
their  machinery. 

Drying  Blackberries 

The  drying  of  blackberries  has  been 
strongly  recommended  by  a  great  many 
persons.  The  experience  of  some  per- 
sons leads  to  the  conclusion  that  it  pays, 
while  others  are  of  a  contrary  opinion. 
Card,  in  his  "Bush  Fruits,"  gives  it  as 
his  opinion  that  it  does  not  pay.  His 
reasons  are.  that  the  blackberry  by  eva- 
poration loses  much  of  its  flavor.  Then, 
too,  it  comes  into  competition  with  the 
fresh  berries,  grown  in  the  South  and 
shipped  into  Northern  markets.  These 
berries  from  the  South  are  not  considered 
equal  in  flavor  to  the  berries  grown  in 
the  North,  yet  they  are  so  far  superior  to 
the  Northern  berry  dried  that  they  prac- 
tically destroy  the  demand  for  the  dried 
product.  In  our  experience,  the  competi- 
tion with  the  canned  product  is  formid- 
able, and  we  should  not,  therefore,  at- 
tempt to  dry  blackberries  for  the  general 
market  unless  under  conditions  where 
canning  was  impracticable.  However, 
there  are  markets  for  dried  fruits.  We 
may  take  as  an  illustration,  Alaska, 
where  the  costs  of  shipment  are  high,  and 
where  all  fruits  are  scarce. 

The  profits  in  berries  are  all  the  way 
from  $100  per  acre  to  $500  net,  depending 
on  the  man,  the  varieties,  and  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  grown  and  mar- 
keted. 


648 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


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Blackberries 
1 — Mercereau  :  Fruit  large,  ratlier  acid,  of  good  quality,  quite  soft ;  season  long,  a  good 
berry  for  home  use.  *J. — Stone's  Hardy  :  Fruit  mediiuii  iu  size,  quite  prolific  and  of 
fair  quality.  .1 — Texas :  Fruit  of  good  size,  very  prolific,  rather  soft  wlien  fully 
ripe:  earlier  than  the  Snyder  but  of  poorer  quality.  4 — Minnewaslti  :  Fruit  medium 
in  size,  and  of  fair  quality  ;  not  as  good  as  Snyder.  5 — Snyder  :  The  most  popular 
blacicberry  ;  fruit  medivim  in  size,  very  firm,  prolific  and  of  excellent  quality  :  very 
sub.1ect  to  disease.  <> — Early  Harvest  :  Fruit  early,  small,  acid,  not  profitable  here. 
7 — Kittatinny  :  Fruit  rather  large,  quite  firm,  of  fair  quality,  not  as  prolific  as  the 
Snyder,  not  as  good  a  berry.  S — Parlter  :  A  berry  of  good  size,  quality,  and  firmness. 
grown  locally  in  Whatcom  county  where  it  is  said  to  equal  or  excel  the  Snyder. 
9^-Olimer  :  A  herry  of  medium  size,  fair  quality  and  not  very  prolific.  10— Mam- 
moth (not  on  the  photo)  :  Fruit  large,  acid,  good  quality.  Plant  has  a  trailing  habit 
and  very  thorny.  Not  prolific  enough  to  be  grown  witli  profit. 
Photo  and  Descriptions  by  J.  H.  Stalil,   ^'cstcrn   Wasliinaton  Expvviment  Station 


BLACKBERRY 


649 


Tarieties  Rfcdiiinu'iitlt'd  for  IMaiitiiie- 
Uashingtoii 

W.  S.  Thornber,  formerly  Horticulturist 
Washington  State  College,  recommends 
the  following  for  that  state: 

EarU/  Mammoth — An  early  fine  large, 
rich  flavored  berry.  Rather  tender  for 
general  planting  but  valuable  where  qual- 
ity is  desired. 

Evergreeti — One  of  our  hardiest,  most 
productive  and  best  all-round  late  black- 
berries. Value  for  commercial  as  well  as 
home  growing  purposes. 

Himilaya  Giant — A  rather  slight  known, 
productive,  rank-growing,  viny  sort.  Valu- 
able for  commercial  planting  west  of  the 
Cascade  mountains,  but  too  tender  for 
general  planting. 

Kittatinny — A  very  commonly  planted 
sort,  and  w^hile  rather  tender  and  sub- 
ject to  rust,  yet  produces  very  satisfac- 
tory crops. 

Snyder — One  of  our  best  and  most  popu- 
lar early  sorts.  Valuable  for  commercial 
as  well  as  home  purposes. 

8t0)ies'  Hardy — An  old,  well-known,  late 
variety.  Valuable  only  where  the  more 
productive  sorts  will  not  stand  the 
winters. 

Loganberry — Que  of  our  newer  fruits 
which  is  rapidly  becoming  popular  on  ac- 
count of  its  productiveness,  large  fruit 
and  fine  quality.  Grows  well  in  all  parts 
of  the  state  but  requires  light  winter 
protection  in  eastern  Washington. 

Phenomenal  Berry — A  fruit  closely  re- 
sembling the  loganberry  and  profitably 
grown  under  the  same  conditions. 

Lucretia  Dewberry — A  valuable  but  not 
well  known  recent  addition  to  the  black- 
berry family.  While  it  is  hardy,  its  trail- 
ing habit  makes  it  possible  to  successfully 
grow  this  plant,  by  giving  it  winter  pro- 
tection, where  the  ordinary  blackberry 
winter  kills.  Its  early  fruiting  habit, 
productiveness  and  ability  to  thrive  on 
many  soils  makes  it  popular  as  an  orchard 
filler  in  many  parts  of  the  state. 

Geaxvllle  Lowther 

Cost  of  Growine  Blackberries  in  the 
Puyalliiii  A'alley 

It  is  estimated  in  the  Puyallup  valley 
that  it  costs  the  grower  25  cents  per  crate 


of  24  crates  for  picking.  The  crate  costs 
15  cents;  hauling  to  the  depot  and  other 
incidentals,  T^j  cents;  cultivation  and 
taking  care  of  the  canes,  TV-j  cents.  Add 
to  this  the  Association  charge,  which  will 
average  about  5  cents  per  crate,  and  there 
is  a  total  of  60  cents.  President  W.  H. 
Paulhamus  states  that  the  P.  &  S.  Associa- 
tion can  sell  the  Evergreen  blackberries 
at  an  average  net  return  to  the  grower 
of  S5  cents,  and  he  still  has  25  cents  per 
crate  above  the  cost  of  production.  Eight 
hundred  crates  to  the  acre  would  mean 
$200  per  acre  profit.  Six  hundred  crates 
per  acre  means  $150  per  acre  profit,  pro- 
viding the  market  is  ample. — Xorthicest 
Horticulturist. 

Blackberries  Keeoiiimeuded 

Blackberries  recommended  for  cultiva- 
tion, in  the  various  districts,  by  the 
American  Pomological  Society. 

For  map  of  districts  see  recommenda- 
tions under  apple,  page  192. 

District  Xo.  1 

REcosiMExnED — Dessert.  kitchen  and 
market:  Eldorado.  Dessert  and  market: 
Agawam;  Minnewaska;  Snyder.  Dessert 
and  kitchen:  Lucretia  (dewberry).  Mar- 
ket: Briton,  Ancient:  Erie.  Dessert: 
Stone;  Taylor:  Triumph.  Western;  Wa- 
chusett. 

District   >o.   2 

Highly  recommended  —  Dessert  and 
market:  Agawam;  Early  Harvest;  Sny- 
der. Dessert  and  kitchen :  Lucretia 
(dewberry).  Market:  Briton,  Ancient; 
Erie;  Wilson.    Dessert:     Taylor. 

Recommended — Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Eldorado.  Dessert  and  market: 
Brunton;  Minnewaska.  Market:  Latv- 
ton.  Dessert:  Kittatinny;  Stone;  Tri- 
umph, Western :  Wachusett. 

Recommended  for  trial — Dessert  and 
market:     Allen. 

District  No.  3 

Highly  recommended — Dessert  and  m,ar- 
ket:  Early  Harvest;  Minnewaska.  Des- 
sert and  kitchen:  Lucretia  (dewberry). 
Market:     Erie. 

Recommended — Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Eldorado.  Dessert  and  market: 
Mayes      (Austin)      [dewberry];      Snyder. 


650 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Market:     Briton,  Ancient;  Wilson.     Des- 
sert:    Kittatinny;  Taylor. 

District  No.  4 

Highly  recommexded — Dessert  and  mar- 
ket: Mayes  (Austin)  [dewberry];  Sny- 
der. Dessert  and  kitchen:  Lucretia 
[dewberry]:  Market:  Lawton.  Des- 
sert:    Kittatinny. 

Recommeis-ded — Dessert  and  market: 
Early  Harvest;  Minnewaska.  Market: 
Briton,  Ancient;  Erie.  Dessert:  Taylor; 
Wachusett. 

Recommended  for  trial  —  Dessert: 
Triumph,  Western. 

Disti'ict   No.   5 

Highly  recommended — Dessert,  kitch- 
en and  market:  Dallas.  Dessert  and 
market:  Early  Harvest;  Snyder.  Des- 
sert and  kitchen:  Lucretia  [dewberry]. 
Market:  Erie.  Dessert:  Kittatinny; 
Stone. 

Recommended — Dessert  and  market: 
Mayes  (Austin)  [dewberry] :  Minnewas- 
ka.    Market:     Lawton,   Wilson. 

District   No.   6 

Highly  recommended — Dessert  and 
market:  Mayes  (Austin)  [dewberry]. 
Dessert  and  kitchen:  Lucretia  [dewber- 
ry]. 

Recommended — Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Dallas.  Dessert  and  market: 
Brunton.  Dessert:  Kittatinny.  Market: 
Briton,  Ancient. 

District  No.   7 

Highly  recommended — Dessert,  kitchen 
and  market:  Dallas.  Dessert  and  market: 
Brunton;  Early  Harvest;  Mayes  (Austin) 
[dewberry].  Dessert  and  kitchen:  Lu- 
cretia [dewberry].    Dessert:  Kittatinny. 

Recommended  —  Dessert,  kitchen  and 
market:  Eldorado.  Kitchen  and  market: 
Robison.  Dessert  and  market:  Minne- 
waska. Market:  Briton,  Ancient.  Des- 
sert:   Taylor. 

District  No.  8 
Highly  recommended — Dessert  and 
market:  Early  Harvest;  Mayes  (Austin) 
[dewberry];  Snyder.  Dessert  and  kitch- 
en: Lucretia  [dewberry].  Market: 
Briton,  Ancient;  Erie.  Dessert:  Tay- 
lor. 


Recommended — Market:  Lawton.  Des- 
sert :     Wachusett. 

Recommended  fob  trial — Dessert, 
kitchen  and  market:    Eldorado. 

District  No.   9 

Highly  recommended — Market:  Brit- 
on, Ancient. 

Recommended — Dessert  and  kitchen: 
Lucretia   [dewberry]. 

Districts  No.  10  and  No.  11 

Highly'  recommended — Market:  Brit- 
on, Ancient;  Wilson;   Robison. 

Recommended — Dessert  and  market: 
Agawam;  Early  Harvest;  Minnewaska; 
Snyder.  Dessert  and  kitchen:  Lucretia 
[dewberry];  Dallas.  Market:  Erie; 
Lawton.     Dessert:     Kittatinny;   Taylor. 

District  No.  12 

Highly  recommended  —  Dessert  and 
market:  Snyder.  Dessert  and  kitchen: 
Lucretia  (dewberry).  Market:  Briton, 
(Ancient),  Wilson.     Dessert:     Taylor. 

Recommended  —  Dessert  and  market: 
Early  Harvest.  Market:  Erie;  Lawton. 
Dessert:    Kittatinny;   Stone. 

District  No.  13 

Highly  recomjiended  —  Dessert  and 
kitchen:    Lucretia   (dewberry). 

Recommended  —  Dessert  and  market: 
Snyder.     Market:    Wilson. 

District  No.  14 

Highly'  recommended  —  Dessert  and 
kitchen:  Lucretia  (dewberry).  Market: 
Erie;    Lawton.     Dessert:    Kittatinny. 

Recommended  —  Dessert  and  market: 
Snyder.  Market:  Briton,  Ancient;  Wil- 
son. 

Recommended  for  Tri.al  —  Dessert, 
kitchen  and  market:  Eldorado.  Dessert 
and  market:     Early  Harvest. 

District  No.  15 

Highly'  recommended  —  Market:  Law- 
ton.     Dessert:    Kittatinny. 

Recommended  —  Dessert  and  market: 
Snyder.     Dessert:     Stone. 

District  No.   16 

Recomjiended — Market:  Lawton.  Des- 
sert:   Kittatinny;    Crandall. 


BLACKBERRY— BLACKBERRY  DISEASES— BLACKBERRY  PESTS 


651 


District   >'o.   17 

Recommexi>ei>  —  Dessert  and  market: 
Early  Harvest.  Market:  Lawton:  Wil- 
son.    Dessert:    Kittatinny;   Crandall. 

District  No.  18 
Highly  recommexded — Crandall. 
Recommended  —  Dessert   and   kitchen: 

Lucretia    (dewberry).     Market:     Lawton. 

Dessert:    Kittatinny. 

BLACKBEERY   DISEASES 

Akthracxose.     See  Raspierry. 
Bramble  Rust.    See  Rust,  this  section. 

Crown  Gall 

Bacterium   tumefaciens 
Produces  large  swellings  just  below  the 
ground.     Destroy  all   affected  plants  and 
use  care  in  planting  clean  stock. 

For  extended  article  on  crown  gall,  see 
under  Apple. 

Fruit  Kot 
Botrytis 
The    ripe    fruit   decays    on    the    bushes 
and  is  covered  with  a  gray,  dusty  mould. 
More  abundant  in  moist  weather. 

Xo  treatment  feasible.  Affected  fruits 
should  be  discarded,  as  the  rot  will  spread 
to  unaffected  fruit  after  picking. 

Leaf  Spot 

Septoria  ruti 

Produces  small  dead  spots  on  the  leaves. 

Spray    with    Bordeaux    mixture    about 

four  times  at  intervals  of  about  ten  days, 

the  first   application   when   the  buds   are 

beginning  to  unfold.       tj    -ci    c. 

R.   E.   Smith. 

Berkeley.  Cal. 

Mushroom   Root   Rot.     See   Raspberry. 

Oraxge  Rust.     See  Rust,  this  section. 

B«d  or  Bramble  Snst 

Caeoma  nitens  Schw. 

Wild  and  cultivated  blackberries  suffer 
from  this  disease  as  well  as  raspberries. 

Similar  in  appearance  to  the  orange 
rust  and  requires  the  same  treatment. 

Knst,  Orange  Rnst 

Gymnoconia  interstitalis 
Produces  bright  orange  masses  of  spores 
all  over  the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  The 
fungus  spreads  all  through  the  plant  so 
that  it  is  not  easily  controlled. 

Cut  affected  plants  to  the  ground  and 


burn.     Spray  new  growth  with  Bordeaux 
mixture.  r    e.   Smith, 

Berkeley.  Cal. 
BLACKBERRY  PESTS 

American  Raspberry  Beetle.    See  Rasp- 
berry. 
Apple  Leaf  Hopper.     See  under  Apple. 
Black  Cherry'  Aphis.     See  Aphids. 
Blackberry  Aphis.     See  Aphids. 

The  Blackberry  Crown  Borer 

Bembecia  marginata 
This  borer  does  considerable  damage. 
After  growth  starts  in  the  spring,  some 
canes  may  be  found  to  be  dead.  In  some 
cases,  an  examination  will  reveal  at  the 
base  of  such  canes,  a  16-legged  borer,  re- 
sembling the  peach  borer.  Many  of  such 
canes  will  be  found  to  have  been  partially 
girdled  just  at  the  base  during  the  pre- 
ceding fall,  and  the  pith  of  the  same 
bored  out  by  the  caterpillar.  The  parent 
moth  is  a  clear  winged  insect,  quite  re- 
.sembling  a  brightly  colored  wasp.  The 
body  is  black,  banded  and  marked  with 
yellow.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  fall. 
The  most  reliable  remedy  is  to  cut  out 
all  infested  canes  as  soon  as  they  are 
discovered  and  burn,  taking  care  not  to 
allow  any  of  the  borers  to  escape  from 
the   canes   before   they   are   burned. 

H.    A.    GOSSARD, 
Wooster,    Ohio. 
Black  Peach  Aphis.    See  Aphids. 

Bramble,  Flea  Lonse 

Trioza  tripunctata  Fitch. 

A  tiny  insect  which  has  been  found  to 
be  troublesome  in  some  of  the  Eastern 
states.  A  curling  of  the  leaves  follows 
the  attack.  The  nymphs  are  covered  with 
jointed  waxy  threads  which  break  off 
readily  and  give  the  leaf  a  powdery  ap- 
pearance when  the  insects  are  numerous. 

As  soon  as  the  winged  forms  appear 
spray  with  kerosene  emulsion. 

Not  likely  to  become  serious. 

Bud  Moth,     See  under  Apple. 

Cane  Borer  of  Blackberry  and  Raspberry 

Oberea  bimaciolata 

The  adult  beetle  girdles  the  tip  of  the 

cane  with  a  row  of  punctures  in  laying 

her  eggs,  so  that  the  tips  droop  and  wither. 

The  grub  is  a  blind   worm   without  feet 


652 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


and  burrows  downward  in  the  pith.  It 
has  a  brown  head  and  by  fall  is  about 
an  inch  long. 

Affected  canes  should  be  cut  out  and 
burned,  if  in  midsummer,  below  the 
girdled  tip:  if  in  the  autumn,  at  the 
ground. 

Flea  Louse.  See  Bramble-Flea  Louse. 
this  section. 

Gouty-Gall  Beetle 

Agrilus  ruficoUis 

The  young  borers  of  this  species  com- 
mence work  in  July  and  August.  The 
slender,  round-headed  larvae  enter  the 
canes  at  the  bases  of  the  leaf  stalks,  and 
from  such  points  work  around  the  canes 
In  long,  spiral  tunnels  through  the  sap- 
wood.  Later  in  the  season,  the  canes 
swell  over  the  eaten  areas,  forming  en- 
largements or  galls  which  are  very  con- 
spicuous when  the  leaves  fall.  The  only 
remedy  is  to  prune  out  and  burn  the 
galls  containing  the  larvae,  and  since 
galled  canes  will  never  prove  of  value, 
they  may  be  cut  out  whenever  discov- 
ered. Cut  wild  canes  along  roadsides  and 
in  nearby  woodlands  and  burn  in  the 
fall  of  the  year  after  the  larvae  have  en- 
tered them.  H.   A.   Gossard. 

Wooster,    Obio. 

Leaf  Hopper.     See  under  Apple. 

Otster  Shell  Scale.     See  under  Apple. 

Pale  Browx  Btthurus.  See  Rasp- 
berry. 

Pithy  Gall  and  Seed-like  Gall 

A  large  gall,  two  or  three  inches  long, 
sometimes  found  on  blackberry  canes,  is 
divided  by  four  or  five  furrows  into  as 
many  longitudinal  lobes.  Within  the  gall 
can  be  found  small,  footless,  whitish 
grubs,  which,  in  the  spring  of  the  year, 
transform  to  small,  four-winged  flies.  The 
insect  is  not  very  important,  but  the  galls 
should  be  pruned  out  and  burned.  This 
formation  is  known  as  the  pithy  gall  of 
the  blackberry,  and  the  insect  causing  it 
is  Diastrophus  nebulosiLs. 

A  closely  related  gall  of  the  blackberry 
is  known  as  the  seed-like  gall,  and  is 
caused  by  Diastrophus  cuscutaeformis. 
much  resembling  the  preceding  species. 
This  is  a  composite  gall,  consisting  of  a 
ring    of   single    seed-like    galls,    the    belt 


being  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  one-half  in 
depth.     Cut  out  and  burn. 

H.  A.  Gossard, 
Wooster,    Ohio. 
Raspberry    Beetle.     See    under    Rasp- 
berry. 
Raspberry  Horx  Tail.     See  Raspberry. 
Reo  Spider.     See  under  Apple. 

The  Hose  Scale 

Aulacaspis  rosae  Bouche 

General  Appearance 

The  female  scales  are  nearly  circular 
with  very  irregular  edges  and  white  to 
gray  in  color  with  reddish  body.  The 
diameter  varies  from  one-sixteenth  to 
one-eighth  of  an  inch.  The  male  scales 
are  long  and  narrow,  very  minute,  with 
three  longitudinal  creases,  or  carinas,  and 
the  bodies  reddish  white. 

Life   History 

All  stages  of  this  scale  occur  practically 
throughout  the  entire  year,  including  the 
eggs,  and  its  spread  is  very  rapid.  The 
females  cluster  in  great  numbers  on  the 
canes  of  berries  and  roses,  especially 
around  the  crown  of  the  roots.  It  is 
especially  abundant  during  the  spring  and 
summer  months.  It  attacks  wild  and 
cultivated  plants. 

Food  Plants 

Blackberries,  raspberries  and  roses. 
Abundant  on  wild  blackberries  in  the 
Sacramento  valley. 

Control 

As  the  eggs  are  present  at  practically 
all  seasons  and  are  hard  to  kill,  by  either 
spraying  or  fumigation,  this  is  a  some- 
what difficult  scale  to  control.  The  worst 
infected  canes  should  be  cut  out  and 
burned  and  the  remaining  sprayed  suc- 
cessively with  kerosene,  distillate  or  car- 
bolic acid  emulsion,  or  with  lime-sulphur 
when  the  plants  are  dormant  in  the  win- 

'®''-  E.  O.  Essie, 

San   Jose  Scale.     See  under  Apple. 

Saw  Fly 

Pa  mphilius  dent  at  u  s 

A  small  green  worm  the  larva  of  one 
of  the  sawflies,  feeds  on  the  under  side 
of  the  leaves. 


BLACKBERRY  PESTS— BLOOMING  PERIOD  OF  TREE  FRUITS 


653 


Spray  with  Paris  green,  arsenate  of 
lead  or,  if  tlie  fruit  iias  formed,  with 
hellebore. 

For   formulae   see   Sprays. 

Scurfy   Scale.     See  under  Apple. 

Seed-like  Gall.  See  Pithy  Gall,  this 
section. 

Snowy    Tree    Cricket 

OecanlJiiis   nifeu.s   DeGeer 

General  .Vppearance 

The  adult  insects  are  slightly  more 
than  half  an  inch  long  and  light  yellow 
or  greenish  in  color.  The  antennje  are 
very  long  and  hair-like.  There  is  one 
black  dot  on  the  face  beneath  each  an- 
tenna. The  females  appear  narrow,  be- 
cause the  wings  are  folded  along  the 
sides  and  over  the  backs,  while  in  the 
males  they  are  spread  out  flatly  on  the 
back.  The  black-tipped  ovipositor  also 
helps  to  distinguish  the  female.  The  eggs 
are  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long, 
slender,  slightly  curved  and  white.  They 
are  inserted  in  the  stems  of  the  host. 

Life   History 

The  eggs  are  placed  singly  in  the 
canes  or  twigs  in  the  autumn  and  remain 
dormant  during  the  winter.  The  first 
warm  spring  days  cause  them  to  hatch 
and  the  young,  wingless,  green  crickets 
begin  feeding  upon  plant  lice  or  other 
soft-bodied  insects.  Throughout  its  en- 
tire life,  from  the  time  it  leaves  the  egg 
until  egg-laying  commences  in  the  fall  the 
insect  is  working  for  the  benefit  of  the 
farmer.  By  autumn  all  forms  are  mature 
and  egg-laying  begins,  the  adults  disap- 
pearing soon   afterwards. 

Food  and  Host  Plants 

The  damage  done  by  the  snowy  tree- 
cricket  is  due  almost  entirely  to  its 
method  of  puncturing  the  small  stems 
and  canes  In  egg-laying.  It  often  hap- 
pens that  so  many  eggs  are  placed  in  the 
canes  as  to  cause  considerable  loss.  Rasp- 
berries and  blackberries  receive  the  most 
injury,  though  young  deciduous  fruit 
nursery  stock  is  also  often  severely  in- 
jured. 

The  feeding  habits  of  this  species 
places  it  among  the  beneficial  insects  and 
partially   offset  the   damage   done   in    de- 


positing the  eggs.  The  young  and  old 
alike  feed  upon  soft-bodied  insects,  prin- 
cipally plant  lice,  and  due  to  their  rav- 
enous appetites  they  are  able  to  consume 
great  numbers  of  other  injurious  pests. 

Control 

The  method  of  eliminating  subsequent 
broods  and  attacks  consists  in  cutting 
out  all  canes  showing  the  characteristic 
signs  of  having  been  punctured  for  egg- 
laying.  It  has  been  said  by  many  re- 
liable authorities  that  the  good  done  by 
the  snowy  tree  cricket  in  destroying  in- 
jurious plant  lice  and  other  soft-bodied 
insects  more  than  recompenses  the  farm- 
er for  the  harm  done  and  that  only  in 
rare  cases  should  the  eggs  be  destroyed, 
even  after  the  injured  canes  or  branches 
have  been  removed. 

E.   O.  EssiG, 
Sacramento,  Cal. 

Tarnished  Plant  Bug.  See  Strawberry. 
Tree  Cricket.  See  Snoicy  Tree  Cricket, 
this  section. 

Blooming  Period  of  Tree  Fruits 

The  value  of  bloom  charts  and  their 
bearing  on  the  question  of  mixed  plant- 
ing is  appreciated  by  a  large  number  of 
our  best  fruit  growers,  but  a  brief  dis- 
cussion  of  the  subject   may  be  of  value. 

Causes  of  Unfruitfuliiess 

Probably  the  most  frequent  questions 
asked  by  orchardists  relate  to  the  bar- 
renness of  orchards  and  the  causes  of 
unfruitfulness. 

There  are  many  conditions  which  pre- 
vent a  normal  development  of  bloom  and 
set  of  fruit.  The  following  may  be  enu- 
merated: 

Bapid  Wood  Growth 

It  has  been  often  observed  that  trees 
making  very  rapid  wood  growth  fail  to 
bear  heavy  crops  of  fruit.  This  is  well 
illustrated  in  the  case  of  young  trees 
which  fail  to  bear  during  the  first  years 
of  their  growth.  The  reason  for  this  is 
not  well  understood,  but  it  is  fully  estab- 
lished that  the  growth  and  reproductive 
forces  are  in  a  measure  alternative  and 
that  whatever  favors  the  one  will  retard 


654 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


the  other.  While  over-rapid  growth  al- 
ways tends  to  lessen  the  fruitfulness  of 
a  tree,  lack  of  food  or  insufficient  nour- 
ishment will  produce  the  same  effect.  The 
remedy  in  either  case  is  obvious  and  the 
condition   is   readily   corrected. 

Diseases  Attackiue  Bloom  and  Unfavor- 
able Weather  Conditions 

One  of  the  most  frequent  causes  of 
failure  to  set  fruit  is  due  to  the  attack 
of  bloom  by  fungi.  The  brown  rot  of 
stone  fruits  and  the  scab  of  apple  is 
often  responsible  for  failures  which  the 
grower  attributes  to  frost  or  winter  freez- 
ing. These  diseases  not  only  attack  and  kill 
the  crop  of  bloom  but  they  may  so  injure 
the  tree  as  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
a  crop  of  bloom  for  the  following  year. 
It  is  probable  that  many  diseases  act  in 
an  indirect  way  to  prevent  fruitfulness. 
In  addition  to  actual  parasitic  diseases, 
unfavorable  weather  may  result  in  path- 
ological conditions  which  prevent  a  set 
of  fruit;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  they  may 
simply  prevent  pollination,  which  has  the 
same  result.  More  than  once  we  have 
noted  a  failure  in  crop  due  entirely  to 
continued  rainfall  during  the  blooming 
season. 

The  effect  of  winter  freezing  and  frost 
is  largely  beyond  the  control  of  the  grow- 
er and  need  not  be  discussed  here.  Other 
minor  causes  of  unfruitfulness  might  be 
enumerated,  but  it  is  our  purpose  to  dis- 
cuss only  the  chief  causes  in  such  man- 
ner as  will  illustrate  the  use  and  value 
of  the  bloom  charts  published  below. 
Probably  the  chief  and  most  frequent 
cause  of  unfruitfulness  in  orchards  is  due 
to  self-sterility  and  the  lack  of  pollen- 
izers  for  the  self-sterile  varieties. 

Self-Sterility  and  Mixed  Plantinar 

Self-sterility  may  be  defined  as  the  in- 
ability of  certain  varieties  to  set  fruit 
when  offered  only  their  own  pollen.  Other 
minor  causes  such  as  imperfect  pistils 
and  insufficient  supply  of  pollen  may  be 
responsible  for  sterility  in  flowers,  but 
such  defects  are  not  usuall.v  nimierous 
enough  to  affect  the  crop  materially.  Self- 
sterility  is  due  to  the  impotency  of  the 
pollen  of  certain  varieties  toward  its  sis- 


terhood of  pistil?.  This  pollen  may  be 
quite  virile  on  other  flowers  but  has  no 
affinity  for  its  own.  Waite  was  the  first 
investigator  in  this  country  to  give  this 
subject  close  study,  and  his  work  has 
fully  demonstrated  the  fact  that  many 
varieties  of  both  pear  and  apple  are  either 
partially  or  wholly  unfruitful  when 
planted  in  large  blocks  to  themselves. 
Waite  also  found  that  even  where  self- 
sterility  did  not  prevail  that  cross  pollina- 
tion among  varieties  resulted  in  better 
development  of  fruit.  Waugh  has  made 
exhaustive  studies  on  this  subject  so  far 
as  it  relates  to  plums  and  his  conclusions 
are  that  practically  all  varieties  of  native 
plums  and  many  of  the  Japanese  group 
are  unable  to  set  fruit  without  the  pollen 
of  a  second  variety.  Fletcher  has  added 
the  further  knowledge  that  self-sterility 
and  self-fertility  are  not  constant  varietal 
characters,  but  depend  to  some  extent  on 
climatal  or  other  environmental  condi- 
tions. The  subsequent  studies  of  many 
investigators  and  the  general  experience 
of  orchard  practice  confirm  these  con- 
clusions; and  the  majority  of  well  in- 
formed fruit  growers  now  consider  mixed 
planting  a  necessity.  The  practical  ques- 
tion at  once  arises:  What  variety  shall 
be  selected  as  pollenizer  for  any  given 
sort. 

Selection   of   Pollenizer 

Two  factors  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  the  selection  of  varieties  for 
cross-pollination.  First,  there  must  exist 
a  mutual  aflinity  between  the  two;  and 
secondly,  they  must  bloom  at  practically 
the   same   time. 

The  subject  of  mutual  aflinity  is  a  very 
important  and  interesting  one,  and  has  a 
direct  bearing  on  the  whole  problem.  But, 
thus  far,  little  is  known  regarding  such 
afiinities,  and  the  way  to  further  knowl- 
edge is  beset  by  so  many  obstacles  that 
few  investigators  have  the  courage  to  un- 
dertake exhaustive  research  along  this 
line.  We  have  some  knowledge  of  the 
subject  so  far  as  it  relates  to  different 
groups  of  the  same  fruit,  but  this  knowl- 
edge should  be  extended  to  the  relation 
between  varieties  of  the  same  group  if  we 
are  to  be  in  a  position  to  give  a  definite 


BLOOMING  PERIOD  OP  TREE  FRUITS 


655 


answer  to  the  question  suggested  above. 
It  is  common  Ivnowlerige  that  European 
or  Domestica  plums  cross  with  difficulty 
on  other  types  of  this  fruit,  and  that  this 
group  should,  therefore,  be  considered 
separately  and  apart  from  other  plums 
when  selecting  cross  pollenizers.  On  the 
other  hand,  all  groups  of  native  plums 
together  with  the  Japanese  varieties  in- 
terpollinate  rather  freely,  and  thus  we 
may  be  quite  indifferent  as  to  group  re- 
lations when  considering  varieties  falling 
under  these  heads.  However,  we  are  not 
prepared  to  say  whether  or  not  there  is 
any  difference  in  the  degree  of  affinity  be- 
tween varieties  of  the  same  group,  or  if 
such  affinity  does  exist  whether  it  is  a 
constant  character  or  not.  Until  we  are 
able  to  answer  definitely  these  questions, 
the  bloom  chart  is  the  only  safe  guide  we 
have  in  selecting  varieties  for  the  purpose 
of  cross-pollination.  Waugh  has  prob- 
ably given  this  problem  more  attention 
than  any  other  student,  and  his  work  has 
led  him  to  lay  very  little  stress  on  mu- 
tual affinity  in  his  latest  publications  on 
this  subject.  In  a  number  of  prelimi- 
nary hand  cross-pollinations  with  apples 
at  this  station,  the  results  indicate  that 
the  female  parent  to  the  cross  is  quite 
indifferent  to  the  kind  of  pollen  offered 
so  long  as  It  is  of  another  variety  of 
apple  and  is  in  good  condition:  but  our 
trials  have  not  been  sufficiently  extensive 
to  draw  positive  conclusions. 

If  these  conclusions  are  correct,  then 
the  bloom  chart  is  even  more  valuable 
than  at  first  supposed;  but  in  any  case 
it  must  always  be  consulted  if  we  are  to 
practice  mixed  planting  with  success. 
Planting  together  varieties  of  different 
blooming  periods  does  not  meet  the  needs 
in  the  case,  but  the  kinds  that  have  prac- 
tically the  same  blooming  period  should 
be  selected.  Although  a  number  of  ex- 
periment stations  have  published  bloom- 
ing data  for  the  benefit  of  the  grower, 
yet  none  of  these  apply  to  the  Virginia 
planter.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the 
relative  blooming  period  of  a  series  of 
varieties  will  not  be  the  same  for  differ- 
ent localities,  especially  if  they  be  remote 
from  each  other.  No  one  chart  can  be 
constructed    that    will    apply    with    equal 


force  to  all  sections  of  the  United  States. 
However,  charts  that  apply  to  other  sec- 
tions have  some  value  and  should  be  con- 
sulted in  the  event  that  there  is  lack  of 
more  definite  information.  Though  Vir- 
ginia has  a  rather  variable  climate,  the 
territory  covered  is  not  so  extensive,  but 
that  data  taken  in  one  locality  will  apply 
in  a  fair  degree  to  the  rest  of  the  state. 

The  chart  on  pp.  656-7-8-9  is  therefore  ex- 
pected to  serve  as  a  safe  guide  to  the 
Virginia  fruit  grower.  It  has  been  com- 
piled from  a  large  mass  of  notes  extend- 
ing over  a  period  of  13  years;  the  num- 
ber of  observations,  each  representing  a 
different  year,  is  given  in  the  left-hand 
column  just  after  the  variety  name.  The 
number  of  years  covered  guarantees  a 
safe  norm,  whereas  norms  reached  by 
only  three  or  four  observations  would 
hardly  appear  to  be  reliable.  The  apple 
orchard  was  planted  in  the  spring  of 
1S89,  but  all  notes  on  apple  collected 
prior  to  1S96  have  been  disregarded  be- 
cause of  the  unreliability  of  bloom  notes 
from  trees  during  their  earlier  stages  of 
growth. 

The  next  step  in  this  work  should  be 
the  collection  of  blooming  data  from  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  state  with  the  view 
of  developing  a  phenological  map  for  Vir- 
ginia, and  to  this  end  we  solicit  the  co- 
operation of  all  those  who  are  interested 
in  this  subject.  Bloom  note  forms  and 
instructions  will  be  furnished  those  de- 
siring to   aid   us   in   these   studies. 

Explanation  of  Chart 

In  the  charts  following  the  blooming 
period  of  each  given  variety  is  repre- 
sented by  the  starred  line  following  the 
name.  This  line  begins  with  the  average 
recorded  for  first  bloom  open  and  extends 
two  days  beyond  the  period  of  full  bloom. 
While  flowers  remain  receptive  for  more 
than  two  days  after  full  bloom  during 
cloudy  weather,  this  is  not  the  case  if 
conditions  are  favorable  to  pollination. 
The  different  fruits  or  groups  of  same 
are  arranged  in  order  of  their  blooming, 
as  this  arrangement  appears  best  for 
comparisons. 

For  Apples,  see  Pollination,  under 
Apple. 


656 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


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Blacksbure.  Va. 


660 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


Blueberry  or  Huckleberry 

It  seems  not  quite  settled  where  the 
name  huckleberry  originated  as  applied 
to  a  species  of  bush  fruits  of  the  genus 
Gaylussacia.  They  grow  principally  in 
the  Northern  hemisphere  in  North  Amer- 
ica and  North  Britain.  The  plant  varies 
greatly  in  size  from  about  six  inches  in 
height  to  ten  feet.  The  berries  are  small, 
but  highly  prized  for  their  flavor;  not 
highly  profitable  commercially  because  of 
the  amount  of  labor  necessary  in  picking 
and  marketing.  Yet  no  one  who  has 
picked  the  native  wild  huckleberry  would 
desire  to  see  them  displaced  from  the 
markets  of  the  world.  Therefore  consid- 
erable effort  has  been  made  to  improve 
the  varieties  so  that  they  can  be  mar- 
keted profitably  in  competition  with  other 
fruits. 

Geax^tlle  Lowther 

IniproTement  of  Blueberries 

C.   B.   Smith 

An  investigation  of  this  subject  has 
been  undertaken  by  the  Maine  station. 
In  a  report  of  that  station  it  is  stated 
that  blueberries  are  found  growing  in 
great  quantities  in  many  of  the  Eastern 
and  Northern  states  on  soils  which  are. 
as  a  rule,  of  little  or  no  value  for  general 
agricultural  purposes,  but  that  while  the 
berries  have  been  highly  prized  as  an 
article  of  food  from  the  earliest  colonial 
period,  "practically  no  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  cultivation  and  systematic 
improvement  of  the  fruit."  Plants  have 
from  time  to  time  been  introduced  into 
gardens  with  good  results,  and  the  man- 
agement of  blueberry  barrens  has  occa- 
sionally been  undertaken.  An  account  of 
an  experiment  of  the  latter  kind  is  re- 
ported by  the  Maine  station.  The  blue- 
herry  lands  described  consist  of  40,000 
acres  belonging  to  one  owner. 

The  land  is  divided  into  several  parts, 
each  of  which  is  leased  to  some  respons- 
ible party  who  assumes  the  whole  care  of 
burning  over  the  land,  keeping  off  tres- 
passers, harvesting,  and  marketing  the 
fruit.  *  *  *  Every  year  a  certain  sec- 
tion of  each  "lease"  is  burned  over.  This 
turning  must  be  done  very  early  in  the 


spring  before  the  ground  becomes  dry; 
otherwise  the  fire  goes  too  deep  and 
humus  is  burned  from  the  ground  and 
most  of  the  bushes  are  killed.  Many  hun- 
dred acres  of  what  would  be  the  best 
part  of  the  barrens  have  thus  been  ruined. 
The  method  most  commonly  used  in  burn- 
ing a  given  area  is  for  the  operator  to 
pass  around  the  section  to  be  burned, 
and  drag  after  him  an  ordinary  torch  or 
a  mill  lamp.  He  then  retraces  his  steps 
over  the  burned  area,  setting  after-fires 
in  the  portions  which  have  escaped,  and 
back-firing  if  there  is  danger  of  spread- 
ing unduly  over  areas  which  it  is  desired 
to  leave  unbumed.  A  device  which  was 
found  in  use  by  one  party  consists  of  a 
piece  of  half-inch  gas  pipe  bent  at  the 
end  at  an  angle  of  about  60  degrees.  The 
end  opposite  the  bent  portion  is  closed 
with  a  cap  or  plug,  and  in  the  other  end. 
after  filling  the  pipe  with  kerosene,  is 
placed  a  plug  of  cotton  waste  or  tow.  This 
device  is  regarded  as  superior  to  the 
lamp  or  torch  as  it  is  more  easily 
handled. 

Systematically  treated  blueberry  fields 
are  burned  over  about  once  every  three 
years.  This  burning  renews  the  bushes 
and  tends  to  check  the  growth  of  under- 
brush. 

The  early  ripening  fruits  on  these  lands 
are  picked  by  hand  and  sent  to  the  city 
markets,  usually  in  quart  boxes.  Later 
in  the  season  the  fruit  is  sent  to  the  can- 
neries. On  the  older  barrens,  especially 
on  areas  which  are  to  be  burned  over 
the  following  spring,  the  fruit  is  gath- 
ered with  a  "blueberry  rake." 

This  is  an  implement  somewhat  similar 
to  the  cranberry  rake  in  use  on  Cape  Cod, 
and  may  be  likened  to  a  dust  pan  the  bot- 
tom of  which  is  composed  of  stiff  parallel 
wire  rods.  The  fruit  may  be  gathered 
much  more  quickly  and  more  cheaply  by 
means  of  the  rake.  The  bushes  are,  how- 
ever, seriously  injured  by  the  treatment. 
In  no  case  should  the  rake  be  employed 
in  gathering  the  high-bush  blueberries. 

At  the  New  York  state  station  consid- 
erable difficulty  was  met  with  in  growing 
seedling  plants  of  the  high-bush  huckle- 
berry  (Taccinium     corymhosum )  because 


BLUEBERRY  OR  HUCKLEBERRY— BRAZIL  NUT— BREAD  FRUIT 


661 


of  the  delicate  nature  of  the  young  plants 
and  the  very  careful  treatment  which 
they  require.  The  same  station  made  an 
examination  of  the  flowers  of  this  species 
in  order  to  learn  at  what  time  the  stamens 
yield  their  pollen. 

This  seems  to  be  given  off  immediately 
before  and  for  a  short  time  after  the  corol- 
la opens.  By  opening  the  corolla  of  flow- 
ers about  to  expand  and  jarring  the  blos- 
soms vigorously  over  a  glass  slide,  we  se- 
cured pollen  in  considerable  quantities, 
which  is  an  indication  that  the  flowers 
may  be  at  least  in  part  self-fertilized. 
Nothing  appeared  in  the  structure  of  the 
flowers  to  render  artificial  crossing  dif- 
ficult. 

The  experience  of  one  grower  in  Massa- 
chusetts leads  him  to  the  following  con- 
clusions: 

(1)  It  [the  high-bush  blueberry]  does 
not  take  kindly  to  garden  cultivation;  (2) 
it  is  very  diflicult  to  propagate  from  the 
seed;  (3)  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  graft, 
but  patience  and  a  little  of  the  "know 
how"  will  overcome  all  of  these.  If  grown 
in  the  garden,  (1)  they  must  be  on  the 
north  side  of  a  board  fence  or  in  the 
shade  of  trees  and  the  ground  must  be 
mulched  with  leaves  or  evergreen  boughs; 
(-2)  let  the  seed  get  fully  ripe  and  drop, 
then  sow  in  a  shady  place;  (3)  graft 
small  bushes  at  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  cover  most  of  the  scion  with  moist 
earth. 

Success  in  growing  blueberries  has  been 
attained  by  all  of  these  methods. 

Another  grower  reports  that  he  has 
been  very  successful  in  growing  high-bush 
blueberries  on  a  poor,  rocky,  upland  soil. 
The  bushes  improved  much  in  thrift  and 
yielded  from  three  to  four  times  as  much 
fruit  as  wild  bushes  growing  in  pastures 
and  swamps  and  the  berries  were  from 
25  to  30  per  cent  larger.  He  advises  set- 
ting plants  6  feet  apart  each  way  and 
mulching  with  strawy  manure  in  the  fall. 

The  results  of  the  experiments  thus  far 
conducted  would  seem  to  show  that  the 
blueberry  is  subject  to  much  variation  and 
is  greatly  improved  by  cultivation.  Blue- 
berries are  as  yet  but  little  cultivated, 
but  the  few  attempts  that  have  been  made 


toward  their  improvement  indicate  that 
with  care  satisfactory  results  may  be  ob- 
tained. Meanwhile  natural  blueberry  bar- 
rens may  be  made  to  give  increased  yields 
by  systematic  burning  and  care,  and  thus 
these  lands,  otherwise  worthless  for  agri- 
culture,  made   sources   of   profit. 

References 

For  an  account  of  exhaustive  experi- 
ments in  Swamp  Blueberry  Culture,  see 
Bulletin  193,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
by  F.  V.  Colville. 

Card,  Bush  Fruits. 

Bailey,  New  Cyclopedia  of  American 
Horticulture. 

Brazil  Nut 

The  seeds  of  a  Brazilian  tree,  called  also 
Castanea,  Cream  nut.  Nigger  toe,  Para 
nut.  It  belongs  to  the  natural  order 
Myrtaceae,  species  BerthoUetia  excelsa. 
The  tree  often  attains  a  height  of  150  feet, 
and  a  diameter  of  four  feet.  It  has  bright 
green,  leathery  leaves,  two  feet  or  more  in 
length,  and  six  inches  in  width.  It  bears 
cream  colored  flowers  and  a  very  hard 
shelled  fruit  six  inches  or  more  in  diam- 
eter, containing  about  20  three  sided 
wrinkled  seeds,  which  are  used  for  des- 
sert, confectionery,  and  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  an  expressed  oil  used  in  oil  paint- 
ing, lubricating  fine  machinery,  and  in 
lighting.  This  tree  covers  large  tracts  of 
land  in  Northern  Brazil,  along  the  Ama- 
zon and  Orinoco  rivers. 

Granville  Lowthee 

Bread  Fruit 

Artocarpus  incisa 
A  tree  of  the  natural  order  Urticaceae, 
native  of  the  Indian  archipelago  and  of 
the  Southern  Pacific  islands.  It  attains 
a  height  of  30  or  40  feet;  is  often  limbless 
for  half  its  height,  bears  leathery,  glossy 
dark  green,  three  to  nine-lobed  leaves,  one 
to  three  feet  long;  has  compact  club- 
shaped,  yellow  catkins  of  male  flowers,  9 
to  15  inches  long,  and  sub-globular  heads 
of  female  flowers,  with  spongy  recep- 
tacles; and  usually  seedless,  spheroidal 
fruits,  at  first  green,  later  brown,  and 
lastly  yellow,  six  inches  or  more  in  diam- 
eter,  hanging  by   thick   stalks   singly   or 


662 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


in  clusters  of  two  or  three  from  the  smal- 
ler branches.  The  rough  rind  is  irregu- 
larly marked  in  squares  and  other  figures 
with  raised  centers.  The  unripe  fruit  con- 
tains a  milky  juice,  and  when  in  the 
edible  stage  it  resembles  fresh  bread,  be- 
ing white  and  mealy.  It  is  then  slightly 
tart.  Later  it  becomes  yellow,  juicy,  and 
tastes  of  decay.  In  tropical  countries 
where  it  has  been  introduced  and  particu- 
larly in  its  original  home,  the  fruit  is 
highly  valued  as  a  nutritious  food,  being 
prepared  for  use  in  various  ways. 

When  baked  it  resembles  plantain 
rather  than  wheaten  bread,  being  sweet- 
ish, slightly  astringent,  but  otherwise 
almost  tasteless.  When  fresh  fruits  can- 
not be  procured,  it  is  sometimes  slightly 
fermented,  beaten  to  a  pasty  mass,  and  so 
used. 

Another  common  way  of  preparing  it  is 
to  beat  it  to  a  paste  with  cocoanut  milk 
and  to  serve  it  mixed  with  bananas, 
plantains,  etc.  Since  the  trees  produce 
two  or  three  crops  annually,  and  since 
the  bearing  seasons  of  different  varieties 
overlap  more  or  less,  the  fruit  may  be  ob- 
tained during  the  greater  part  of  the 
year.  Not  alone  for  the  fruit  is  the  tree 
valuable;  in  the  South  Sea  Islands  Its 
fibrous  inner  bark  is  woven  into  cloth 
resembling,  but  inferior  in  softness  and 
whiteness  to  that  made  from  the  paper 
mulberry  which  is  similarly  employed  in 
those  islands;  the  gummy  exudation  from 
the  bark,  boiled  with  cocoanut  oil  is  used 
for  caulking  canoes,  pails,  etc.;  the  beau- 
tiful yellow  wood  is  light  and  soft,  but 
when  exposed  to  the  air  becomes  dark  like 
mahogany,  and  is  used  for  canoes,  furni- 
ture,   and    the    interior    work    in    houses. 

The  tree  has  been  cultivated  to  a  slight 
extent  in  Southern  Florida,  but  the  fruits 
rarely  appear  even  in  the  most  southern 
markets  of  the  United  States,  because 
they  do  not  bear  shipment  well,  and  un- 
less used  very  soon  after  being  gathered 
become  hard  and  disagreeable  in  taste. 
For  an  account  of  the  introduction  of  the 
bread  fruit  tree  into  the  West  Indies  in 
the  last  decade  of  the  18th  Century,  when 
such  feats  were  more  diflBcult  and  less 
common  than  a  century  later,  see  Curtis' 


"Botanical  Magazine"  (pp.  2869-71).  A 
near  relative  of  the  bread  fruit  trees  is 
the  jack. 

The  Americana  Bread  Nut 

Brosiniiim    aUcaslnim 

A  tree  of  the  natural  order  Urticaceae, 
a  native  of  the  West  Indies  and  closely 
related  to  the  bread  fruit.  The  tree, 
which  is  very  large,  bears  shining  lance- 
shaped  leaves;  globose  catkins  of  male 
and  female  flowers  on  different  trees;  and 
yields  a  gummy,  milky  juice  from  its 
bark.  The  round,  yellow  fruits  (drupes), 
which  are  about  three  inches  in  circum- 
ference, contain  a  single  seed.  When 
roasted  or  boiled  the.v  are  used  like 
bread,  and  having  a  flavor  which  re- 
sembles hazel  nuts,  form  a  pleasant  food. 
In  the  United  States  the  tree  has  not  been 
cultivated. 

The  Americaka  Broccoli,  How  Groion 
in  Alaska.     See  Alaska. 

See  Kale. 

Brush  Land,  Preparation  of.  See  Apple 
Orchard.  Preparation  of  G-round. 

Brussels  Sprouts 

This  vegetable  belongs  to  the  Cabbage 
family.  The  stem  is  usually  two  or  more 
feet  high  with  leaves,  and  at  the  base  of 
each  leaf  is  a  small  cabbage  which  is 
seldom  more  than  two  inches  in  diameter. 
These  miniature  cabbages  are  much  more 
delicate  in  flavor  than  the  ordinary  cab- 
bages, and  are  the  parts  eaten.  In  grow- 
ing, it  requires  the  same  treatment  as 
the  cabbage,  except  that  they  may  be 
grown  nearer  together.  It  is  highly 
esteemed  by  some  persons,  as  an  article  of 
food,  but  has  not  come  into  general  use; 
probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  in  our 
markets,  not  as  much  attention  is  paid 
to  quality  as  to  general  appearance.  The 
Dwarf  Brussels  is  the  variety  most 
highly    recommended. 

The  plant  is  a  biennial,  a  native  of 
Europe,  and  like  the  cabbage  succeeds 
well   on   almost  any   deep    rich   soil. 

Varieties 

Scrymger  Giant. 
Long  Island   Improved. 
For    Diseases    and    Pests,    see    under 
Cabbage.  Granville   Lowther 


BREEDS  OF  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  SURVIVAL 


663 


Buckwheat,  See  Apple  Orchard,  Cover 
Crops. 

BuDDixr..  See  Apple.  Propagation  of; 
Peaclt.  Propagation  of.  etc. 

Breeds  of  Fruits  and  Their 

Survival 

Plants  are  coming  into  as  much  prom- 
inence as  are  animals  by  breeding  and  it 
is  eminently  proper  to  speak  of  the  breeds 
of  farm  crops  or  the  breeds  of  fruits.  A 
breed  is  the  result  of  domestication,  at 
]^ast  we  may  say  so  if  we  apply  the  term 
br?ed  to  a  plant  which  we  have  artificial- 
ly endowed  with  a  pedigree.  Perhaps  it 
is  taking  liberties  with  the  dictionary  to 
call  an  improved  kind  or  type  of  apple  a 
breed,  but  no  other  word  conveys  just 
the  meaning  I  desire.  For  example,  if 
I  speak  of  the  Wealthy  apple  as  a  breed 
of  apples  we  naturally  think  of  the  gen- 
eral characteristics  of  the  Wealthy  ap- 
ple and  still  allow  for  a  considerable 
variation  in  different  localities  due  to  the 
action  of  soil  and  climate,  and  it  is  with 
special  reference  to  apples  that  I  would 
speak  of  the  survival  of  breeds  or  vari- 
eties if  you  prefer  that  word. 

Fruit  growers  in  the  West  have  come 
to  recognize  certain  climate  and  soil 
areas  as  suited  to  particular  kinds  and 
varieties  of  fruits.  This  is  especially 
true  in  California,  where  in  one  valley 
or  even  in  one  portion  of  a  valley,  the 
farmers  determine  one  particular  kind 
that  succeeds  best  and  then  grow  that 
kind  almost  or  quite  exclusively,  while 
in  an  adjoining  valley  or  section  a  differ- 
ent fruit  will  be  grown.  So,  too,  a  state, 
or  one  particular  section  of  a  state,  be- 
comes famous  for  some  particular  breed 
of  fruit.  The  California  Belle  Fleur  ap- 
ple in  uniform  boxes  of  uniformly  graded 
fruit  now  finds  its  way  into  many  mar- 
kets. Southwestern  Colorado  is  becom- 
ing a  Jonathan  region.  Other  parts  of 
the  West  are  growing  Wagener,  or  Spitz- 
enburg,  or  Rome  Beauty,  or  Mcintosh 
Red,  or  Wealthy,  and  so  on.  At  the  local 
apple  shows  some  one  variety  usually 
predominates.  Of  course  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  hardy  and  widely  adapted  fruits 
that    appear    in    every    exhibition.      We 


nearly  always  find  among  the  apples  given 
most  prominence  at  the  county  and  state 
fairs  in  the  mountain  region  well  grown 
specimens  of  Yellow  Transparent,  Duch- 
ess, Wealthy,  Wolf  River,  Alexander, 
Longfield,  Northwest  Greening,  Fameuse, 
Bietigheimer,  McMahon,  Gano  and  others, 
including  most  of  the  large  and  small 
crabs.  It  often  occurs  at  these  shows 
that  one  or  more  varieties  will  be  shown 
that  no  one  is  able  to  name. 

In  the  pioneer  days  of  apple  grow- 
ing, the  would-be  horticulturist  has  had 
no  guide  and  the  only  judgment  with 
which  he  made  selections  of  varieties  was 
a  memory  of  some  good  or  favorite  kind 
which  he  was  acquainted  with  in  his  boy- 
hood days.  Usually  he  has  been  more  or 
less  skeptical  about  the  success  of  any 
domesticated  thing  which  he  would  trans- 
plant to  untried  soils,  and  he  is  ready  to 
try  anything  new  which  is  called  to  his 
attention.  Tree  agents  are  not  slow 
about  recommending  anything  of  which 
their  nurseries  have  stock  for  sale.  It 
is  said  that  some  five  thousand  varieties 
of  apples  are  known  in  the  world.  Of 
all  the  varieties  planted  in  any  locality, 
a  comparatively  small  number  have  sur- 
vived. Perhaps  hundreds  of  Wyoming 
ranchmen  and  farmers  have  purchased 
and  planted  quince  and  apricot  trees,  but 
I  have  yet  to  hear  of  or  see  a  ripe  fruit 
of  either  quince  or  apricot  in  this  state. 
Of  the  hundreds  of  varieties  of  apples  the 
successful  commercial  kinds  may  be  count- 
ed on  the  fingers  of  both  hands  for  the 
whole  state. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  the  many 
varieties  do  not  survive.  In  the  first 
place  fruits  are  more  or  less  domesticated 
and  they  are  transferred  to  a  new  region 
before  the  soil  has  been  tamed  and  made 
ready  for  them.  Then  the  western  pio- 
neer has  been  doing  things  in  a  large 
way  and  generally  fails  to  attend  to  the 
necessary  little  details  of  plant  culture. 
Someone  has  said  that  those  plants  which 
require  the  most  care  are  given  the  best 
cultivation,  inferring  that  the  apple  is 
so  easily  grown  that  it  is  subjected  to 
general  lack  of  care  and  neglect  and  this 
condition  has  certainly  fitted  our  attempts 


664 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  HORTICULTURE 


in  the  mountain  region.  Finally,  the  rea- 
son of  most  importance,  perhaps,  is  that 
difficult  to  define  something  in  the  plant 
constitution   called   adaptability. 

We  look  upon  plants  and  animals  as 
creatures  of  environment.  They  are  what 
they  are  because  of  certain  conditions  of 
food  supply  along  with  climatic  and  social 
influence.  But  organic  life  has  within 
itself  an  inherent  power  of  variation  and 
adaptability  which  enables  some  individ- 
uals or  species  to  survive  under  changed 
conditions  of  life  and  food  supply.  The 
fact  that  characteristics  may  appear  in 
one  place  that  fit  a  plant  for  life  in  a 
different  environment  is  now  recognized. 
The  great  Dutch  botanist  and  plant  breed- 
er, DeVries.  goes  so  far  as  to  advocate 
that  most  of  the  desert  flora  is  probably 
made  up  of  varieties  that  had  their 
origin  by  mutation  in  a  more  favorable 
location  and  by  migration  have  found  a 
home  in  the  arid  soils  which  they  do  not 
enjoy,  but  which  they  are  able  to  endure. 
Under  proper  irrigation  and  in  soils  rich 
in  plant  foods,  with  favorable  climate, 
plants  brought  to  the  arid  region  would 
seem  to  have  better  chance  for  growth 
and  development  than  in  some  of  the 
regions  where  they  originate,  but  we  must 
recognize  that  the  conditions  of  life  are 
so  different  that  there  must  be  a  large 
range  of  adaptability  in  the  species  or 
there  must  be  some  dominant  character 
which  definitely  fits  the  variety  to  this 
different  environment,  or  it  will  fail.  In 
my  opinion  these  characteristics  are  much 
more  apt  to  appear  in  the  region  during 
the  time  the  plant  is  growing  under  those 
particular  conditions,  and  herein  lies  the 
reason  for  securing  our  plants  or  seeds 
at  home  or  at  least  from  a  place  where 
the  conditions  are  not  less   severe. 

•B.  C.  Buffum,  in  Address  before  Wyoming 
State    Board    of    Horticulture. 

Bud  Worm.     See  Peach  Twig  Borer. 

Buffalo  Berry 

Lepargyrae  argentea,  Greene 
Shepherdia  argentae,  Nutt. 
The   buffalo   berry   is   a   tall    shrub    or 
small    tree,   a   near   relative   of   the   Rus- 
sian olive  which  it  resembles  in  its  sil- 


very foliage  and  yellowish  flowers.  The 
fruit  is  rather  sour,  slightly  resembling 
that  of  ripe  cranberries,  spherical  in 
shape,  about  the  size  of  large  currants 
or  small  gooseberries,  and  of  a  reddish 
color.  The  tree  is  very  hardy,  with 
thorns  that  enable  it  to  grow  where  other 
small  fruits  would  be  destroyed  by  stock, 
or  other  unfavorable  surroundings.  How- 
ever, it  is  not  largely  cultivated,  because 
in  competition  with  other  fruits  like  cur- 
rants, gooseberries,  blackberries,  rasp- 
berries, etc.,  it  seems  not  to  be  preferred 
by  the  trade. 

F.  W.  Card,  in  the  New  Cyclopedia  of 
American  Horticulture,  says:  "The  buf- 
falo berry  has  long  been  before  the  pub- 
lic, but  It  is  only  within  the  last  few 
years,  that  it  has  attained  any  promi- 
nence as  a  fruit  plant.  In  Hovey's  Maga- 
zine of  Horticulture  for  1S41,  page  251, 
it  is  mentioned  as  frequently  cultivated, 
indicating  that  it  had  found  its  way 
into  our  gardens  earlier  than  the  black- 
berry. Its  position  today  bears  evidence 
that  no  such  place  was  awaiting  it  as 
stood  ready  for  the  blackberry,  or  that 
if  there  were,  it  has  lamentably  failed  in 
filling  it.  The  plant  did  not  find  its  place 
as  a  cultivated  shrub  until  the  settlement 
of  the  West  created  a  demand  for  hardy 
and   drouth   resisting  fruits." 

It  is  the  hardy  drouth  resisting  quali- 
ties of  this  fruit  that  has  brought  it 
into  prominence  in  the  mountainous  and 
semi-arid  regions  of  the  West.  It  may 
therefore  be  found  growing  on  the  semi- 
arid  plains  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains 
in  Montana.  Wyoming,  Colorado,  New 
Mexico,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  the  Dakotas, 
and  in  parts  of  Canada. 

It  is  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  is  easily 
propagated  by  seeds,  by  suckers,  or  by 
cuttings.  Its  fruit  is  used  mostly  for 
jellies  and  has  a  very  pleasant  taste.  As 
a  fruit  adapted  to  conditions  where  other 
fruits  will  not  succeed,  it  has  consider- 
able value;  but  in  competition  in  the 
markets  with  fruits  grown  for  commer- 
cial purposes,  in  regions  adapted  to  fruit 
growing,  it  will  not  succeed. 

Granville  Lowther 


